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Gambling and gambling policy in Norway-an exceptional case
Abstract
Aims:
The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the development and current status of gambling and gambling policy in Norway.
Methods:
An overview of the research literature and official documents and websites.
Results:
Gambling on electronic gaming machines (EGMs) increased dramatically in the 1990s in response to technological development and liberalization of gambling policy. Restrictions on availability of EGM gambling occurred from 2006 to 2009 and included a ban on note acceptors, a temporary ban on EGMs and re-introduction of fewer and less aggressive machines under a state monopoly. The restrictions led to significant decreases in total gambling turnover, and several studies suggest that they led to fewer gambling and gambling problems. Various factors may explain why the restrictions were politically feasible. These include media coverage of gambling concerns and economic compensation for revenue losses under the monopoly.
Conclusions:
In an international context of deregulation of gambling markets, the Norwegian policy restrictions on gambling availability have represented an exceptional case and provide a rare opportunity to explore the outcomes of such regulations. Overall, studies suggest that the policy restrictions have led to reductions in gambling expenditures and problem gambling.
... More important reductions yield better results [4] while a total removal or shutdown of EGMs is connected to the sharpest declines in total consumption. In Norway, the removal of EGMs from public spaces in 2007, and replacement in 2008-2009 with more sparsely situated and less harmful machines reduced gambling consumption and the need for treatment and support services [26][27][28]. Recent studies conducted on the impacts of COVID-19 on gambling support this observation. ...
... The frequency of venue visitation and gambling participation have been inversely connected to residential distance from venues [32], suggesting that a sparser network may lead to lower total consumption. In Piedmont, Italy, reductions in EGMs locations and restrictions on opening hours in addition to removing 50% of EGMs was connected to a sharp reduction in gambling consumption, a reduction of at-risk gambling, and a reduction in helpseeking [27,33]. ...
... This difference was attributed to the lobbying power of the gambling industry. The article also noted that the wide availability of legal gambling does not necessarily prevent illegal gambling − one of the most used justifications by the state to expand gambling [27] -but it does increase state revenue. ...
Background
Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are amongst the most harmful forms of gambling. The high availability of EGMs is also linked to increased consumption. To reduce the burden of EGMs on public health, policies to reduce their numbers have recently been introduced in Italy and Finland. This study compares the aims and justifications of these legislative changes, as well as their overall impacts on total consumption.
Methods
The objectives and justifications of policies to reduce the number of EGMs were based on qualitative media analysis. The impacts on total consumption were measured using financial figures provided by gambling providers in Italy and Finland.
Results
Results show that the reductions in EGM numbers were justified in terms of public health concerns in both countries, but the amplitude of policies varied. In Italy, the reductions were more ambitious than in Finland, and included reductions in the number of gambling locations. The financial data nevertheless indicated that the reductions may not have been significant enough.
Conclusions
Public health concerns were initially highlighted in the media discussions, but eventually in both countries reduction policies were less ambitious due to industry lobbying and state revenue interests. The reductions therefore do not appear to have been effective in reducing total consumption and the burden on public health.
... As the main concern was with EGMs, most local regulations introduced limitations on when and where slot machinesand, since 2008, VLTscan be used. The rationale behind these regulations is that EGMs represent the type of gambling which is most often associated with addiction problems (Clarke et al., 2006;Productivity Commission, 2010;Slutske, 2006), and that reducing slot machines' availability thus might decrease problem gambling (Delfabbro, 2009;Lund, 2009;Rossow & Hansen, 2016). In parallel, many movements and campaigns seeking to remove slot machines arose at the local and national level, promoted by citizens and nonprofit organizations. ...
... Despite not including any kind of scientific evaluation, a report funded by a foundation created by a private research institute (Eurispes) and one of the major gambling concessionaires (Gamenet Spa) supports the thesis that only occasional gamblers will be affected by the reduction in slot machines, and takes for granted that illegal gambling will increase (Eurispes, 2019). The report also states that no evidence is available about the efficacy of cutting the number of EGMs in reducing problem gambling, failing to acknowledge that some scientific studiesthough limited by the nature of their samplesseem to disconfirm this thesis, finding that problem gambling decreases (Lund, 2009;Rossow & Hansen, 2016). ...
... The rationale underlying local regulation, which sought to reduce the highest-risk type of gambling, was not used as a counter-argument by other stakeholders, who thus did not seem fully aware of it. The only exception was a representative of the anti-usury foundation, whoto support his thesisalso mentioned the case of Norway (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). ...
The Italian gambling market has been growing since the 1990s, becoming one of the world’s largest markets. However, since 2004, a number of municipalities have taken measures to limit the negative outcomes of gambling by introducing local regulations, especially ‘timing’ and ‘zoning’ measures aimed at reducing the number of Electronic Gambling Machines. This attempt to limit gambling has sparked strong reactions from the State and the industry. Drawing on data from three focus groups conducted in two Italian Regions involving 30 participants belonging to a broad variety of stakeholders, the present study aims to provide a picture of the current debate on gambling regulation. The study applies qualitative content analysis to examine the stakeholders’ different arguments and shows how the rhetorical strategies of the industry – namely confining the risks to specific vulnerable targets, negative impact on the labor market, increase in illegal gambling, ineffectiveness of local regulation in reducing problem gambling – play a major role in the social construction of the problem. Other stakeholders’ and social actors’ arguments are weak by comparison. To counteract the industry’s rhetoric, more studies of gambling policies and regulation are needed, while scientific evidence should be more effectively disseminated.
... Jurisdictions in which EGMs have been removed or their number has been significantly cut have shown reduced total consumption of gambling and reduced gambling-related harms (see Heiskanen et al., 2020;Sulkunen et al., 2019). The closest example comes from Norway, where the EGM market was monopolised following a parliament proposal and a debate (Lund, 2009;Rossow & Hansen, 2016). Before July 1, 2007, EGMs had been freely available in many accessible premises, but after the legislative change, the machines were banned and removed (Götestam & Johansson, 2009). ...
... The most addictive machines (Belagos) are confined to bingo halls with limited opening hours. The initial removal and later limited reintroduction of EGMs in Norway has been connected to reduced harms (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). The Norwegian example shows that it is possible to reduce gambling harms by increasing state regulatory power to limiting the availability and accessibility of EGMs (Borch, 2018;Nikkinen & Marionneau, 2021). ...
Unlike in other Nordic countries, most of the electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are placed outside the Casino Helsinki and the gambling arcades in Finland. The placement of EGMs in non-casino locations, such as supermarkets, kiosks, and petrol stations, is matter of serious concern. We argue that availability and accessibility of EGMs has led to normalisation and banalisation of gambling in Finland. Exposure to EGMs also put at risk vulnerable populations and problem gamblers, who already suffer from the negative consequences of gambling harms. Gambling companies' self-regulation initiatives and corporate social responsibility programmes are not enough to prevent and limit EGM related gambling harms. We suggest that Finland should follow Norway's example and limit the availability of EGMs and transfer them from non-casino locations to gambling arcades. Finnish EGM policy should be a question of public policy guided by public health concerns.
... Another study compared levels of PG across two market segments in Denmark [39] and found that while PG prevalence was higher for the products operated in the licensed market than in the monopolistic market, this difference was likely to result from the characteristics of these products rather than the regime. Another paper compared prevalence of PG in Norway before and after the monopolisation of the country's EGM market [40]. The monopolisation process appears to have reduced overall PG prevalence because it also influenced availability and product characteristics of EGMs. ...
... Similarly, in Sweden, Canada, or the Netherlands, state-owned or statecontrolled monopolistic companies have been argued to operate increasingly commercial attitudes [43,44,63]. In contrast, monopolistic offer in Norway has been accompanied by comparatively effective harm prevention [40]. While the mostly license-based regime in New Zealand has recognised gambling as a public health issue already in early 2000s [53]. ...
Purpose of Review
This systematic literature review evaluates the potential of gambling monopolies to affect gambling harms. It compares the occurrence of gambling harms in jurisdictions with gambling monopolies to jurisdictions with license-based regimes.
Recent Findings
The review identified 21 publications concerning three gambling-related harm indicators: problem gambling prevalence, total consumption, and the appearance of conflicts of interest. Due to the dearth of literature, concept papers and older publications were also included.
Summary
Results show that there is a paucity of empirical research on the effectiveness of different regulatory regimes in affecting gambling harms. Available research demonstrates that monopolistic regimes appear to perform somewhat better in terms of problem gambling prevalence and total consumption but may also be more prone to conflicts of interest than license-based regimes. Monopolistic configurations also differ between themselves, and issues such as availability, accessibility, product range, scope of preventive work, monitoring, as well as the recognition of the public health approach may better predict the levels of harm in society than the existence of a monopoly.
... However, this has yet to materialize in most countries. Norway, (Rossow and Hansen 2016) and to a lesser extent the UK (DCMS 2018) are exceptions that make clear the otherwise prevailing orthodoxy. Many researchers too (Korn et al. 2003;Adams et al. 2009;Adams and Rossen 2012;Atherton and Beynon 2019;van Schalkwyk et al. 2019;Wardle et al. 2019;David et al. 2020;Livingstone and Rintoul 2020), promulgate the public health narrative. ...
... There is limited engagement, by regulators and legislators, with alteration of environmental and structural characteristics of EGMs to support harm reduction. Norway's successful harm minimization action of making structural changes to the country's EGMs before introducing them back into the market after a two year mandated absence (Rossow and Hansen 2016) represents an exception that clearly illuminates the prevailing orthodoxy. ...
Within a neo-liberal economic orthodoxy, the gambling industry has succeeded in the discursive feat of transforming gambling from its previous pariah pastime status to normalized entertainment. This contemporary discourse of gambling as entertainment has repositioned gambling as harmless fun. The comfortable orthodoxy of ‘responsible gambling’ adopts language emphasizing concepts such as ‘personal responsibility’. A focus on the lack of self-control of delinquent users deflects attention away from harmful products, diminishing scrutiny of industry failure to appropriately address gambling harms. We analyzed data derived from interviews with stakeholders familiar with the gambling licensing process in Victoria, Australia, in order to identify if and how the discursive structures of this comfortable orthodoxy manifest in discussions on gambling. Data were derived from thematic analysis of 21 interviews with decision makers, industry advocates, and other stakeholders. Evidence highlights multiple recurring discursive structures of the ‘comfortable orthodoxy’, including the narrative of gambling as legalized recreation, personal choice and self-responsibility. Highlighting the pervasiveness of this discourse, these narratives were evident across the spectrum of informants. This research illustrates the way in which multiple gambling stakeholders deploy the discursive structures underpinning gambling regulation and operations. Discourses establish understanding of the nature of specific issues, and can influence responses to public health or other policy problems. In this instance, a discourse overwhelmingly favoring industry interests, has the potential to entrench and support harmful systems of exploitation and harm creation. Transforming the responsible gambling discourse is an important focus for public health activity concerned with reducing gambling related harm.
