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Scenario analysis of rainwater harvesting and use at large scale – assessment of runoff, storage and economic performance for the case study Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
Abstract
Research on rainwater harvesting mainly focuses on a building scale. Scant information is available about its performance at large scale. This study aims to determine the potential for, and economic viability of meeting non-potable water demand by rainwater harvesting for a large scale case (21.5 km2): Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. A dynamic model was developed to analyse scenarios of varying rainfall, catchment surfaces and storage capacity. Four potential system configurations of catchments and non-potable uses were analysed for their economic performance with different water prices and storage options. This study found that, given sufficient storage and catchment size, all non-potable water demand of Schiphol can be supplied, reducing drinking water demand by up to 58%. Diminishing returns for adding storage and catchment to the system make full supply inefficient. Current water charges make most large scale system configurations not viable due to high investment costs for supply networks and storage infrastructure.
... Information from RWH providers support that various physical and socioeconomic factors of RWH (storage, catchment area, capital) could be scale-related. These factors increase the unreliability and economic constraints of RWH if adopted at a smaller scale Kuller et al. 2017). JW revealed that properties >500 m 2 have high demands for indoor non-potable water demands (>30%), whilst properties >1,500 m 2 have high irrigation demands. ...
... Limited studies focusing on commercial buildings also reported on RWH's contribution to increasing water supply and reducing the reliance on the main system. Kuller et al. (2017) analysed the potential and economic viability of RWH for nonpotable use at Schiphol Airport, Netherlands, and concluded that the RWH system could meet the non-potable demand and reduce demand on the potable water system by 58%. Cook, Sharma, and Gurung (2014) also reported a moderate reliability of RWH systems in meeting non-potable demand in commercial buildings in Brisbane, Australia. ...
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) technology has been in use for a long time, however its contribution towards urban water supply has been negligible in South Africa. Through a comprehensive literature review and analysis of interviews with key stakeholders, this case study presents implementation challenges and policy gaps in relation to the scale of adoption in the City of Johannesburg (CoJ). Findings show that only 0.1% of CoJ’s population utilises RWH due to various reasons, varying from financial viability, reliability, quality concerns, and system maintenance. This paper attributes these to the scale of adoption and suggests upscaling the system to larger commercial buildings to optimise benefits. However, there is an urgent need to bridge the policy gaps for successful implementation. Three categories of policy reforms are therefore proposed to facilitate innovation uptake, stakeholder engagement and compliance. This knowledge can guide future research towards urban water management, scientists and policymakers nexus.
... It can realize 90-95% rainfall runoff is not discharged (Peters 2011). Amsterdam Airport Schiphol combines solar energy with green roofs to save energy, protect the environment and beautify the environment, while alleviating waterlogging in the airport and saving rainwater resources (Kuller et al. 2017). ...
The low impact development (LID) concept aims to control storm runoff and pollution through decentralized, small-scale source control to bring the development area as close to the natural hydrological cycle as possible. A large number of hardened pavement construction, so that the airport impervious area accounted for a high proportion, affecting the natural hydrological cycle. The low impact development of the sponge airport is favored by the Civil Aviation Administration of China and airports. Compared with the traditional airport drainage method, the drainage effect after the application of LID facilities needs to be further studied. In order to compare the effects of drainage schemes such as natural drainage, pumping station drainage and the combination of low impact development and pumping stations, three kinds of airport drainage schemes are designed. Then taking an airport along the southeast coast of China as an example, the simulation models of different drainage schemes are constructed and analyzed under the actual rainfall on May 11,2014. The results show that the drainage scheme combined with LID and pumping stations has the best effect on runoff. The application of rain barrels and permeable paving has greatly reduced the total inflow of Reservoir 2 in Catchment B, from 27.5 m³/s to 19.6 m³/s, with a reduction rate of 28.8%. For the multi-peak rainfall process, the reduction effect of rainfall peak flows decreases with the soil saturated gradually, and the reduction effect of the first peak and the second peak is better than that of the third peak. The study analyzes the drainage effect of different drainage schemes, and the number and the best opening scheme of pumping station for reservoirs are finally obtained. The results provide the theoretical basis for the design and operation management of the drainage scheme of sponge airports.
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system (Kuller, Dolman, Vreeburg, & Spiller, 2017). The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone (Alam, bin Toriman, Siwar, & Talib, 2011). ...
Abstract
Chotto Bighai Union of Patuakhali District is one of the most disaster prone areas in coastal Bangladesh. The study is conducted to assess major climatic hazards at Chotto Bighai. This study focuses on the assessment of community resilience to disasters. A number of hazards including cyclones, river bank erosion, tidal floods, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, waterlogging and salinity intrusion were predominant in the study area. The study is designed mainly considering responses and perceptions of respondents. Both primary (Sixty Household Questionnaire Survey, Four Focus Group Discussions, Ten Key Informants Interviews) and secondary data was collected for the research, correlated and interpreted. Interaction between hazards, physical, environmental, social and economic vulnerability is discussed. It reveals that cyclones, river erosion, tidal floods and thunderstorms are major natural hazards in the locality and the risk of cyclone (2.91) is prioritized compared to others existing risks related to the hazards experienced in this area. The community has achieved maximum 39 resilience in heavy rainfall (0.56). Resilience status of this community for waterlogging is (0.76), tidal flood (0.88) and salinity intrusion (0.83) which means that the community has below-average exposure, below-average damage, and average or slightly above-average recovery. The community is susceptible to cyclones (0.97), river bank erosion (0.96) and thunderstorms (1.04). They have achieved minimum levels of resilience in thunderstorms because there is no risk reduction practices available. People have achieved minimum resilience to cyclones due to its high frequency and intensity. The community has managed to reduce risks through indigenous practices and by social bonding. However, to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience to disasters, proper action should be taken and strengthened in the near future.
... Amsterdam Airport Schiphol combines solar energy with green roofs to save energy, protect the environment and beautify the environment, while alleviating waterlogging in the airport and saving rainwater resources (Kuller et al. 2017). The Singapore Changi Airport uses outdoor green roofs for rainwater storage and puri cation, an indoor waterfall landscape, and Vegetation Irrigation to reuse rainwater, part of the roof rainwater as well as reclaimed water is collected into the interior to form a fourwaterfall landscape and irrigation water (Changi 2018). ...
The impervious area of the airport is high, which leads to the deterioration of the water environment and frequent waterlogging disasters. The construction of sponge airport has become an important and arduous task in the new era of civil aviation design industry in China. In order to compare the effects of different control measures at different scenarios, take the airport along China's southeast coast as an example, three scenarios were designed in this study (Scenario 1: no LID facilities and other measures; Scenario 2: two pump stations were setting; Scenario 3: both LID facilities and pump stations). Three simulation models under LID facilities and other measures were developed using SWMM with return period of 5a. The simulation results at different scenarios were compared, the number and the best opening scheme of pumps for each reservoir are finally obtained. The results of Scenario 3 show that the full-flow duration of nodes in the study area is greatly shortened. The decrease of full-flow duration of J1, J2 and J3 was 1.2, 0.8 and 0.5 hours respectively, with reduction rates of 40%, 53.3% and 28.6% respectively. The rainfall peak flows both the first and the second were reduced in this scenario, and the reduction rates were 10.68% and 12.78% respectively. However, the reduction effect of the third peak is poor with the further increase of rainfall intensity. The reduction rate of the total inflow and peak flow of rainwater buckets and permeable pavement is better than that of vegetative swale. The results of this study can provide the reference for the design of sponge airport and the airport flood control management.
... Amsterdam Airport Schiphol combines solar energy with green roofs to save energy, protect the environment and beautify the environment, while alleviating waterlogging in the airport and saving rainwater resources (Kuller et al. 2017). The Singapore Changi Airport uses outdoor green roofs for rainwater storage and puri cation, an indoor waterfall landscape, and Vegetation Irrigation to reuse rainwater, part of the roof rainwater as well as reclaimed water is collected into the interior to form a fourwaterfall landscape and irrigation water (Changi 2018). ...
The impervious area of the airport is high, which leads to the deterioration of the water environment and frequent waterlogging disasters. The construction of sponge airport has become an important and arduous task in the new era of civil aviation design industry in China. In order to compare the effects of different control strategies at different scenarios, take the airport along China's southeast coast as an example, three scenarios were designed in this study (Scenario 1: no LID facilities and other measures; Scenario 2: two pump stations were setting; Scenario 3: both LID facilities and pump stations). Three simulation models under LID facilities and other measures were developed using SWMM with return period of 5a. The simulation results at different scenarios were compared, the number and the best opening scheme of pumps for each reservoir are finally obtained. The results of Scenario 3 show that the full-flow duration of nodes in the study area is greatly shortened. The decrease of full-flow duration of J1, J2 and J3 was 1.2, 0.8 and 0.5 hours respectively, with reduction rates of 40%, 53.3% and 28.6% respectively. The rainfall peak flows both the first and the second were reduced in this scenario, and the reduction rates were 10.68% and 12.78% respectively. However, the reduction effect of the third peak is poor with the further increase of rainfall intensity. The reduction rate of the total inflow and peak flow of rainwater buckets and permeable pavement is better than that of vegetative swale. The results of this study can provide the reference for the design of sponge airport and the airport flood control management.
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system [1]. The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone [2]. ...
Jaffna peninsula which includes a landmass of 1026 km2 with 9.3% of inland water bodies suffers from severe flooding during the second inter-monsoon (October ~ December) where it receives about 68% of its total annual rainfall. Its ancient pond system used to drain the accumulated runoff to the lagoon without much inundation. However, due to the dilapidating condition of the pond system, now the flood spreads out into the highly populated areas causing inconvenience to the public. This study seeks to identify the most sustainable pond rehabilitation approach for flood mitigation considering HEC-ResSim model results of the Paalkulam pond cascade in Jaffna Municipal Council. The analysis results show that in upstream ponds, bund level raising and pond bed dredging reduce the total inundation area by 27.5% and 19.7%, respectively. However, in downstream ponds, the results do not tally with the upstream ponds, where bund level raising reduces the total inundation area by only 21.4% while the pond bed dredging reduces the total inundation area by 34.3%. Therefore, results conclude that when the pond system is rehabilitated, the actual intervention at an individual pond should be based on its relative location in the cascade system in order to achieve sustainable results with a positive impact on flood risk mitigation.
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system (Kuller, Dolman, Vreeburg, & Spiller, 2017). The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone (Alam, bin Toriman, Siwar, & Talib, 2011). ...
Resettlement has been recognized as an inevitable result of disasters such landslides and floods given the large scale property damage it occurs. Both the legislative and the policy backgrounds are important in order to understand the process of involuntary relocation. The main objective of the present study is to examine various legal and administrative policies introduced in contemporary Sri Lanka to involuntarily relocate people who have been displaced due to natural hazards. This paper discusses the livelihood security of the displaced as well as safeguarding them from future hazards as a disaster risk reduction strategy. The review of the laws and policies was conducted based on the sub-objectives of (a) Identify shortcomings and gaps, in applying the same for disaster induced resettlement and, (b) Make recommendations for strengthening policy content and laws conducive for efficient planning and implementation. This explanatory study was conducted using both secondary and primary data. The study reviews existing institutional frameworks such as Land Acquisition Act No 9 of 1950 (LAA) and Land Acquisition Regulation of 2008 (LAR), National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP), and National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) 2013. In addition, in-depth interviews and case study techniques were utilized in understanding the practical implication of the reviewed Acts and policies in relation to disaster induced relocation took place after the Tsunami and Meeriyabadda Landslide. Data suggests that even though the existing institutional framework has advantages such as importance given to compensation and litigation procedure, they tend have various gaps such as the non legal nature of policies, lack of an efficient rapid relocation procedure and lack of a process to build a disaster resilience community. Therefore, in conclusion, suggestions have been made to implement a holistic institutional arrangement with further disaster risk management strategies to address the adverse impact on the disaster induced displaced.