... Sweden, for example, has thousands of illegal gambling machines that are not controlled by the government (Svenska Spel, 2014). It is also possible to control online gambling via payment blocking, as happens in Norway, meaning that banks and other financial institutions are not allowed to process gambling payments to unauthorised operators (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). IP blocking of websites owned by unlicensed gambling operators is also practised in Denmark. ...
... The obligatory registration of gamblers has been in place in Sweden since 2014. In Norway, restrictions on gambling availability have proved effective in curbing EGM-related harm in particular, at least measured by the number of helpline calls (Rossow & Hansen 2016). Introducing a personal licence does not necessarily diminish profits: Norsk Tipping profits, for example, have remained relatively stable (Norsk Tipping, 2018). ...
Licensing is currently the most popular option among regulators for controlling gambling operations. However, approximately 20% of operators are still public monopolies. Many forms of gambling (especially lotteries) are government operated even in countries with a licensing system. This creates an inherent conflict of interest, given that government is supposed to protect the well-being of its citizenry and to reap the benefits of gambling at the same time. At least in the gambling monopoly, however, addressing the unavoidable harm that results from gambling should be a priority. Industry self-regulation and reliance on “responsible gambling” rely too much on individuals to control their own gambling. It is suggested in this contribution that it is possible to provide more comprehensive consumer protection, recognising both the duty of governments to take care of their own citizens and the fact that industry self-regulation is not enough. Pre-commitment cards have been tested in various contexts, and have shown promise in terms of providing tools for individuals to restrict their own gambling. However, given the known shortcomings such as allowing the use of other cards that are not one’s own, and other venues, it is clear that in themselves they do not guarantee effective prevention. Personal licensing is therefore explored as a move forward in this literature-based discussion. Although the system may be applicable to other contexts, the focus is on the Nordic countries. Given that the underlying justification for gambling monopolies is to control gambling-related harm, in the cases of Finland and Norway licensing could be combined with loyalty cards introduced by monopoly operators. This would provide a feasible alternative to current practices of responsible gambling.
... Reducing size and frequency of bets, greater breaks in play [23,28], setting limits on money [3] and time spent [25] are strategies with an evidence base to minimise harm. The Norwegian Government has successfully reduced gambling-related harm with the introduction of lower intensity EGMs including features like daily loss limits to prevent catastrophic losses and the mandatory requirement of a user account to play on the machines [53]. Despite the evidence, there has been limited efforts in other jurisdictions to change such structural characteristics. ...
Electronic gaming machines (EGMs) are one of the most addictive and harmful forms of gambling. Gaming machine characteristics, easy accessibility of EGMs and normalisation of gambling behaviour have exacerbated these effects. We conducted a pilot study investigating the perspectives of gambling expert stakeholders on gambling harm and effective harm-minimisation policies regarding EGMs. In-depth individual interviews were undertaken with 14 health professionals working in the addiction sector, academics in the field of gambling and individuals from a range of government and non-government organisations who have an impact on gambling policy making in New Zealand. Five major themes were identified: the need to shift focus from problematic people to the problematic product, the need for a holistic approach to gambling intervention, focus on creating an empowered population, and improving protective factors and refining public health initiatives to gambling harm. The results suggest the need to challenge current narratives of EGM-related gambling harm and have wide-ranging implications for EGM harm minimisation and health promotion policies.
... However, this should not be taken to mean that structural differences cannot reduce harm. In Norway, devices with less harmful features and mandatory identification of players has been associated with a decrease in harm, despite all but the most harmful EGMs still being widely accessible (Rossow & Bang Hansen, 2016). Instead, these findings imply that the particular structural characteristics of EGMs in WA are not different enough to EGMs in the rest of Australia to meaningfully reduce harm. ...
Background:
Electronic gaming machines (EGMs) are one of the most harmful forms of gambling at an individual level. It is unclear whether restriction of EGM functions and accessibility results in meaningful reductions in population-level gambling harm.
Methods:
A natural policy experiment using a large (N = 15,000) national dataset weighted to standard population variables was employed to compare estimates of gambling problems between Australian residents in Western Australia (WA), where EGMs are restricted to one venue and have different structural features, to residents in other Australian jurisdictions where EGMs are widely accessible in casinos, hotels and clubs. Accessibility of other gambling forms is similar across jurisdictions.
Results:
Gambling participation was higher in WA, but EGM participation was approximately half that of the rest of Australia. Aggregate gambling problems and harm were about one-third lower in WA, and self-reported attribution of harm from EGMs by gamblers and affected others was 2.7× and 4× lower, respectively. Mediation analyses found that less frequent EGM use in WA accounted for the vast majority of the discrepancy in gambling problems (indirect path = -0.055, 95% CI -0.071; -0.038). Moderation analyses found that EGMs are the form most strongly associated with problems, and the strength of this relationship did not differ significantly across jurisdictions.
Discussion:
Lower harm from gambling in WA is attributable to restricted accessibility of EGMs, rather than different structural features. There appears to be little transfer of problems to other gambling forms. These results suggest that restricting the accessibility of EGMs substantially reduces gambling harm.
... The present study was conducted based on data from gamblers in Norway. Since the beginning of the 2000s, Norway has employed strong restrictions on the availability and access to gambling products (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). The state-owned gambling operator Norsk Tipping has a monopoly on providing scratch-cards, sports betting, number games, electronic gaming machines, and internet-based casino games. ...
... For example, the high efficiency of state restrictions on the availability of EGM gambling exists in Norway. Norwegian policy restrictions conducted between 2006 and 2009 led to significant declines in gambling turnovers and overall gambling (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). On the other hand, attitudes toward gambling regulation may be stronger on a local level than on a government level (Eadington, 2003). ...
The responsibility of spatial regulation of gambling in the Czech Republic is placed on municipalities, the smallest self-governing units in the country. This creates a possibility that the effectiveness of regulation may be reduced by spatial spillover to the neighboring municipality. The aim of this paper is to evaluate to what extent the local reduction of gambling is effective in the overall reduction of gambling in the area under the conditions of fragmented regulation and mobility of gamblers. OLS regression was used to identify the spatial spillover effect. The decline in tax revenue on gambling machines in a district capital by one percentage point is associated with the rise of the same revenue in surrounding municipalities that are reachable in 10 min by 0.45 of a percentage point. Spatial spillover in more distant municipalities is close to zero. The results remain stable when control variables are employed. The results suggest that fragmented regulation is easy to overcome and better cooperation among municipalities or regulation on a higher administrative level may be more effective.
... For many, gambling is an exciting pastime activity offering a way to socialize with friends, family and community (Latvala et al., 2019). Gambling has also a positive impact on society in terms of employment, increased state revenues, and by providing revenues for sporting clubs and humanitarian organizations (Rossow & Hansen, 2016;Walker & Jackson, 2011). Many, however, associate gambling with the negative consequences a minority of gamblers experience. ...
Several studies have investigated attitudes toward gambling using the Attitudes Towards Gambling Scale (ATGS), however, their findings have not previously been synthesized or systematically reported. Thus, we conducted a systematic literature review on studies employing the ATGS to summarize the current evidence. Database searches were conducted in January 2022 in Cinahl, Embase, PsycInfo, Pubmed, Web of Science, GreyNet, and Google Scholar. Papers were included if they presented data based on the ATGS and were published in a European language. Twenty-six papers presenting the results from 23 unique studies met the inclusion criteria. Two reviewers independently extracted the data and assessed the risk of bias. Most of the studies were cross-sectional and used the short (8-item) version of ATGS. The synthesis indicates an overall incline towards negative attitudes. More positive attitudes were associated with being male, younger age, and higher gambling frequency. Studies were divergent in findings concerning problem gambling and gambling attitudes, which could be due to variance in problem gambling severity in the samples. The current evidence base is encumbered by limitations in study quality and designs. Future research should emphasize longitudinal designs, include non-western samples, and investigate the directionality and causality of variables associated with attitudes towards gambling. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Besides banning the sale of (certain types of) loot boxes and requiring probability disclosure, imposing a maximum monthly spending limit, e.g., that players may only be permitted to spend up to US$50 per month on loot boxes [111,112] , has also been suggested. So-called 'pre-commitment limit-setting,' where this can be technically implemented (e.g., Norway), has enjoyed some success at reducing harm in traditional gambling contexts [113] . However, this measure may be difficult to enforce in practice, particularly in countries that do not require video game user accounts to be linked to real-world identity cards [22] ; in addition, this measure (in some conflict with a public health approach seeking to benefit the population in general) affects only the highest-spending players and arguably does not more broadly benefit lower-spending players [80] . ...
Purpose of review: Loot boxes are gambling-like monetisation mechanics in video games that are purchased for opportunities to obtain randomised in-game rewards. Gambling regulation is increasingly being informed by insights from public health. Despite conceptual similarities between loot boxes and gambling, there is much less international consensus on loot box regulation. Various approaches to regulating loot boxes are reviewed via a public health framework that highlights various trade- offs between individual liberties and harm prevention.Recent findings: Many countries have considered regulation, but as yet only a few countries have taken tangible actions. Existing regulatory approaches vary greatly. More restrictively, Belgium has effectively ‘banned’ paid loot boxes and prohibits their sale to both children and adults. In contrast, more liberally, China only requires disclosure of the probabilities of obtaining potential rewards to provide transparency and perhaps help players to make more informed purchasing decisions. Most other countries (e.g., the UK) have adopted a ‘wait-and-watch’ approach by neither regulating loot box sales nor providing any dedicated consumer protection response. Industry self-regulation has also been adopted, although this appears to elicit lower rates of compliance than comparable national legal regulation.Summary: Many potential public health approaches to loot box regulation, such as expenditure limits or harm-reducing modifications to loot box design (e.g., fairer reward structures), deserve further attention. Existing interventions (including varying degrees of regulation, as adopted by different countries, and industry self- regulation), both in terms of compliance and clinical benefits, should be further assessed. The current international variation in loot box regulation presents opportunities to compare the merits of different approaches over time.
... This includes addressing the polarising and largely negative outcomes of the framing of gambling as an issue associated with personal responsibility. One way of addressing this is to use legislation to reduce the potential for individuals to engage with gambling products in a risky or harmful way, such as restricting access to high intensity gambling products [75], and reducing maximum bet sizes and venue opening hours [33,34]. This may also help to remove some of the moralising and stigmatising discourses that were identified in the current study around individuals who are perceived to be unable to engage with products and monitor their own behaviours in a responsible way. ...
Background
Gambling has traditionally been conceptualised as an issue of addiction and personal responsibility. While there are now clear public health models that recognise that gambling harm is caused by a range of socio-cultural, environmental, commercial and political determinants, government and industry messages about gambling are still largely personal responsibility focused. Given the well-recognised issues associated with personal responsibility paradigms, this study sought to understand how gamblers themselves conceptualised responsibility for gambling harm.
Methods
A qualitatively led online panel survey was conducted with 363 adult gamblers in New South Wales and Victoria, Australia. Participants were asked to respond to what they thought were the causes of gambling harm, and what could be done to prevent harm. A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted.
Results
Six common tropes were constructed from gamblers’ responses: (1) Gambling in moderation; (2) Personal responsibility for rational behaviour; (3) Character flaws; (4) Personal responsibility to seek help; (5) More education is needed; and (6) Governments are responsible for action – but motivation and efficacy are questioned. Gamblers primarily understood gambling harm as being a matter of personal responsibility, and government responsibility was generally seen as limited to providing information to facilitate informed gambling choices.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates that gamblers’ perceptions of gambling harm are similar to the personal responsibility framings and tropes present in industry and government messaging strategies. Refocusing public communication strategies away from ‘responsible gambling’ messaging, and towards evidence-based approaches, will be an important part of addressing the harms associated with gambling.
... This allowed the reintroduction of lower impact interactive video terminals in which multifactor authentication was used, requiring a code to be sent via SMS when logging into a video lottery terminal. These measures resulted in a drastic decrease in the number of pathological gamblers (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). ...
Recently, some governments and other stakeholders in countries where online gambling has been legalized have implemented responsible gambling policies. From the theoretical and empirical evidence in this study, we show that these responsible gambling policies are insufficient to prevent the emergence of pathological gambling disorder in society, especially among adolescents. Since online gambling was legalized in Spain in June 2012, online gambling companies have been required by law to implement responsible gambling policies. The implemented policies largely consist of informing customers of the dangers of gambling and how to minimize harm by engaging in behaviour that prevents addiction. However, online gambling addiction has increased exponentially; at present, it is the second most common form of pathological gambling in Spain and the most common form among young children and adolescents (Chóliz, 2016). In our study involving 6,053 underage adolescents, the results showed that more than half of them had gambled and that the prevalence rate of pathological gambling was triple that of the general population. Our main conclusions are that online gambling especially affects male minors, some of whom have developed gambling disorders since the legalization (and broad promotion) of online gambling in Spain. Responsible gambling policies implemented by the conservative government of Spain (2011–2018) and by gambling companies were insufficient to prevent such disorders from becoming an epidemic among Spanish adolescents.
... At the same time, the future reopening of EGMs was considered a risk that should and could be avoided. Research evidence also supports the removal of EGMs from convenience locations, in particular following the example of Norway, where convenience EGMs were removed in 2007 and later replaced with fewer and less addictive machines (e.g., Lund, 2009;Rossow & Hansen, 2016; see also Heiskanen et al., 2020). ...
This brief report presents results on how gamblers have experienced risks and change during the exceptional situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The study is based on online questionnaires collected by the University of Helsinki and the Finnish Association for Substance Use Prevention (N = 586). Results show that the reduced availability of gambling in the Finnish context has limited its total consumption. The risk of gambling-related harms has therefore become less pressing during the pandemic. Although gambling is a public health risk in addition to being a harmful activity for the individual, the policy measures during the pandemic have revealed that, at a societal level, the risk of infection with COVID-19 was perceived as being a more serious problem than was the risk of gambling harms.
... The mandatory player card enabled tools for prevention of problem gambling by enforcing an upper loss limit and other features where the gamblers could set further restrictions as well as self-exclude. In addition, the number of new gambling terminals was considerably lower and reduced to about one fifth of the former slot machine market (5). ...
The purpose of gambling regulation can be to ensure revenue for the public, to prevent crime and gambling problems. One regulatory measure involves restriction of what games can be offered in a market. In this study, the effects of two regulatory market changes are investigated: First, a restriction of availability when slot machines were banned from the Norwegian market in 2007, and second the introduction of regulated online interactive games to the same market in 2014. Data collected from the general population in the period from 2005 through 2018, comprising 2,000 respondents every year, are used to investigate how participation in gambling changed over time. The respondents were asked if they took part in various games or lotteries. Logistic regression analyses were used to predict the proportion participating in five groups of games and if changes in participation coincided with major market changes. The first change was associated with a reduction in gambling on slot machines as well as a reduction in gambling participation overall. Following the slot machine ban, results show an increase in women participating in games offered in land-based bingo premises. A general increase in gambling on foreign websites was also seen, albeit much smaller than the reduction in slot machine gambling. The increases can partly be explained as substitution of one type of gambling with another. New regulated online interactive games were introduced in 2014. Despite the relatively large growth of such games internationally, Norway included, increased online gambling in general and an increased marketing of foreign gambling websites, the participation on foreign websites seemed stable. However, the overall participation in online interactive games increased. The introduction of the regulated alternative seems to have had a channelizing effect. Overall, the changes in gambling participation coinciding with two major regulatory changes can be explained by transformations of physical and social availability, and in terms of mechanisms outlined by the model of total consumption.
... No effect was found for newspaper advertising in the present study. In Norway, only licensed gambling operators are allowed to market gambling products (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). This restriction is more successfully enforced for retail outlet and newspaper advertising, while restrictions on TV, internet, and direct advertising are circumvented by unregulated gambling operators by broadcasting from abroad. ...
People with gambling problems report more exposure and impact from gambling advertising, although less is known regarding the role of specific advertising types. Data on gamblers (n = 5830, 48.5% women, mean age = 44.27) was collected from a general population cross-sectional survey in Norway (32.7% response rate). We examined if problem gambling was associated with perceived advertising impact (on gambling involvement, awareness, and knowledge) or exposure (via internet, TV, retail outlet, newspaper, and direct advertising). We also investigated if advertising exposure was associated with advertising impact. ANOVAs revealed that problem gambling was associated with increased perceived advertising impact on gambling involvement (ω² = 0.09, p < .001) and awareness of gambling (ω² = 0.04, p < .001). Reported exposure to direct advertising increased linearly with problem gambling level (ω² = 0.04, p < .001), whereas we found small/no differences in exposure to other types of advertising. Multiple regressions revealed that among advertising types, internet advertising was the strongest predictor of perceived advertising impact on gambling involvement (β = 0.1, p < .001). TV advertising was the strongest predictor of advertising impact on knowledge of gambling forms and operators (β = 0.28, p < .001) and awareness of gambling (β = .05, p < .05). Future studies should elucidate how different subtypes of internet advertising impact gambling involvement. Clinicians should assess clients’ experiences with direct advertising and devise interventions for coping. Researchers should be aware that internet and direct advertising allow for more tailored content compared to other advertising types.
... Gambling levels and harms are associated with socioeconomic inequality (Rintoul et al. 2013;Tu et al. 2014;Canale et al. 2017). Earlier research has shown that gambling control policies play an important role in adjusting gambling prevalence and harm (Rossow and Hansen 2016). Our study suggests that a social policy that recognizes gambling as an integral part of the risk picture of social disadvantage in general, can effectively counteract the complex relationship between criminal offenses, social status and gambling. ...
This study addresses criminal convictions, social disadvantage and problem gambling as an interwoven set of problems. It makes use of data from a population-based gambling survey (n = 7,186) conducted in three Finnish regions. The survey data are combined with national registers to examine associations between sociodemographic factors and gambling severity, comparing persons with and without a criminal record. Gambling behavior included past-year (2016) gambling severity and perceived life-time problem gambling. Social disadvantage was assessed using sociodemographic factors such as education, employment status, level of income and receipt of basic social assistance. Logistic regression analysis showed that both past-year problem or pathological gambling (OR: 2.725) and perceived life-time gambling problems (OR: 2.363) were associated with having a conviction, compared to recreational gambling. Low education, unemployment, low income and receipt of basic social assistance were associated with receiving a conviction. When gender, age and sociodemographic factors were controlled for, odds ratios for both past-year gambling problems (OR: 1.223) and perceived life-time gambling problems (OR: 1.586) did not remain statistically significant. The current study suggests that preventive efforts against problem gambling and interventions in criminal justice systems should be expanded to incorporate the aim of reducing social disadvantage.
... Today's global gambling industry brings an extensive need of protection of the vulnerable groups, here presented by gamblers who increased their gambling during the COVID-19 crisis. There are reasons to take further policy actions, as research indicates that substantial limitations are required to have substantial effects [41] and attention should be payed to discussions concerning the ethical issues of gambling harm beyond cost-effectiveness. From a public health perspective, voices are raised to implement forceful regulatory measures at an early stage, to reduce the cases in need of emergency care [34,42]. ...
Gambling has been suggested as one of the potential mental health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. In earlier self-report studies, increased gambling has been reported by a limited proportion of respondents characterized with a high degree of problem gambling. The present study, carried out with the same methodology and in the same geographical setting, around seven months later in the pandemic, aimed to repeat and to extend the understanding of potential gambling changes in the population during COVID-19. An anonymous sample of web panel members was assessed, altogether 2029 individuals (52% women, 10% moderate-risk or problem gamblers). Results indicated that 6% reported increased gambling, and 4% reported decreased gambling during the pandemic. Having increased gambling was associated with more severe gambling problems (OR 2.78, 95% confidence interval 2.27-3.40), increased alcohol consumption (OR 2.92, 1.71-4.98), and psychological distress (OR 3.38, 1.83-6.23). In the group reporting increased gambling during COVID-19, moderate-risk/problem gambling was very common (62%). Recent governmental policy interventions in the area were known to a minority (30%) of respondents, but awareness of the regulations was markedly more common in individuals with at least moderate-risk gambling (56%) and in self-excluders (78%). Reporting of any perceived influence from policy changes was low (3%), and divided between those reporting an increasing and decreasing effect, respectively. Increased gambling may be a consequence of COVID-19-related changes in everyday lives of individuals with problematic gambling patterns. Thus, a vulnerable group demonstrates higher rates of gambling migration and psychosocial problems, and may require particular attention in screening and treatment contexts, and further scientific evaluations.
... Studies have mostly measured the effects of increased availability, while those of reducing EGMs are less documented since natural experiments have been rare (Sulkunen et al. 2018). What few natural experiments have been carried out provide mixed evidence, as they are mostly based on temporary bans and focused on access to treatment facilities and/or calls to helplines (Bridwell & Quinn, 2002;Carr et al., 1996;Lund, 2009;Rossow & Hansen, 2016;Young et al., 2012). It has been suggested that to be effective, reductions in EGMs must be considerable (Corporate Research Associates, 2009;Delfabbro, 2009) and that limiting accessibility could be more important than a mere reduction in the number of EGMs (Young et al., 2007). ...