Keywords: Disaster induced Relocation; Disaster Risk Reduction; Institutional Framework; Livelihood Security; Natural hazards
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system (Kuller, Dolman, Vreeburg, & Spiller, 2017). The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone (Alam, bin Toriman, Siwar, & Talib, 2011). ...
Artificial neural network models have been widely used in the hydrological area to forecast flood but to predict future flood is very challenging due to the limitation of hydrological data. The main idea of this paper is to predict flood in the future (30 years: 2035-2064) from data in the past (1989-2009) with an artificial neural network model and input variables of this model is rainfall daily grid from the WRF-ECHAM-5 model. The WRF-ECHAM-5 model, which is a climate model, predicts rainfall data in the future. In order to find the most suitable model for flood prediction, three types of rainfall grid data (Moving average time step back-MAT, Moving window average-MWA and Moving window average time step back-MWT), three input determination techniques (Cross correlation-C, Stepwise regression-S and Genetic algorithms-G) and three number of hidden nodes (50%, 75% and 100%) are investigated. The results reveal that 2 models MAT_G_50 and MWT_S_75 are the most suitable and also that between the year 2035-2064, Bangrakam District would be flooded almost every year with the highest flood recording 8.37 meters in the year 2061 by model MAT_G_50 and 10.59 meters in the year 2041 by model MWT_S_75.
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system (Kuller, Dolman, Vreeburg, & Spiller, 2017). The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone (Alam, bin Toriman, Siwar, & Talib, 2011). ...
International Collaboration (IC) is very important for the improvement of resilience of countries to disasters. The rapid growth of science and technology is pivotal in this context to assist the resilience building process through innovation. Especially, when it comes to Asia, IC can assist Higher Education Institutions to carry out research activities that are robust and significant and strive towards research excellence to achieve global recognition. However, the knowledge on levels and issues for collaborative research work in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in the Asian region is limited, which urges the necessity of conducting regional studies to identify possible areas of improvements. This paper aims to fill this gap.
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system (Kuller, Dolman, Vreeburg, & Spiller, 2017). The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone (Alam, bin Toriman, Siwar, & Talib, 2011). ...
Human activities are seen as the root causes of almost all environmental hazards due to the different actions currently affecting the ozone layer, unusual environmental changes and extreme weather conditions in recent times. Activities such as vandalism and sabotage have contributed significantly to the environmental issues within the Nigerian, Niger Delta context due to the presence of oil and gas activities, perceived marginalisation and neglect on the community aspect and the quest for sustainable livelihood support. This study explores the influencing causes associated with sabotage and vandalism through a desk-based research and primary data collection across communities and related oil spill agencies including oil and gas key personnel. Accordingly, the study has uncovered different influencing factors ranging from institutional to community factors, thereby, establishing some strategic recommendations for the reduction of such acts of sabotage and vandalism.
... Many urban areas are facing flood issues during high rainfall events due to the poor design and working condition of its drainage system (Kuller, Dolman, Vreeburg, & Spiller, 2017). The peak rainfall values in the dry zone are relatively higher compared to that in the wet zone (Alam, bin Toriman, Siwar, & Talib, 2011). ...
... The most sustainable approach to water management is for airports to become self-sufficient in their water supply. This can be achieved by optimizing opportunities for recycling and minimizing consumption [15] and water harvesting [16][17][18]. ...
Airports are an essential infrastructure to facilitate aviation. The substantial growth of aviation has led to a significant increase in water usage by airports. Airports also generate large volumes of wastewater that may include contaminants. Hence, understanding sustainable water management practices is essential in the aviation industry. In this study, an exploratory research design was utilized in the examination of the sustainable water management strategies and systems at Kansai International Airport from 2002 to 2016. The qualitative data were examined using document analysis as part of a case study. The quantitative data were analyzed using regression analysis as part of a longitudinal study. The airport has been able to reduce the total water consumption, water consumption per passenger, and water consumption per aircraft movement, even with increased traffic in recent years. The airport sources water from the municipal authorities and reclaims water for non-potable water uses. The airport conducts regular water quality tests which measure the Chemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen, and total phosphates. The airport’s onsite wastewater processing centre processes all wastewaters, which discharges non-reclaimed water into Osaka Bay. With a decrease in water consumption, there has similarly been a decrease in the need to treat wastewater, while the reclaimed water ratio has increased over the period of the study.
... They indicated that rainwater harvesting systems are more economically viable in households with higher water demand, regardless of the size of the catchment area. In contrast, Kuller et al. (2017) concluded that rainwater harvesting is not economically viable in a large scale based on quantitative scenario analysis with dynamic modelling to assess the potential for rainwater harvesting to supply the non-potable demand in Amsterdam airport Schiphol. Lopes et al. (2017) highlighted rainwater harvesting systems as very low risk since the economic assessment indicates positive net present values, especially for large rooftop areas and small demand-roof area ratios. ...
A review of literature related to
stormwater runoff characterization and its subsequent
management and treatment from 2017 was conducted. The
250 articles summarized herein are organized along three
central themes: (1) stormwater quality and quantity
characteristics, (2) site-scale stormwater management
practices, with a focus on low impact development (LID)
and green infrastructure (GI), and (3) watershed-scale
performance of stormwater controls. Within each section,
common research themes and future work are highlighted.