Worldwide, there are a few examples of laws seeking to reduce the availability of Electronic Gambling Machines, one being a regional law introduced in Piedmont in 2018 that limited the times and places where gambling is allowed, causing an overall decrease in gambling frequency and expenditure and a heated public debate. This study investigates gamblers’ opinions and perspectives on why and how the new regulation impacted their habits. ‘Gambling trajectories’ were explored through 60 in-depth individual interviews of adults differing in age, gender, social background, and gambling profile. The most widely reported impact on gambling trajectories was the interruption of the daily routine associated with going to tobacco shops or bars and using slot machines while buying coffee or cigarettes. From the gamblers’ perspective, removing EGMs from generalist shops reduces the impulse and opportunities to gamble, and can prevent the transition to problem gambling. These findings add to the qualitative understanding of the links between EGM availability, density, and problem gambling and contradict the industry’s rhetoric, endorsed by the Italian government, which holds that spatial and timing limitations on EGMs would only bring about a shift toward other games or places without affecting the habits of people experiencing gambling problems.
... Our data are in line with other studies that have monitored the results of the effects of restrictions on the gambling venues; for example, the Regional Law of Piedmont [71], which significantly limited the placement and number of EGMs with rules on zoning and timing, within a couple of years from its entry into force (2016-2018) achieved a drop in consumption and expenditure of 9.7% compared to an increase of 1.6% in the rest of Italy [72], a trend already noted in other European studies [73,74]. In line with Young and colleagues [75], therefore, there is now evidence to justify the explicit incorporation of geographic accessibility as a parameter to control the spatial distribution of gambling supply as a harm-reduction strategy. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic, with the consequent lockdown of about 3 months, can be viewed as an experimental model to observe the impact of the depletion of environmental factors that stimulate gambling, particularly electronic gambling machines (EGMs) that were set to zero. The effects of some structural characteristics of gambling activities that increase gambling behavior were studied among disordered gamblers in treatment in this unique scenario. In fact, studies investigating the effects of the lockdown on problem gamblers (PGs) under treatment are missing. The aims of this study were to analyze patients’ gambling behavior and craving during the lockdown and to conduct a comparison between gambling disorder (GD) symptoms at the beginning of the treatment and during lockdown. The study was conducted in Italy, the European country with the largest gambling market and the first to be affected by the virus. Data were collected through a semi-structured telephone interview conducted by healthcare professionals. Participants were 135 PGs under treatment (109 males, mean age = 50.07). Results showed that most PGs achieved a significant improvement in their quality of life, with less gambling behavior, GD symptoms, and lower craving. No shift toward online gambling and very limited shift towards other potential addictive and excessive behaviors occurred. The longer the treatment, the more monitoring is present and the better the results in terms of symptoms reduction. Individual and environmental characteristics during the lockdown favored the reduction in symptoms. Consideration for prevention and treatment are discussed.
... Actions may involve a complete ban or limitations on frequency or time allowed to gamble. In Norway, the government requires that all players be registered for online or land-based gambling, and set mandatory loss limits that fall within global loss limits (Rossow and Hansen 2016;Auer et al. 2018). Evaluation of this health protection strategy involving over two million gamblers noted high approval ratings (79% among high-risk players, 91% among low-risk players) and adherence to limit reset periods (79% high-risk players, 95% low-risk players) without considerable participation in non-sanctioned gambling activities (Norsk Tipping 2016). ...
Aim
Gambling harm is a serious public health issue affecting the health, financial security, and social well-being of millions of people and their close relations around the world. Despite its population health implications, gambling harm is not typically viewed and treated as a public health policy issue. This paper critically reviews the evolution of the public health perspective on gambling harm. It also considers how gambling harm can be operationalized within a public health model.
Methods
A critical historical review of the emerging public health perspective on gambling harm was conducted. Key documents covering three decades of development were reviewed and appraised through a process of deliberation and debate over source impact in the fields of research, policy, and programming internationally.
Results
The first decade mainly focused on identifying gambling harm and framing the public health issue. The second decade featured the expansion of health assessment and emerging areas of policy and program development. The third decade saw an increased focus on public health frameworks that advanced understanding of harm mechanics and impact. As reflected by the essential functions of a general public health model, gambling harm prevention efforts emphasize health promotion over other key functions like health assessment and surveillance.
Conclusion
Gambling harm is a public health issue requiring greater attention to health assessment and surveillance data development.
... There are various regulations for marketing across different nations and provinces (Planzer et al., 2014). The current study was conducted in Norway in which the state-owned gambling providers Norsk Tipping and Norsk Rikstoto have a monopoly on lotteries/sports betting and horse betting, respectively (Rossow and Hansen, 2016). Norsk Tipping and Norsk Rikstoto may only directly market general information about games to consenting customers (e.g., reminders about upcoming lotteries) (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014). ...
Gambling providers use varied and complex marketing techniques, including marketing that targets the individual directly. Previous research indicates that individuals with gambling disorder are disproportionately influenced by gambling marketing, however, very few studies have examined gamblers’ experiences with direct marketing. The current exploratory interview study examined experiences with direct gambling marketing among 12 individuals with either current (n = 5) or lifetime (n = 7) gambling disorder. A broad research question was employed encompassing experiences with different types of direct marketing and corresponding attitudes, influences, and interactions. The interview data were analyzed with thematic analysis using an inductive approach, and the participants reported extensive and varied experiences with direct marketing. Two overarching themes, with two and four subthemes, respectively, were identified. The overarching themes showed that marketing experiences were intimately connected with participants’ gambling behaviors and their relationships to their own problems. Overall, direct marketing was experienced as an interactive form of marketing with individually tailored promotions such as free gambling credits, bonuses, and special gifts. Some promotions were experienced as personal, while others were experienced as mass produced. Direct marketing was in some cases experienced as predatory and was reported to hamper the participants’ ability to cope with their gambling disorder. Participants’ attitudes toward direct marketing varied as a function of the participants’ engagement in gambling. During periods of active gambling, direct marketing was experienced as beneficial and positive as the participants took advantage of the offers or actively manipulated how the offers were made. In contrast, when attempting to reduce/abstain from gambling, the participants experienced direct marketing as aggressive, and they reported making considerable efforts to try to limit it. Direct marketing was experienced as a trigger for gambling urges and was reported to induce a conflict between gambling and abstinence. Directly marketed promotions are discussed in relation to ecological factors of access and availability that form a basis for the development of gambling disorder, and variations in experiences are related to stages of change in gambling disorder. Implications for treatment are discussed where the current findings suggest that coping with marketing should be addressed in treatment.
... Así, el modelo regulatorio Rev Esp Salud Pública. 2020; 94: 15 de junio e202006043 de Noruega parece haber conseguido una disminución de la oferta, lo que se ha traducido en un menor gasto en juegos de azar y menos juego problemático (16) . ...
Objective:
Gambling may cause a variety of problems, both health and social, to the player, his family and his environment; Problems can be more serious for those who gamble more frequently or bet more money. Beyond the mental health gambling disorder and considering other harms derived from gambling, it is possible to develop a public health approach to the issue, including both prevention and harm reduction aspects. In recent decades gambling availability has expanded, with attempts at regulation. The objective of this paper is to provide basic information about gambling in Spain, stratifying data by Autonomous Communities (AC), from a public health perspective.
Methods:
A descriptive study of some aspects of gambling in Spain was carried out. The data for amounts gambled by participants, gross gaming revenue of the industry, and establishments or machines licensed for the year 2017 were extracted from the available systematic sources. Aggregated data were tabulated and stratified by AC for those presential gambling categories with the greatest compulsive gambling potential and relevant business volume. Crude results and ratios per 100,000 inhabitants were calculated.
Results:
Up to 41,826.8 million euros were spent gambling throughout Spain in 2017, a figure that exceeds 3.5% of the Gross Domestic Product, and the largest segment was online gambling in its various modalities (32%), followed by the national lottery and similar traditional games (27%). The supply of gambling venues (74.9 establishments per million inhabitants) was assessed by AC, showing large differences among them: their density in the region of Murcia is tenfold that of Catalonia. Gambling machines that can be installed in hospitality establishments (B machines) showed a density of 43.4 per 1,000 inhabitants, with greater homogeneity across AC than gambling premises. Regional data on the amounts spent in casinos, bingo cards, and sports betting show no homogeneous patterns.
Conclusions:
The volume of money spent on gambling in Spain is very important, and online gambling has become the largest business segment. The most traditional game modes and probably with less addictive potential such as lotteries and draws continue to have a relevant presence. The availability of presential gambling shows wide heterogeneity among AC, especially for licensed gambling establishments, whose density is ten times greater in the community with more supply compared to the one with less. The data by AC of some game modalities suggest that availability may be a relevant factor for gambling, but not the only one.
... This is one of the most important lessons from this project. The Norwegian reforms demonstrated substantial reduction in gambling harms following the introduction of registered gambling (Lund, 2009;Rossow & Hansen, 2015), and indicated that there had been very little migration to other gambling forms arising from the EGM reform processes, including the period of EGM prohibition. It also provides a guide for reforms that could be effective in Australia, given the centrality of ...
This study sought to understand gambling harm prevention and reduction measures in other countries in order to consider potential best practice regulatory reform options for Australia. I also sought to learn about efforts underway to combat challenges posed by online gambling, and understand how international instruments were developed for problems that pose similar threats. To do this I visited 11 locations in seven countries and interviewed academics, public servants, regulators, politicians, consumer advocates and affected others, and gambling operators. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed and analysed thematically using Nvivo12.
This report provides an outline of available options and lessons learned during this study. The interviews covered a range of forms of gambling, with a focus on EGMs and online gambling given the relevance of these forms of gambling to the Australian context. This report is not intended to be an exhaustive description of all measures encountered. Accordingly, it is designed to identify key strategies that are proving valuable in other contexts, in order to begin a conversation about their usefulness in Australia.
... Of these norms, the following are highlighted: a) economic measures that impact on the costs of healthy/risky choices through taxes, pricing policies, and subsidies, and b) legal measures, which directly control what is permissible or accessible, through diverse regulations: restrictions, surveillance, institutional standards, prohibitions, and exclusions. One such example is the restriction on gambling in Norway (Rossow & Hansen, 2016) where access to slot machines requires the use of a personal card which increases the costs associated with gambling (personal identification, minimum age for gambling, setting limits on losses, and self-exclusion via the register of gaming access bans). More recently, a large number of American states have incorporated the BE methodology to make evidence-based decisions in the face of the increasing scenario of cannabis legalization. ...