This article is open access here: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/wef/wer/2018/00000090/00000010/art00039%3bjsessionid=cfkmjfectlaf9.x-ic-live-02#
... The tap water savings that can be obtained by replacing it with rainwater are very different depending on the climatic conditions and the technical and hydraulic parameters of the RWHS and the building Abdulla and Al-Shareef 2009;Haque et al. 2016;Markovic et al. 2014;Palla et al. 2012;Khastagir and Jayasuriya 2010). For example, Kuller et al. (2015) set tap water saving at 58% for a large Amsterdam airport. Ghisi (2006), in turn, presented research results showing tap water reductions ranging from 48 to 100% for residential buildings in different regions of Brazil. ...
Natural water resources of Poland are among the lowest in Europe. In addition, the intensive development of urbanized areas and the associated increase in water demand necessitate the need to look for alternative sources. However, limiting the amount of resources available for use does not go hand in hand with the development of ecological awareness of society, which has the greatest attention still attached to the financial criterion. Considering this, the studies have been conducted to determine the cost-effectiveness of the rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) in a single-family house located in selected Polish cities where rainfall varies in height. Financial analysis for four different variants of the water supply system in the building in question has been done using the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Methodology. The results show that RWHS financial performance varies widely, but it has also been found that the variant in which rainwater will be used to flush toilets, wash, and water the garden is characterized by the lowest LCC costs irrespective of tank capacity, number of users, and the location of RWHS system. The study also examines the impact of the capacity of the rainwater storage tank on the tap water savings. Depending on the installation variant these savings ranged from 11– 40% for Zakopane, 10–25% for Warsaw and Katowice, and 10–28% for Koszalin.
... Chow et al. (1988) described the rainfall excess as the rainwater, which neither infiltrates towards the surface below, nor is retained on the ground level. Kuller et al. (2015) have exemplified the use of rainwater harvesting approach on large scale by assessing the storage, runoff and economic performance for the case study of Amsterdam airport. Several authors have also described the process of choosing appropriate sites for storage reservoir construction, size, corresponding capacity, and the kind of rainwater-harvesting methods to be used to fulfill the objectives such as supplying water for industries, irrigation, domestic and commercial use, and power generation (Shinde et al. 2004;Patil et al. 2008;Saber et al. 2009;Liuzzo et al. 2016). ...
One of the primary objectives of river basin planning and management is to assess the behavior of the river towards man-made and natural changes. In recent times, the self-purifying capacity of the river is found to be substantially affected because of extensive use of water for agricultural and industrial purposes. Any variation in the flow regime of a river poses a severe impact on the aquatic ecosystem, which affects its self-purifying capacity. Diverting river water for industrial and agricultural uses through dams and barrages reduces the natural flow rate of the river. The present study develops a novel approach by coupling Watershed Modeling System (WMS ver. 10.1) with linear optimization to provide an alternate means of water supply for such users. To explain the effectiveness of the model, a case study on the Ganges river basin of India has been considered. The ecosystem of the Ganges provides such a magnificent biological fabric, that its self-purifying capacity exceeds that of any other river water across the globe. However, the industries found in the river’s most polluted stretch consume around 1200 million liters of water every day. In addition, 80% of the river water diverts at Narora barrage for agricultural purposes. As a result, the flow of the river in dry seasons is as less as 300 m³/s. The study suggests the need to develop economically feasible and efficient storage reservoirs to store the rainwater, which can be used to supply industrial and agricultural needs. The WMS software is used to acquire the watershed basin, outlet location, simulated runoff volume, proposed reservoir site, and the hydrograph using the monitored rainfall data of 5 years (2010–2014). The simulated runoff volume is then used to develop an optimization model to determine the required capacity of each reservoir using LINGO software (ver. 16.0). Four different storage reservoirs are proposed in the selected industrial sites of Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. These reservoirs can supply the needs of industries, and thus reducing their dependency on the river Ganges. The model developed herein acts as an effective tool for giving a possible solution to large-scale water supply problems in the river basins, and also guides the decision makers towards restoring the stream flow.
... This analytical unit may be the household, a precinct or an entire city, while the time step may vary from minutes to days. At the highest level, we find tools and studies such as UVQ and its predecessor Aquacycle, which comprehensively consider the total urban water cycle (Mitchell et al., 2001(Mitchell et al., , 2003; the study by Kuller et al. (2015), connecting the stormwater and potable water balances at the scale of a major airport, and City Water Balance, which is used for the analyses of water balance scenarios at the city scale (Last, 2011). Tools that work with multiple units of measurement include UWOT (Makropoulos et al., 2008), which uses different levels of water quality and criteria from the European SWARD project for assessment (Ashley et al., 2004); and Urban Developer (predecessor: UrbanCycle), which has a flexible and modular structure to simulate the water cycle at different spatial and temporal scales (eWater, 2011b;Hardy et al., 2005). ...
Spatial planning for green stormwater treatment technologies, known as Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD), is a ‘wicked’ problem which can greatly benefit from the application of Planning Support Systems (PSS). Our review of currently existing WSUD-PSS shows that WSUD is approached from three perspectives: hydrological, urban planning and water governance. As a form of best (urban) planning practice, WSUD requires PSS that regard these technologies as an integral part of the urban form. We argue that suitability of location for WSUD has two sides: ‘WSUD needs a place’ and ‘a place needs WSUD’. No framework or PSS exists that frames WSUD from both sides of suitability. We propose such a suitability framework, building on evidence from literature. Our review found no comprehensive tool or strategy incorporating all relevant factors for suitability analysis. Our proposed framework addresses this gap, and serves as the basis for rigorous WSUD-PSS.