Behavioral economics is a discipline that can be useful for studying the aspects involved in the genesis and maintenance of
addictive behaviors through the application of the principles of economics and psychology. In the addictions field, this
discipline has been beneficial not only in explaining and predicting the severity of addictions, but also in designing universal
and selective prevention strategies, as well as treatments. However, the described model remains largely unknown among
psychologists. The aim of this work is to present the principles of behavioral economics and bring the reader closer to the
methodology used in this field. Evidence is presented of its application in the understanding of addictive behaviors. Clinical
implications for assessment, prevention, and psychological treatment are highlighted
... From these findings, the following overarching recommendations to improve gambler protection can be derived: (1) to set up a centralized, cross-sector exclusion system covering all gambling forms with a moderate or high potential for addiction; (2) to ensure that state bodies monitor the implementation of the protection measures prescribed in law more closely and consistently; and (3) to introduce personalized gambler identity cards that must be inserted into the AWP machine on which the gambler wishes to play (similar to the Norwegian system; Rossow & Hansen, 2016), in order to deal with the gaps that currently arise with personal checks more effectively. ...
Since April 2014, in Hesse (Germany), it has been possible to arrange an exclusion from all gaming halls. In addition, the Hessian Gaming Halls Act obligates operators to exclude individuals who show signs of addictive gambling behavior. The objective was firstly to quantitatively analyze the administrative data set of all excluded individuals (N = 12,253). Secondly, the compliance of staff in implementing various gambler protection measures was examined. Test players visited 64 of the 750 gaming hall sites in Hesse. The findings showed that third-party exclusion accounted for only 1% of all exclusions. Checks on on-site gambler protection revealed that in 16% of all attempts of access by test players and observers, no entry checks were conducted; in 28% of the gaming halls, they were able to play despite being excluded. Furthermore, staff reacted with appropriate interventions to signs of problematic gambling behavior in 7% of cases. The low level of compliance can be explained by an inherent conflict between economic interests and an adequate protection of gamblers. Measures for improvement should include the set up of a centralized, cross-sector exclusion system, a more closely monitoring of protection measures, and the introduction of a personalized gambler identity card.
... B. Spieldauer, Einsätze sowie Gewinne und Verluste in einem bestimmten Zeitraum, die online oder auf Chipkarten gespeichert werden [13] und so die Entwicklung automatischer Frühwarnsysteme ermöglichen. In Österreich, Schweden und Norwegen stehen solche Daten auch für das terrestrische Automatenspiel durch personalisierte Spielerkarten zur Verfügung [14,21] ...
... A la vez, se podría registrar datos relacionados con el juego y lanzar mensajes de retroalimentación (Monaghan, 2008). Otras estrategias preventivas ambientales recomendadas incluyen reducir el número de locales con licencia para operar las MAE según su ubicación cercana a colegios o centros de salud, o incluso someter las MAE a un monopolio estatal de juego (Rossow y Hansen, 2016). ...
... In Norway, gambling opportunities are provided by two monopolists: 'Norsk Tipping' (mainly offering gambling on number games and sports games with the aim to provide revenue for sports organizations and research) and 'Norsk Rikstoto' (that have licence to offer horse race betting). Still, some gamble with foreign gambling operators over the internet (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). Problem gambling affects 0.9% of the adult population in Norway, according to a prevalence study conducted in 2015. ...
Most previous studies on self-help groups for problem gambling have been conducted in the US and Canada involving Gamblers Anonymous. We report findings from an interview study with an phenomenological approach comprising nine participants from two Gambling Addiction Norway self-help groups, thus examining another location and type of self-help group. Gambling Addiction Norway is atheoretical, the groups and their work are not based on specific beliefs or strategies for recovery. Participants met the criteria for current (n = 4) or life-time (n = 5) Gambling Disorder (GD). Thematic analysis was used to investigate how group processes were experienced. Three themes were identified. The first theme ‘Shared narratives and understanding’ included accounts of relatedness, understanding, hope of recovery, and socially rewarding experiences. The second theme ‘Keeping it relevant to problem gambling’ included accounts of disagreements over meeting structure, contemplation and realization of one’s gambling problem and gambling-related content. The final theme ‘Changes over time’ included accounts of starting in the group, reduction of gambling urges among people with current GD and relapse prevention among people with life-time GD. Results are interpreted in light of established theories of self-help groups and suggest that common therapeutic factors operate across various types of self-help groups for problem gambling.
... Of these norms, the following are highlighted: a) economic measures that impact on the costs of healthy/risky choices through taxes, pricing policies, and subsidies, and b) legal measures, which directly control what is permissible or accessible, through diverse regulations: restrictions, surveillance, institutional standards, prohibitions, and exclusions. One such example is the restriction on gambling in Norway (Rossow & Hansen, 2016) where access to slot machines requires the use of a personal card which increases the costs associated with gambling (personal identification, minimum age for gambling, setting limits on losses, and self-exclusion via the register of gaming access bans). More recently, a large number of American states have incorporated the BE methodology to make evidence-based decisions in the face of the increasing scenario of cannabis legalization. ...
Behavioral economics is a discipline that can be useful for studying the aspects involved in the genesis and maintenance of addictive behaviors through the application of the principles of economics and psychology. In the addictions field, this discipline has been beneficial not only in explaining and predicting the severity of addictions, but also in designing universal and selective prevention strategies, as well as treatments. However, the described model remains largely unknown among psychologists. The aim of this work is to present the principles of behavioral economics and bring the reader closer to the methodology used in this field. Evidence is presented of its application in the understanding of addictive behaviors. Clinical implications for assessment, prevention, and psychological treatment are highlighted.
... An assessment of a variety of measures incorporating modifications to structural characteristics and introduction of universal pre-commitment introduced in Norway has demonstrated positive effects on harm reduction (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). Universal pre-commitment incorporated a mandated spending limit, reduction in jackpots, reduction in machine numbers, and account based operation (i.e., operation of the games was dependent on having an established account with the operator). ...
This report draws on lessons from other areas of public health to identify effective interventions for reducing or preventing gambling related harm.
... These features encourage players to gamble continuously and are also shown to be relevant to the process of developing gambling-related problems [2,3]. Given its harmfulness and in order to reduce gamblingrelated harm, many jurisdictions internationally have already tightened the regulation of the EGMs or are currently considering greater control of machine gambling [4][5][6]. ...
Background:
Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are considered a risky form of gambling. Internationally, studies have reported that the density of EGMs tends to be higher in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas than in more advantaged ones. We examined whether this holds true in the Finnish context where a decentralised system of EGMs guarantees wide accessibility to this form of gambling. More precisely, we investigated the association between the density of EGMs and area-level socio-economic status (SES).
Methods:
The primary measure was the EGM density, referring to the number of EGMs per 1000 adults. The area-level SES was defined on the basis of the median income of inhabitants, the proportion of unemployment in the area and educational attainment (% of those beyond primary education). Three additional area characteristics were used as control variables in the analyses; the overall population density, economic activity (the number of jobs in the area per employed inhabitant), and the mean age of the inhabitants. Analyses were based on linear regression.
Results:
The EGM density was 3.68 per 1000 inhabitants (SD = 2.63). A lower area-level SES was correlated with a higher EGM density. In further analyses, this effect was mostly explained by the income of the inhabitants. Of the control variables, the population density had no detectable effect on the EGM density while areas with a higher mean age of the inhabitants, as well a higher density of jobs, had more EGMs.
Conclusions:
EGMs are unequally located in Finland, with more EGMs located in socio-economically less advantaged areas. The higher machine density in areas of social disadvantage is not in line with the aim of the Finnish gambling policy, which is to prevent and reduce harm caused by gambling. Changes in policy are required, especially with regard to the decisions on the placement of EGMs. This should not be made solely by gaming operators and/or from fiscal perspectives.
... The implementation of electronic identifications to activate slots would reduce EGMs accessibility and prevent extended gambling sessions (Rockloff, Donaldson, & Browne, 2015) whilst registering gambling-related information and prompting feedback messages (Monaghan, 2008). The reduction of licensed venues to operate EGMs based on the proximity to schools or healthcare centers, or even the introduction of a state gambling monopoly on EGMs (Rossow & Hansen, 2016) are some other recommended environmental preventive strategies. Note. a Median. ...
Background: Slots and electronic gaming machines (EGMs) are the most addictive gambling activities. The Spanish regulation allows venues of the hospitality sector to operate slot machines. Despite this high availability and accessibility, no data exists on the number of slot users and their associated characteristics. Aim: To describe the profile of slot users in public venues and to estimate the prevalence of slot machine use. Method: An observational study was performed using a randomized cluster sampling in Northern Spain. Several personal, drinking and gambling-related variables were recorded. Census data were used to estimate the number of slot users. Results: A total of 89 users were observed (94.4% males). Participants aged 18-35 were more likely to gamble with others and those aged +50 tended to gamble alone. Lone gamblers were more likely to gamble persistently. Slot users represented 4.28% of the total population, most of them male (94.38%) between the ages of 26 and 35 (6.13% of their age group). Conclusions: EGM use is more prevalent in young adults. Observational designs are adequate for exploring in vivo gambling behaviors. The high addictive potential of EGMs calls for preventive actions aimed at reducing their high availability and accessibility within the Spanish context.
... B. Spieldauer, Einsätze sowie Gewinne und Verluste in einem bestimmten Zeitraum, die online oder auf Chipkarten gespeichert werden [13] und so die Entwicklung automatischer Frühwarnsysteme ermöglichen. In Österreich, Schweden und Norwegen stehen solche Daten auch für das terrestrische Automatenspiel durch personalisierte Spielerkarten zur Verfügung [14,21] ...
Background
Gaming machines located in gambling halls and pubs represent both a high-revenue segment within the legal German gambling market and a gambling form with a relatively high addictive potential. Accordingly, the current State Treaty on Gambling requires venue staff to intervene as early as possible when customers show visible signs of problematic gambling behavior.
Aim
The present study aims at validating a screening instrument for the early detection of problem gamblers, originally published in 2013 by Hayer, Kalke, Buth and Meyer, with regard to its psychometric properties as well as determining specificity and sensitivity in connection with an optimal cutoff value. In addition, the screening instrument’s suitability in detecting problem gamblers with subclinical symptoms was investigated.
Methods
In 23 gambling halls, staff rated the behavior of customers using the screening instrument. Subsequently, the research team asked these customers (n = 283) to fill in a questionnaire that also included the nine DSM-5 symptoms for gambling disorder as a reference measure.
Results
The screening instrument fulfills the criteria as a useful tool for the subgroup of customers with at least four DSM-5 symptoms (i.e. disordered gamblers). Individuals with less severe symptoms (i.e. problem gamblers with subclinical symptoms) were not reliably identified. Optimization of sensitivity and specificity leads to a set of at least six applicable screening criteria that provide the optimal cutoff value for approaching the respective individuals (sensitivity = 55.9%; specificity = 78.1%).
Discussion
Taken together, the screening instrument appears to be a useful tool for the identification of severely affected individuals (i.e. disordered gamblers). However, it cannot resolve all difficulties associated with the early identification and intervention of problem gamblers in gambling halls, especially when individuals with less severe symptoms are considered. Further measures, such as the use of objective data stored on personalized smart cards, are required to further optimize the positive effects of responsible gambling strategies in real-life settings.
... A study of this experiment demonstrated a decline in gambling problems following this significant change. Eventually, in 2008, the Norwegian Government re-introduced newly designed gambling machines incorporating a range of harm minimisation features including a universal pre-commitment system, statutory loss limits and account-based operation (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). ...
This study explores how the characteristics of local neighbourhoods and gambling activity interrelate. Its particular focus is on electronic gambling machines (EGMs, or 'pokies') and the venues that host them.
The report presents a novel mixed-methods study of a social phenomenon that has not yet been well explored: the relationships between place, social circumstances, gambling and harm. It compares two socially distinct areas of a major city (Melbourne, Victoria) to identify a range of issues that warrant further exploration for policy purposes. It considers:
1. how socio-environmental factors may influence local gambling consumption
2. how the characteristics of local communities may interact with local gambling opportunities to influence gambling consumption
3. the localised effects of gambling on people who gamble and their 'significant others'.
The study found that high-intensity EGM gambling was easily accessible, especially in the site of higher disadvantage. It found that while gambling consumption is affected by a range of factors, the availability and nature of high-intensity EGM gambling influenced gambling uptake and participation by those who participated in this research, and contributed to a range of health, financial, relationship and emotional harms. These findings have led the authors to propose a range of harm-prevention and reduction measures that may improve public health and protect consumers from gambling-related harms
... The gambling policy of Norway, the only other European country to safeguard its gambling monopoly system, only highlights the exceptionality of the Finnish case. In Norway, public health concerns have had a real impact on gambling policy and significant restrictions on gambling supply have been introduced (Rossow & Hansen, 2016). Jensen (2017) offers a convincing explanation for this: In Norway, the state gets no tax income from gambling and has thus had less interest in gambling revenues than in Finland. ...
A rapidly growing globalized and digitalized gambling industry has compelled European jurisdictions to take action in order to secure some level of gambling market control, to secure public funds from gambling, and to protect citizens from gambling-related harm. This study concerns the market protectionist endeavour to merge three gambling operators into one state-owned monopoly in Finland in 2017. The justification of the systemic change is analysed in key policy documents and media reporting that discerns the political narratives that nudged the monopoly merger from the idea stage to its completion. Within the narratives, the merger is presented as necessary due to the threats of market intrusion by foreign gambling operators and the likelihood of an internal system implosion framed by European Union (EU) law. The worries expressed in the studied materials plug into a general zeitgeist of globalization. The justifications of the systemic change presuppose the inevitable determination of the change and an innate and constant human desire to gamble. Critical views on the merger were introduced in the media at a late stage, stressing the role of the media as a facilitator and manufacturer of political consent. The study demonstrates how market protectionist justifications can, through the maintenance of a regulated gambling market, assure preservation of national public funds obtained from gambling in the EU. The official gambling policy objective of securing public health played a secondary role in the process.
... Finally, from a regulatory point of view, the impact of restricting the availability of machines or removing them altogether are unclear. Relevant evidence is provided by the uncertain results of a natural experiment in gambling regulation conducted in Norway [80]. Panel studies showed mixed effects on gambling frequency following the removal of machines [81,82]. ...
... 2015;Jacques & Ladouceur 2006;Westfelt 2006;Volberg & Abbott 2005). Lisäksi on tutkimustietoa siitä, että pelien saatavuuden vähentäminen voi vähentää ongelmapelaamista(Rossow & Hansen 2016;Bridwell & Quinn 2002). Toisaalta kontrolloituja tutkimuksia tilanteista, joissa pelien saatavuutta olisi huomattavasti supistettu, on tähän asti tehty erittäin vähän.Suomessa rahapelejä on laajasti saatavilla. ...
... First, it is possible to imagine a government regulating cannabis in a way that considers health and well-being ahead of revenues. Norway, for instance, temporarily banned electronic gaming machines in 2006 due to dramatic increases in gambling problems, and replaced them 3 years later with machines designed to be less problematic-and less profitable (54). In doing so, the Norwegian government sacrificed annual revenues of about $3.5 billion USD 13 . ...
The Canadian government is “taking a public health approach to legalizing, strictly regulating and restricting access to cannabis.” There is, however, no universally accepted definition of a public health approach to cannabis. This paper presents what such an approach is, and is not, and discusses its applicability to legal psychoactive substances more generally. It critically reflects on the role of the public health sector in the governance of addictive substances and activities, noting its function of “responsibilizing” individuals and coaxing them to self-regulate—and the contradiction involved when other state actors involved in governance are actively inciting consumption of those substances and activities.
While there is evidence for self-exclusion (SE) as an individual-level harm reduction intervention, its effects on reducing harm from gambling at the population level remain unclear. Based on a review of national legal frameworks and SE programs, including their utilization and enforcement in selected high-income societies, the present analysis aims to explore the reach and strengths of SE in the protection of gamblers in these jurisdictions. It places particular emphasis on SE programs' potential to prevent and minimize gambling harm at the population level. The overview examined SE in Finland, Germany, Italy, Massachusetts (USA), Norway, Sweden, and Victoria (Australia). These jurisdictions differ considerably in how gambling is regulated as well as in how SE is implemented and enforced. The reach and extent of enforcement of SE apparently vary with the polity's general policy balance between reducing gambling problems and increasing gambling revenue. But in any case, though SE may benefit individual gamblers and those around them, it does not appear to be capable of significantly reducing gambling harm at the population level. To render SE programs an effective measure that prevents gamblers and those linked to them from financial, social, and psychological harm, utilization needs to be substantially increased by reforming legal regulations and exclusion conditions.
Purpose of Review
Loot boxes are gambling-like monetisation mechanics in video games that are purchased for opportunities to obtain randomised in-game rewards. Gambling regulation is increasingly being informed by insights from public health. Despite conceptual similarities between loot boxes and gambling, there is much less international consensus on loot box regulation. Various approaches to regulating loot boxes are reviewed via a public health framework that highlights various trade-offs between individual liberties and harm prevention.
Recent Findings
Many countries have considered regulation, but as yet only a few countries have taken tangible actions. Existing regulatory approaches vary greatly. More restrictively, Belgium has effectively ‘banned’ paid loot boxes and prohibits their sale to both children and adults. In contrast, more liberally, China only requires disclosure of the probabilities of obtaining potential rewards to provide transparency and perhaps help players to make more informed purchasing decisions. Most other countries (e.g., the UK) have adopted a ‘wait-and-watch’ approach by neither regulating loot box sales nor providing any dedicated consumer protection response. Industry self-regulation has also been adopted, although this appears to elicit lower rates of compliance than comparable national legal regulation.
Summary
Many potential public health approaches to loot box regulation, such as expenditure limits or harm-reducing modifications to loot box design (e.g., fairer reward structures), deserve further attention. The compliance and clinical benefits of existing interventions (including varying degrees of regulation, as adopted by different countries, and industry self-regulation) should be further assessed. The current international variation in loot box regulation presents opportunities to compare the merits of different approaches over time.
Although it is often regarded as obvious, the exact nature of the relationship between gambling availability and gambling behaviour or disordered gambling remains unclear. However, disordered gambling is an important public health issue and restrictions on availability are seen as an important strategy to reduce gambling-related problems in many jurisdictions. Applying the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, we reviewed studies on the relationship between physical gambling availability and gambling behaviour, as well as disordered gambling, and focused on several currently discussed hypotheses about their relationship. We used a systematic electronic search strategy involving 12 search terms and several databases. We included 27 studies and evaluated them by applying a comprehensive quality rating and quality weighting of evidence. We found a high proportion of quality-weighted evidence for both a positive relationship (access hypothesis) and a decrease or plateau in the prevalence of gambling participation and disorders over time with increasing availability (adaptation hypothesis). However, several conceptual and methodological problems hamper final conclusions. For example, studies were often not based on precise hypotheses, only two studies had a longitudinal design, overall quality ratings varied widely, operationalizations of gambling availability were sometimes not objectively measured, follow-up periods were insufficient, and shifting behaviour was not assessed. To understand the causal role of gambling availability in the development and course of gambling disorder and to derive evidence-based prevention strategies, investigators need to perform more high-quality longitudinal research that is based on a solid theoretical framework with the corresponding statistical analyses.Résumé Bien qu’on la considère souvent comme évidente, la nature exacte de la relation entre la disponibilité des jeux de hasard et le comportement lié à la pratique de ces jeux ou le jeu compulsif demeure incertaine. Le jeu compulsif représente toutefois une importante question de santé publique et les restrictions touchant la disponibilité sont considérées comme une stratégie très valable pour réduire les problèmes associés aux jeux de hasard dans de nombreux pays. En appliquant les directives PRISMA, nous avons examiné les études sur la relation entre la disponibilité physique des jeux de hasard et le comportement lié à ces jeux et au jeu compulsif, en mettant l’accent sur plusieurs hypothèses qui font actuellement l’objet de discussions. Nous avons employé une stratégie de recherche électronique systématique comportant douze termes d’interrogation et plusieurs bases de données. Vingt-sept études ont été évaluées en y appliquant une cote de qualité et une pondérée de la preuve de qualité exhaustives. Nous avons constaté une forte proportion de pondèrèe probante pour les deux, une relation positive (hypothèse de l’accès) et une diminution ou un plateau dans la prévalence de la pratique des jeux de hasard ou du jeu compulsif au fil du temps en présence de disponibilité croissante (hypothèse d’adaptation). Cependant, plusieurs problèmes conceptuels et méthodologiques nuisent à la formulation de conclusions finales. Par exemple, plusieurs études n’étaient pas fondées sur des hypothèses précises, seulement deux études faisaient l’objet d’un plan longitudinal, les cotes de qualité globale variaient énormément, les opérationnalisations de la disponibilité du jeu n’étaient parfois pas mesurées objectivement, les périodes de suivi étaient insuffisantes et les changements de comportement n’étaient pas évalués. Pour comprendre le rôle causal de la disponibilité du jeu dans le développement et le cours du jeu compulsif, et pour en tirer des stratégies de prévention fondées sur des données probantes, une étude longitudinale de plus grande qualité est requise, et doit être basée sur un cadre théorique rigoureux et comporter les analyses statistiques correspondantes.