Improving the green efficiency of agricultural water use is a key way to promote the sustainable utilization of agricultural water resources and sustainable development of economy and society. This work calculated and analyzed the evolution trend, regional differences and driving factors of the green efficiency of agricultural water use in China from the perspective of the water footprint. The results show that the green efficiency of agricultural water use in China shows a fluctuation trend of first declining and then rising from 1997 to 2020, after which the average efficiency dropped from 0.538 in 1997 to 0.406 in 2009, and then rose rapidly to 0.989 in 2020, with an average annual growth rate of about 3.6%. From a regional perspective, the green efficiency of agricultural water use in the eastern region was the highest (0.594), above the national average (0.538), followed by the western region (0.522), with the central region in last (0.491), with significant regional differences. The spatial differences in the green efficiency of available agricultural water in China shows a fluctuating downward trend. The Gini coefficient fluctuated from 0.271 in 1997 to 0.182 in 2020, with an average annual growth rate of about −1.4%. The main source of this regional difference was super-variable density, followed by the difference between the eastern and the central regions. The influence of urbanization level, water-saving level and agricultural trade on the green efficiency of agricultural water use was always positive and the influence of industrialization level was always negative; among them, the urbanization level, water-saving level and industrialization level had a greater impact on Northeast China, and agricultural trade had a greater impact on Southeast China. Therefore, this work puts forward relevant policy recommendations.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) remains an underutilized practice in developing cities, despite its promising potential to supplement available water resources. Socio-economic factors such as capital and household characteristics have been identified as major constraints to the adoption of RWH. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which various socio-economic factors influence the potential adoption of RWH in the City of Johannesburg (CoJ). The study employs a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) approach in ArcMap to run two scenarios, one with socio-economic criteria and the other without. Inputs considered include income and size of the household, tenure-ship and sanitation type. Suitability maps show that more than 50% of the area in the CoJ is suitable for RWH. Further analysis was performed to find the variation in land use, which was categorized into four suitability scales: not suitable, low suitability, medium suitability and high suitability. The results indicate that excluding social and economic criterions leads to overestimating the high suitability category. Findings show the great potential of RWH systems in institutional, business and agricultural properties. Therefore, promoting RWH at the property level is recommended, supported by smart policies to boost its adoption.
With many countries facing water scarcity and the demand for water ever-increasing, more people are turning to rainwater harvesting (RWH) as a feasible way of supplementing supply. However, the success of RWH systems depends on several factors, including rainfall, catchment characteristics and socio-economic factors. Hence it is essential to carry out location-specific studies to evaluate the potential of RWH in a particular area. This study sought to assess the influence of seasonal rainfall and climate change, and socio-economic constraints on RWH in the City of Johannesburg. A GIS-based MCDA was run to estimate RWH suitable sites as influenced by various socio-economic factors. The RWH suitability map shows that at least 50% of the city is suitable for RWH. These, together with climate data was embedded into a rainfall-runoff model developed in HEC-HMS to simulate runoff volumes up to the year 2050. The Deficit and Constant loss method was employed to calculate infiltration losses. After calibration, the model results were within acceptable limits (R2 = 0.68 and 0.79). The rainfall-runoff simulation results show that high runoff volumes are received during the wet season, which is more than double the non-potable water demand. These results indicate that, with ample storage, RWH systems are feasible despite the rainfall seasonality. Therefore, it is recommended to invest in diverse and multipurpose storage to improve RWH reliability.
Reducing water use and relieving negative environmental consequences contribute to regional water and ecological sustainability. This work examined water resource efficiency (WRE) and the effects of effective crop water use from the perspective of the water footprint. WRE was defined as the ratio of consumptive field water use (CWU) to the total crop water footprint (CWF), including the blue water footprint applied (BWFA), green water footprint (GWF), and grey water footprint (GYWF). WRE for the cultivation of the main crops (rice, wheat, maize, beans, and tubers) produced in China during the period of 1996–2015 was determined from estimates of provincial CWFs and CWUs. The results show that national CWF was estimated as 678.5 Gm³, of which GWF comprised 55.1%; the national crop CWU was approximately 455.6 Gm³ in the period considered, and this included 82.1% green and 17.9% blue water. The spatial patterns of CWF and CWU densities differed greatly but were stable over time, with increasing trends exhibited from 1996 to 2015. The national WRE for crops was 0.672, and that for beans was 0.869, an efficiency larger than that of any other crop. The indices for rice and wheat were approximately 0.630. WRE cannot be replaced by the global efficiency (GEF) or generalized efficiency (GE) indices, either for scientific evaluations or for considerations of spatial distributions. This study aids in the evaluation of effective water resource consumption by considering the process of agricultural water use, and also the impact of crop production on water quality and quantity. Hence, WRE is an advanced indicator linking measurements of water footprint with assessments of crop management and the sustainability of regional water resources.
Quantifying the irrigation water demand of green spaces (IWDG) is an important part of smart urban water management. However, the IWDG in humid cites is not well characterized. Moreover, the alteration of natural hydrological processes caused by urbanization leading to the dependence of green spaces on irrigation is becoming more common. To better understand the IWDG in humid areas, we developed an estimation model and used the Yangtze River Delta in China as a case study. Results showed that the amount of water required by the green spaces in the Yangtze River Delta was approximately 354 × 10⁶ m³, which was equivalent to 12% of the urban residential water consumption in 2011. This study also investigated the spatial-temporal changes of urban green spaces and estimated their effects on irrigation water demand. These findings provide policymakers an integrated view of the water demand of green spaces associated with sustainable management.
A regional-level and dimensionless analysis for designing a domestic rainwater harvesting system (DRWHS) was developed. To consider various combinations of water demand, storage capacity, effective roof area, and rainfall in DRWHS design, two dimensionless ratios were used, namely, demand fraction and storage fraction, along with a relationship between the two ratios. Firstly, Northern Taiwan was divided into four sub-regions through cluster analysis based on the average annual 10-day rainfall distribution at rainfall stations and administrative districts. Easy-to-use dimensionless curves between demand fraction and storage fraction were obtained for five rainwater supply reliabilities of the DRWHS for the four sub-regions. Based on the dimensionless curves, a nomogram was constructed for designing DRWHSs at a rainwater supply reliability of 95% in the sub-region I. Storage capacities determined from the dimensionless curves showed a close fit with those determined from simulated values, but were larger than the values estimated from the method presented in the Green Building Evaluation Manual in most situations. The methodology developed herein can be used effectively for the preliminary design of a DRWHS and for overcoming the difficulties faced in designing a DRWHS without rainfall data and with incomplete rainfall data.