Objectives
Systematic mapping of evaluations of tools and interventions that are intended to mitigate risks for gambling harm.
Design
Scoping Review and z-curve analysis (which estimates the average replicability of a body of literature).
Search strategy
We searched 7 databases. We also examined reference lists of included studies, as well as papers that cited included studies. Included studies described a quantitative empirical assessment of a game-based (i.e., intrinsic to a specific gambling product) structural feature, user-directed tool, or regulatory initiative to promote responsible gambling. At least two research assistants independently performed screening and extracted study characteristics (e.g., study design and sample size). One author extracted statistics for the z-curve analysis.
Results
86 studies met inclusion criteria. No tools or interventions had unambiguous evidence of efficacy, but some show promise, such as within-session breaks in play. Pre-registration of research hypotheses, methods, and analytic plans was absent until 2019, reflecting a recent embracement of open science practices. Published studies also inconsistently reported effect sizes and power analyses. The results of z-curve provide some evidence of publication bias, and suggest that the replicability of the responsible product design literature is uncertain but could be low.
Conclusion
Greater transparency and precision are paramount to improving the evidence base for responsible product design to mitigate gambling-related harm.
With the introduction of gambling-like features within video games (e.g., loot boxes) new forms of hybrid-gambling products have emerged, yet little is known about their relationship to gambling and problem gambling among those most likely to engage: young people. This article examines the relationship between the purchase of loot boxes, gambling behavior, and problem gambling among young people ages 16-24. Cross-sectional data were analyzed from wave 1 of the Emerging Adults Gambling Survey, an online survey of 3,549 people, aged 16-24. Data were weighted to reflect the age, sex, and regional profile of Great Britain. Measured included past-year purchase of loot boxes, engagement in 17 different forms of gambling (weekly, yearly, and weekly spend); and problem gambling status. Other covariates include impulsivity and sociodemographic status. Young adults who purchase loot boxes are more likely to be gamblers and experience problem gambling than others. In unadjusted regression models, the odds of problem gambling were 11.4 (95% confidence interval [CI] 7.6 to 16.9; p < 0.001) times higher among those who purchased loot boxes with their own money. This relationship attenuated but remained significant (odds ratio 4.5, 95% CI 2.6-7.9) when gambling participation, impulsivity, and sociodemographic factors were taken into account. The purchase of loot boxes was highly associated with problem gambling, the strength of this association being of similar magnitude to gambling online on casino games or slots. Young adults purchasing loot boxes within video games should be considered a high-risk group for the experience of gambling problems.
The gambling industry has grown into a global business in the 21st century. This has created the need for a new emphasis on problem prevention. This article highlights the core themes of the book Setting Limits: Gambling, Science and Public Policy, taking a broad view of the consequences of gambling for society as a burden on health, well‐being and equality. The book covers the extent of gambling and gambling‐related problems in different societies and presents a critical review of research on industry practices, policy objectives and preventive approaches, including services to people suffering from gambling and its consequences. It discusses the developments in game characteristics and gambling environments and provides evidence on how regulation can affect those. Effective measures to minimize gambling harm exist and many are well supported by scientific evidence. They include restrictions on general availability as well as selective measures to prevent gamblers from overspending. The revenue generated from gambling for the industry, governments, and providers of public services funded from gambling returns presents an obstacle to developing policies to implement harm‐reduction measures. A public interest approach must weigh these interests against the suffering and losses of the victims of gambling.
‘Care’ is a keyword for cities and citizens in the 21st century. This paper draws on Emma Power's (2019) notion of ‘caring-with’ as an ethical and analytical guide for caring action and relational community capacity-building around gambling at the local scale. The focus of analysis is the approval of electronic gaming machines or EGMs colloquially known as ‘the Pokies’, with particular reference to the Australian context and the experience of Castlemaine - a small town in the south-eastern state of Victoria whose citizens successfully appealed an application for further gambling development. The paper highlights how caring-with re-frames community responses to gambling as an assemblage of localized care practices and relations. This includes, but is not limited to, working to develop a culture of care, challenging systemic injustices, and proactive rather than reactive practices of collective care.
Profits from legal gambling are often channelled to good causes. This system embeds the predicament of whether citizens’ potentially problematic gambling activities should be a source of funding for the public good. In this article, this dilemma is unfolded by the receivers of public grants that stem from gambling revenues. A total of twenty-three representatives of Civil Society Organizations were interviewed as beneficiaries of the Finnish state-owned gambling monopolies. The article illustrates explicit dependencies and hidden ethical dilemmas, suggesting that CSOs may have limited possibilities of making ethically consistent decisions in view of the origin of their funding.
This article focuses on how social norms, cultural values and political reasoning have influenced the conceptions of common good in relation to gambling in European countries. The idea of common good originated from the need to raise money for public works and charitable causes. Charity has been one of the reasons that have increased the acceptance of gambling in the past. In contemporary Europe, gambling proceeds are usually included in state budgets, but they can also be distributed to serve good causes. Within the EU legislation, financing good causes cannot be the fundamental justification of gambling operation. Attitudes towards gambling have changed throughout time, and without a promise of worth, it would not have been possible to promote the idea of common good to gamblers.
The past 15 years has seen a considerable amount of interest and effort being put into developing strategies to prevent problem gambling. Unfortunately, the development, implementation, and evaluation of most of these initiatives has been a haphazard process. Most have been put in place because they ‘seemed like good ideas’ and/or were being used in other jurisdictions, rather than having demonstrated scientific efficacy or being derived from a good understanding of effective practices in prevention.The primary purpose of the present document is to help change this state of affairs. More specifically, by: Proposing an etiological framework for understanding how problem gambling develops based on the available evidence and drawing from established models of addictive behaviour. Comprehensively evaluating the effectiveness of the various initiatives that have been used around the world to prevent problem gambling based on their demonstrated efficacy and/or their similarity to initiatives that are empirically effective in preventing other addictive behaviour. Based on this etiological framework and this critical review of the research, identifying current ‘best practices’ for the prevention of problem gambling.
The frequencies of slot machine gambling decreased in Norway after a major regulation in the slot machine market in 2006. This study addressed whether a change in population gambling frequency mean is accompanied by a systematic displacement at all levels of gambling frequency among adolescents, across different population samples, and over time in the same population. Data were collected in two cross-sectional school surveys among 13–19 year olds in Norway in 2005 and 2006. Net samples comprised 21,202 and 20,642 students, respectively. The students reported annual gambling frequency for six games for money, and a variable for total gambling frequency was analyzed. A strong regularity in the distribution of gambling behavior was observed and gambling at all levels, from light and moderate to frequent and excessive gambling, varied systematically with mean gambling frequency. Thus, a change in the population mean was accompanied by a systematic displacement at all levels of gambling behavior and not only at high to excessive levels of gambling. The findings are in line with those reported in other health areas and relevant to a public health perspective on problem gambling, suggesting that prevention strategies aimed at the total population of gamblers may also affect excessive gambling.
During autumn 2013 researchers at the University of Bergen conducted a survey concerning
gambling and video game problems in the general adult population of Norway. The survey
was conducted on behalf of the Norwegian Gaming and Foundation Authority.
In all, 24,000 persons (gross sample), aged 16–74 years, were randomly selected from the
National Population Registry of Norway and invited to participate. In all, 20,000 were given
the opportunity to respond via either a paper-based or a web-based questionnaire, whereas
4,000 were given the opportunity to respond only via the paper-based questionnaire.
A total of 10,081 valid answers (net sample) were received. After removing persons with
wrong addresses, or for reasons of illness, death or being abroad at the time of the survey, a
response rate of 43.6 percent was obtained. Up to two reminders were sent. A total of 59.1
percent had participated in gambling during the previous 12 months.
To assess the prevalence of gambling problems, we administered the Canadian Problem
Gambling Index. Based on the total score obtained, the respondents were divided into the
following four categories: non-problem gambler (score = 0), low risk gambler (score = 1-2),
moderate risk gambler (score = 3-7), and problem gambler (score = 8-27). The results showed
that 7.8 percent of the adult population could be categorized as low risk gamblers, 2.4 percent
as moderate risk gamblers and 0.6% as problem gamblers, respectively. Compared to previous
Norwegian studies based on the same instrument, the present study suggests a reduction in
gambling problems, especially related to the low risk gambler and the problem gambler
categories. We found that the probability of being a moderate risk gambler or problem gambler
was enhanced in males, subjects being single, with low education, confirming unemployment/
disability pension/rehabilitation/work assessment allowance and in subjects with place of
birth outside Norway.
The prevalence of gambling problems in the present study is lower than the mean prevalence
value derived from previous international population-based surveys and lower than what
had been found in six previous Norwegian studies (conducted in 2005, 2007, 2008 and 2010),
although somewhat higher than the prevalence reported in Norwegian studies conducted in
1997 and 2002.
In terms of participation in different gambling activities, the majority of gamblers reported
having participated most prevalently in scratch cards (non Internet-based) and numbers games.
Males had participated more frequently than females in most types of games. The same
was true for younger subjects, except for some types of bingo games, Belago (interactive
video terminals located in bingo premises), horse betting, soccer pools (not odds games) and
numbers games. Those who scored 3 or more on the Canadian Problem Gambling Index had
participated more frequently in all types of games compared to those with lower scores. Data
bingo in bingo halls, Internet bingo and Belago comprised the gambling activities with the
highest proportion (> 6%) of gamblers reporting problems controlling/restricting their 6
gambling behavior. In terms of overrepresentation of moderate risk gamblers and problem
gamblers this was especially pronounced for Internet bingo, data bingo in bingo premises,
scratch cards on Internet, and Belago.
In all, 26.7 percent of the gamblers had gambled via the Internet during the last 12 months.
This occurred most frequently among males, younger subjects and among those with a score
of 3 or more on the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Most of those who gambled via the
Internet used a laptop or a mobile phone for this purpose.
A vast majority of the subjects had been exposed to gambling related advertising during the
previous 12 months. Young people reported greater exposure than older subjects. Those who
scored 3 or more on the Canadian Problem Gambling Index reported more gambling related
advertising exposure than those with lower scores.
Among gamblers it was reported that gambling related advertising had a considerable effect in
terms of informing about games and game operators. Gambling related advertising was reported
to influence gambling behavior and gambler’s urge to gamble to a certain degree, but risky
gambling was reported only to a small degree as having been triggered by gambling related
advertising. Overall, men, younger persons and persons with gambling related problems reported
having been more influenced by gambling related advertising than their respective counterparts.
A discussion concerning a ban/restrictions on gambling advertising seems warranted.
Attitudes towards structural regulation of gambling were overall relatively neutral. An upper
loss limit, set either by the player him/herself or by the game and continuous feedback about
losses comprised the three structural regulation proposals which were most favorably evaluated.