In this paper, we use a theoretical framework of coupled human and natural systems to review the methodological advances in urban water demand modeling over the past 3 decades. The goal of this review is to quantify the capacity of increasingly complex modeling techniques to account for complex human and natural processes, uncertainty, and resilience across spatial and temporal scales. This review begins with coupled human and natural systems theory and situates urban water demand within this framework. The second section reviews urban water demand literature and summarizes methodological advances in relation to four central themes: (1) interactions within and across multiple spatial and temporal scales, (2) acknowledgment and quantification of uncertainty, (3) identification of thresholds, nonlinear system response, and the consequences for resilience, and (4) the transition from simple statistical modeling to fully integrated dynamic modeling. This review will show that increasingly effective models have resulted from technological advances in spatial science and innovations in statistical methods. These models provide unbiased, accurate estimates of the determinants of urban water demand at increasingly fine spatial and temporal resolution. Dynamic models capable of incorporating alternative future scenarios and local stochastic analysis are leading a trend away from deterministic prediction.
The end-use model SIMDEUM for residential water demand has been extended to incorporate nonresidential water demand. The model was developed to predict water-demand patterns with a small timescale (1 s) and small spatial scale (at the water meter connection). The end-use model is based on statistical information about users and end uses: data on occupancy; the frequency of use; duration and flow per water-use event; and the occurrence over the day of different end uses, such as flushing the toilet, doing the laundry, and washing hands. The model follows a modular approach, in that each type of building is composed of functional rooms, such as lodgings, restaurants, and conference rooms. A functional room is characterized by its typical users and water-using appliances. With this approach, nonresidential buildings' water-demand patterns over the day can be simulated. The simulation results for an office building, a hotel, and a nursing home were compared to measured water-demand patterns with regard to attributes such as peak flow and daily total water use, as well as the shape of the pattern. The simulation results show a good correspondence to measured water demands. The end-use model is based on independent statistical information and not on flow measurements. The input parameters are available before any information on annual or daily water use is available; the parameters are not fitted on flow measurements. Therefore, the model is transferable to a diverse range of nonresidential water-demand types. The model can be applied in the design stage (prebuild), in scenario studies, and in distribution network models. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000146. (C) 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.
The rate of uptake of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in the UK has been slow to date, but is expected to gain momentum in the near future. The designs of two different new-build rainwater harvesting systems, based on simple methods, are evaluated using three different design methods, including a continuous simulation modelling approach. The RWH systems are shown to fulfill 36% and 46% of WC demand. Financial analyses reveal that RWH systems within large commercial buildings maybe more financially viable than smaller domestic systems. It is identified that design methods based on simple approaches generate tank sizes substantially larger than the continuous simulation. Comparison of the actual tank sizes and those calculated using continuous simulation established that the tanks installed are oversized for their associated demand level and catchment size. Oversizing tanks can lead to excessive system capital costs, which currently hinders the uptake of systems. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the catchment area size is often overlooked when designing UK-based RWH systems. With respect to these findings, a recommendation for a transition from the use of simple tools to continuous simulation models is made.
This paper presents a simple approach for estimating long-term runoff and diffuse pollution loads in urban catchments, and discusses conceptual modelling methods for simulating daily runoff and pollution loads. The modelling results for several catchments in Australian capital cities are presented. The study indicates that long-term and daily runoff can be estimated reasonably accurately using simple approaches. However, the water quality characteristic can vary considerably between catchments, and in the absence of data, the models can only provide a guide to the probable range of diffuse pollution load generated from a catchment.
Water scarcity is a reality worldwide, either by quantitative or qualitative unavailability. The search for alternative water sources, water reuse and other mechanisms for its rational use is a global trend. Considering these facts, rainwater use is an interesting alternative to complement non-potable demand in locations such as airport complexes. These environments present large roof areas and support different activities which consume non-potable water, making them potential sites for the installation of rainwater use systems. The objectives of this research were to assess rainwater quality in an airport environment, study the performance of slow sand filtration followed by chlorination in the treatment of rainwater and analyze treatment costs. The study was carried out in a mid-size airport in Brazil. The proposed system provided water with physical, chemical and microbiological quality consistent with recommendations for reuse and the price per treated cubic meter was 60% lower than the price paid to the current water supply company.
Great water consumption in airports is one reason they present high potential for the implementation of policies to promote water rational use. The use of alternative water sources such as rainwater to meet or complement non-potable demands is a global trend which gains strength as water shortages increase. This paper investigates the water consumption profile in a mid-size airport in Brazil in order to determine the non-potable demand associated with the activities performed in these environments. Moreover, a simulation analysis method (daily water balance) was used to assess the performance of rainwater tanks fitted to groups of buildings in the airport considering historical daily rainfall data, roof area, tank volume and water demand. Given a previously defined tank volume, the performance of the system was assessed in terms of reliability. defined as percentage of days in a year when the rainwater tank is able to supply the intended partial demand and efficiency, or the percentage of total water demand which is satisfied exclusively by harvested rainwater. The economic feasibility of rainwater tanks made of concrete or fiberglass was assessed using the net present value model as well as the payback period of such investment. The results indicate that the non-potable demand represents 65% of total water consumption in the airport. The construction of rainwater tanks to supply such demand can provide potable water savings (efficiency) from 66 to 100% with reliability between 57 and 100% and payback periods from 3.4 to 23 years for tank sizes between 100 and 1000 m(3). For volumes up to 100 m(3), fiberglass tanks provided shorter payback periods whereas for volumes greater than 100 m(3), the payback periods for concrete tanks were shorter. (c) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems implemented in office buildings under heterogeneous urban settings in the United States, including combined and separated storm sewer systems, will result in varying environmental and economic costs and benefits across multiple water sectors. The potable water saving and stormwater abatement potentials were found to strongly correlate with the local annual precipitation totals and patterns, specifically the long-period antecedent dry weather period. Given the current water rates and storm water fees in large U.S. cities, RWH systems implemented in office buildings may not be cost-effective compared to the municipal supplies over their lifetime, except in Seattle, which has the highest stormwater fees in the country ($77.50/1000 sf impervious surface/month). The minimum net life cycle costs range from -$1.60 (Seattle) to $11.9 (Phoenix) per m3 of rainwater yield, resulting in a potential economic gain of over $520 (Seattle) to a net loss of $800 (Phoenix) per building annually. By preventing the rooftop runoff from entering the wastewater treatment plant, between 3-9 kg N eq. per year could be reduced in combined sewer systems depending on local conditions. This N reduction comes at the expense 0.7-4.6 kg CO2 eq. per m3 rainwater yield. In separate sewer systems, eutrophication reduction benefits result from reducing N loading associated with stormwater runoff. The overall sustainability of implementing RWH depends on the site-specific functional, economic, and environmental benefits, impacts, and trade-offs.
Scenario analysis of rainwater harvesting and utilization (RWHU) was performed considering various non-potable water uses in different building types over a year. Six building types were identified in the study area using GIS data: residential houses, offices, commercial buildings, restaurants, public buildings, and “others”. Rainwater storage capacity was considered as 30 mm rainwater depth. Water demand for each building type was calculated as the sum of the individual water uses for toilet flushing, air conditioning, garden irrigation, and cleaning defined in this study as “miscellaneous usages”. To incorporate water quality considerations, rainwater with suspended solids level of less than 2 mg l−1 was used as the quality criterion. The RWHU scenario was compared with other storage and water use scenarios. This study quantified the rainwater availability throughout a year and its seasonal variation and consumption in each building type. The analysis clarified the effectiveness of rainwater utilization for supplementing existing water resources.
This paper summarises the current non-potable, urban use of reclaimed water with particular reference to toilet flushing. It compares water quality standards for reclaimed water, the volumes of water required for toilet flushing and the qualities of greywater and domestic sewage that have previously been used for reuse. Worldwide examples of reuse schemes are presented with particular detail to two key European sites where greywater has been used for toilet flushing, the Millennium Dome in the UK and a residential block of flats in Annecy, France. It was demonstrated that the interest in water reuse is growing steadily, not only in acknowledged water deficient areas, but also in countries which have not historically appeared to have a water supply problem. The latter include Northern European States such as Belgium, France, the UK and Germany, as well as in tourist coastal areas and islands. This situation affords great opportunities for the creation of urban water recycling schemes.
Hans-Jürgen Trautner, KSB Aktiengessellschaft, describes the stormwater pumping installations at the Frankfurt Airport's new cargo terminal.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following individuals: my advisor
Steden kunnen beschouwd worden als producenten van primaire en secundaire grondstoffen. Volgens onze hypothese, moet deze zelfvoorziening uitgaan van de kleinst mogelijke ruimtelijke schaal. De mogelijkheden om energie en water in Nederland te ‘oogsten’ zijn geëvalueerd, uitgaande van gemiddelde jaarcijfers. De resultaten op nationale schaal laten zien dat het mogelijk is om aan 100% van de elektriciteitsvraag, 55% van de warmtevraag en 52% van de watervraag te voldoen. In werkelijkheid zijn er echter beperkingen aan deze mogelijkheden tot oogsten als gevolg van de dynamiek in grondstof- en energiestromen, stedelijke typologie en technologische (in)efficiëntie. Om de werkelijke oogstpotenties te kunnen bepalen is daarom dynamische modellering nodig op relatief fijne tijd- en ruimteschalen. Op gebouwniveau zijn scenario's onderzocht met verschillende strategieën zoals het minimaliseren van de vraag, en het verkrijgen van secundaire kwaliteit water voor toiletspoeling en wasmachinegebruik door recyclen van licht grijs water (LGW) en het opvangen van regenwater (multi-sourcing).
This paper presents a simple approach for estimating long-term runoff and diffuse pollution loads in urban catchments, and discusses conceptual modelling methods for simulating daily runoff and pollution loads. The modelling results for several catchments in Australian capital cities are presented. The shidy indicates that long-term and daily runoff can be estimated reasonably accurately using simple approaches. However, the water quality characteristic can vary considerably between catchments, and in the absence of data, the models can only provide a guide to the probable range of diffuse pollution load generated from a catchment.
This study summarizes the evaluation of rainwater quality and its potential for non-potable applications in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. An experimental system was installed at the Centro de Técnicas de Construção Civil (Civil Construction Techniques Centre, Escola Politécnica, University of São Paulo) such that analysis of the physical, chemical and bacteriological composition of rainwater—total and faecal coliforms, Clostridium Sulphite-reducer, Enterococcus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa—could be conducted. The need for water treatment was also evaluated in order to match quality to specific uses. Rainwater samples were collected from the roof by an automatic sample collector. Samples were also collected from a rainwater storage tank. In the operation of the system, analysis of rainwater's potential use in non-potable applications, such as flushing toilet bowls, was also conducted. The results obtained did not meet recognised quality standards, leading to the conclusion that water disinfection prior to use is required.
The objective of this study is to estimate the main water end-uses in ten office buildings located in Florianópolis, southern Brazil. Analyses on the influence of the size of the sample interviewed to estimate the water end-uses and on the need of applying a sensitivity analysis to eliminate the difference between the estimated and the measured water consumption were also performed. The estimates were performed by interviewing the occupants of the buildings and by measuring water flow rates. From the interviews, the daily amount of time and frequency of use of water for toilet flushing, taps, cleaning and other uses were obtained. As for the water flow rates, they were measured for taps and bowl-and-tank toilets. For toilets with wall flushing valves, the water flow rate was obtained from a Brazilian Standard which suggests 1.7 l/s. From these data, the monthly water consumption in the buildings and the water end-uses were calculated. The estimated water consumption in each building was compared with the measured consumptions supplied by the local water utility (considering the average consumption from September 2004 to August 2006). It was verified that toilet flushing is responsible for 52–84% of the total water consumption in the ten buildings, followed by water use from taps in seven buildings. It was also found that the sensitivity analysis is unnecessary and that the estimation of water end-uses based on interviews of small samples of the occupants of the buildings (more than 40% of the occupants) can lead to acceptable results. The main conclusion that can be derived from this work is that programmes for water conservation in office buildings should first focus on toilet flushing as this responds for a high percentage of water consumption in such buildings.
A regional scale analysis for the design of storage tanks for domestic rain water harvesting systems is presented. The analysis is based on the daily water balance simulation of the storage tank by the yield-after-spillage algorithm as tank release rule. Water balances are applied to 17 rainfall gauging stations in Sicily (Italy). Compared with literature existing methods, a novel dimensionless parameter is proposed to better describe the intra-annual character of the rainfall patterns. As a result, easy-to-use regional regressive models to evaluate the water saving performance and the overflow discharges from the tank are provided along with a stepwise procedure for practical application. The regional models demonstrate good fits between model predictions and simulated values of both water savings and overflows from the tank.
A Monte Carlo study has shown that assessment of detrimental effects from urban storm drainage is very uncertain, even when state-of-the-art modelling techniques are used. A method to assess the relative importance of the individual contributions to the overall uncertainty is proposed, based on an analysis of the Monte Carlo simulations. The method can assess the importance of both continuous and discrete variables. Based on an analysis of two small ungauged catchments, it was found that the uncertainty in the description of the rainfall was generally the most important contributor to the overall uncertainty, followed by the uncertainty in the description of the surface runoff. In the evaluation of the extreme discharges of chemical oxygen demand (COD) from combined sewer overflows the uncertainty in the concentration of COD was found to be the dominant factor. If the sewer system is poorly maintained the uncertainty in the hydraulic resistance may become important.
This paper reports on a study of water use in 17 hotels in Hong Kong. An overview of water use in these hotels is first presented, and this is followed by a detailed analysis of water use in one of the hotels studied, where a number of operational factors that may potentially influence the water use in a hotel have been examined. These included the laundry load, number of guests, number of food covers made, and outdoor air temperature. A multiple variable regression analysis indicated that the laundry load, number of guests and number of food covers made would collectively affect the water use in a hotel in Hong Kong. In this paper, the difficulties in assessing water use in hotel buildings are briefly discussed. It is recommended that a water management programme be established in order to achieve both operational cost saving and environmental protection, and the key elements of such a water management programme based on experiences in Hong Kong hotels are highlighted.
Development, population growth and climate change have pressurized water stress in the world. Being an urbanized coastal city, Hong Kong has adopted a dual water supply system since the 1950s for seawater toilet flushing for 80% of its 7 million inhabitants. Despite its success in saving 750,000 m(3)/day of freshwater, the saline sewage (consisting of about 20-30% of seawater) appears to have sacrificed the urban water cycle in terms of wastewater reuse and recycling. Can seawater toilet flushing be applied without affecting the urban water cycle with respect to sustainable water resource management? To address this issue, we examined the entire urban water cycle and developed an innovative water resource management system by integrating freshwater, seawater and reclaimed grey water into a sustainable, low-freshwater demand, low-energy consumption, and low-cost triple water supply (TWS) system. The applicability of this novel system has been demonstrated at the Hong Kong International Airport which reduced 52% of its freshwater demand.
The elimination of wastewater microbes is often necessary when effluent receiving waters are reused for different purposes e.g. for irrigation or as a raw water source of drinking water. In the present study, rapid sand filtration (SF) combined with the use of polyaluminium chloride coagulation was used as a pre-treatment to improve the quality of wastewater effluent before further treatment with UV irradiation. Pilot-scale experiments were run in four treatment plants in Finland. Treatment performance was followed by measuring physical and microbial parameters. Rapid sand filtration reduced suspended solids, turbidity and colour of effluents by about 90%, 70-80% and 20-50% respectively. It also improved the UV transmittance of water by up to 20%. Microbes and phosphorus were reduced by 90-99% and to 0.05 mg/L respectively. UV irradiation further reduced the number of microbes up to 99.9%. The efficiency of UV doses in pilot UV reactors was confirmed with collimated-beam device determinations and with added FRNA phages. More than 99.9% reduction of MS2 was achieved with the dose of 140mWs/cm2 in pilot UV reactors. Rapid sand filtration and the subsequent UV irradiation reduced the number of all the tested microbes to a low level, often below the detection limit. Suspended solids and the water turbidity were reduced to 1-2 mg/L and approximately 1 NTU respectively.
The infrastructure (roads, sidewalk, commercial and residential structures) added during the land development and urbanisation process is designed to collect precipitation and convey it out of the watershed, typically in existing surface water channels, such as streams and rivers. The quality of surface water, seepage water and ground water is influenced by pollutants that collect on impervious surfaces and that are carried by urban storm water runoff. Heavy metals, e.g. lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), mineral oil hydrocarbons (MOH) and readily soluble salts in runoff, contribute to the degradation of water. An intensive literature search on the distribution and concentration of the surface-dependent runoff water has been compiled. Concentration variations of several pollutants derived from different surfaces have been averaged. More than 300 references providing about 1300 data for different pollutants culminate in a representative concentration matrix consisting of medians and extreme values. This matrix can be applied to long-term valuations and numerical modelling of storm water treatment facilities.
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