This should have implications for regulation of gambling in Norway. Women, younger people
and persons with a score of 3 or more on the Canadian Problem Gambling Index were more
positive to structural regulation of gambling than were men, older persons and persons with
lower scores on the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Respondents born in Norway were
less positive to structural regulation of gambling than persons born outside Norway, especially
related to relative strict regulations (e.g. gambling restrictions on money and playing time).
Several potential gambling motives were listed in the questionnaire. The majority of players
reported “for fun” and “to win” as relevant gambling motives. Those with a score of 3 or more
on the Canadian Problem Gambling Index reported more frequently all motives than those
with lower scores except “for fun”, “other motives” and “to support a good cause”.
The frequency of different psychosomatic symptoms reported generally increased proportionately
with gambling category (non-problem gambler, low risk gambler, moderate risk gambler,
problem gambler).
In all, 37.0 percent had played video games during the last six months. More males than
females and more younger than older respondents had played. Excessive video game playing
was assessed with the Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents. Based on the data from this
scale, 96.7 percent were categorized as normal video game players (including those who had
not played), 3.0 percent were categorized as video game problem players and 0.3 percent
were categorized as video game addicts. Being categorized as either a video game problem
player or a video game addict was related to male gender, low age, having 3 or more children
and certain categories of occupational status (part-time employed, student, unemployed/on
disability pension/on rehabilitation/on work assessment allowance). Those who were video
game problem players/addicted reported overall more frequently psychosomatic symptoms
compared to the normal video game players/non-players.
A total of 22.6 percent had played games via social media. This was most frequently reported
by females and younger subjects. In all, 9.8 percent had purchased Facebook-credits or other
virtual credits for use in games. This occurred more frequently among those who had played
games via social media than those who had not played via social media. Furthermore, it was
more common among younger than older respondents. Most of those who had won virtual
credits had used these for playing or for purchasing something within a game.
Although the effectiveness of treatments for pathological gamblers is gaining support, only 10% of pathological gamblers seek treatment. Providing treatment via the Internet may lower the thresholds for treatment seeking. A new telephone and Internet based treatment programme for pathological gamblers is presented in this article, along with a pre-post evaluation of the programme. The participants (N = 112) were problem gamblers who were either self-referred or referred by their general practitioner. Data from post-treatment and 3-month follow-up are evaluated. The results suggest that using Internet and telephone-assisted treatment interventions can significantly reduce symptoms of pathological gambling (measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen - Revised). The intervention was also associated with improvement on cognitive distortions, measured by the Gamblers Belief Questionnaire, and general psychological distress and psychopathology as measured by the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised. Although Internet-based treatment programmes have been suggested to have advantages compared to traditional face-to-face therapy, research in this area is scarce. This pilot study contributes to the growing literature in this area, and provides tentative support for the effectiveness of Internet based treatment interventions for pathological gamblers.
Aims
To examine whether the ban and complete removal of slot machines in Norway in 2007 may have led to: a) changes in gambling behaviour and changes in prevalence of problem gambling among adolescents, and b) changes in gambling behaviour among adolescent problem gamblers.
Data & Methods
Two school surveys were conducted, one before (in 2006) and one after the intervention (in 2008), comprising students aged 13 to 18 years (net samples = 4,912 in 2006 and 3,855 in 2008). Identical measures of gambling behaviour and problem gambling were obtained in both surveys.
Results
After the intervention, a small proportion reported that they had changed their gambling behaviour, mainly in terms of having stopped gambling. Comparisons of self-reports of gambling behaviour showed that slot machine gambling had decreased significantly, while gambling on other games had increased, yet frequent gambling on any game had decreased after the intervention. However, the change in prevalence of at-risk and problem gambling differed across instruments. The prevalence of self-perceived gambling problems had decreased whereas the prevalence of at-risk and problem gambling as assessed by SOGS-RA had increased. Among at-risk and problem gamblers frequent gambling and perceived gambling problems were reported less frequently in 2008 compared to 2006.
Conclusion
The ban and removal of slot machines in Norway was succeeded by a decrease in frequent gambling among adolescents in general as well as among at-risk and problem gamblers.
Treatment services specifically for pathological gambling are relatively recent in the Nordic countries. Availability and type of treatment offered varies. A common feature of most of the treatment services is that pathological gambling is treated in the same way as other types of addiction. This article is based on a survey on treatment facilities carried out during the fall of 2004. There were differences in the theoretical perspective that treatment services were based on. The most common theoretical basis was cognitive-behavioural therapy with a focus on correction of cognitive fallacies and magical thinking associated with gambling. There were clear ideological differences between the types of treatment in the different countries. There is limited knowledge about the effect of treatment over time. In the future, focus should be directed towards increased cooperation and professional development between the countries and evaluation of the effects of treatment.
Aims:
This paper provides a historical review of gambling in Canada and examines the benefits and shortcomings of present-day Canadian gambling policies and practices. This includes a discussion of provincial and federal government roles in gambling regulation and an overview of problem gambling prevention and treatment initiatives.
Methods:
The gambling studies literature was probed for pertinent information on factors such as historical development, legislative changes, economic conditions and cultural influences that have affected gambling participation and social responsibility strategies in Canada.
Results:
Two major Criminal Code of Canada amendments (in 1969 and 1985) were pivotal in Canadian gambling expansion. The first decriminalized lotteries and casinos, while the second allowed electronic gambling devices and authorized provinces to operate and regulate gambling. These changes resulted in a radical gambling expansion which, in addition to raising provincial revenues, created public policy concerns. Varying provincial government interpretations of the ambiguous Criminal Code gambling statutes led to a lack of uniformity in how provinces regulate and operate gambling; when gambling expanded, there were no legislative safeguards in place to deal with the personal and societal effects of problem gambling. Subsequent programs designed to prevent and treat problem gambling have not been overly effective.
Conclusions:
Canadian provinces have a monopoly on gambling within their borders and treat the activity as a profit-driven business enterprise. Problems associated with widespread gambling such as addiction, increased crime, bankruptcy and suicide are seen as minor concerns and not addressed in an aggressive fashion. Given the Canadian federal government's detachment from gambling policy and Canadian provinces' heavy reliance on gambling revenues, little change in the Canadian gambling landscape is anticipated in the near future.
This study addresses the impact of prohibition of note acceptors on gambling behaviour and gambling problems among Norwegian adolescents. Data comprised school surveys at three time points; 2004 and 2005 (before intervention) and 2006 (after intervention). Net samples comprised 20. 000 students aged 13-19 years at each data collection. Identical measures of gambling behaviour (gambling frequency and expenditures on slot machines) and indicators of problem gambling (SOGS-RA and Lie/Bet) were assessed at all three time points. No significant changes in gambling behaviour and problem gambling were observed in the period prior to the intervention, whereas slot machine gambling frequency was reduced by 20%, the proportion that gambled frequently on slot machines was reduced by 26%; overall gambling frequency was reduced by 10% and the proportion of problem gamblers (SOGS-RA 4+) was reduced by 20% after the intervention when controlling for potential confounders. It is suggested that these findings can be attributed to the removal of the note acceptors on slot machines.
NORSK SAMMENDRAG: I rapporten presenteres resultatene fra en undersøkelse av pengespilldeltakelsen og omfanget av pengespillproblemer i et representativt utvalg av den norske befolkning i alderen 15 til 74 år. Bruttoutvalget på 10 000 personer er trukket fra det sentrale personregister. Datainnsamlingen ble foretatt høsten 2002, og både telefonintervju og postsendte spørreskjemaer ble benyttet. Mange spiller Resultatene fra undersøkelsen viser at deltakelsen i pengespill er høy i Norge. Over 80 prosent av utvalget har deltatt i pengespill det siste året, og 41 prosent av spillerne har deltatt minst to ganger i uka. Bare 1,4 prosent av spillerne deltar daglig eller nesten daglig. Pengespillproblemer 1,4 prosent av utvalget har eller har hatt problemer med pengespill. 0,7 prosent har hatt problemer med pengespill det siste året. Overført til befolkningen utgjør dette ca 49 000 personer som har eller har hatt problemer, hvorav ca 24 500 har problemer nå. Menn, personer under 25 år og personer som ikke er født i Norge har oftere problemer med pengespill enn kvinner, personer over 25 år og personer født i Norge. De som har pengespillproblemer deltar ofte i mange ulike typer spill, men pengeautomater er det spillet flest av dem har spilt det siste året. Dette er også det spillet som problemspillerne har brukt mest penger på den siste måneden. Problemspillerne bruker langt mer penger på spill enn andre. 13 prosent av alt som ble brukt på spill i dette utvalget siste måned, ble brukt av de 0,7 prosent som har pengespillproblemer nå. Problemspillerne har oftere startet å spille i ung alder, de har oftere hatt en tidlig gevinst og vi finner oftere at deres foreldre eller andre familiemedlemmer også har eller har hatt pengespillproblemer. De som har problemer med pengespill er også langt mer optimistiske enn andre når det gjelder sjansene til å vinne i spill.
Government's intrinsic role in sustaining a viable gambling industry, and its significant revenue stake in industry profitability, can make the public effectively shareholders in the industry. An important social cost of gambling is the potential for corruption of democratic processes through close industry and government links. Government can increase gambling revenues by expanding the tax base, rather than by raising tax rates. Gambling tax rates have fallen in recent decades, while revenues have increased dramatically. This paper analyses the forces encouraging governments to give excessive priority to protecting gambling revenues. It finds gambling taxation is regressive, and increasingly so as access widens. ‘Children, madmen and fools' are significant to the market. The transition to a goods and services tax, along with the recent inquiry by the Productivity Commission into gambling, provides an opportunity for gambling policy to be made in a coherent social and economic framework, rather than as ad hoc and short-term solutions to State governments' revenue problems. Such an outcome rests on the Commonwealth government playing a leadership role.
Over the past forty years, Western governments have increasingly liberalized and deregulated gambling, which is now used to deliver state revenues and commercial profit in many jurisdictions. Gambling for Profit is a cross-national history of the emergence of legal gambling, including lotteries, gaming machines, and casinos.
The analytical framework investigates not only the political aspects of legalization, but also the sociocultural factors that influence popular adoption. The book also undertakes a chronological examination of the electronic gambling phenomenon, as well as comparative data on dates of introduction and revenues across twenty-three countries. Gambling for Profit provides a dynamic model to explore the legalization of gambling and stresses the inadequacy of seeking universal explanations for gambling's entrenchment within particular cultures.
An Unsafe Bet? TheDangerousRise ofGambling and theDebateWeShouldBeHaving reveals how gambling represents a danger to public health due to its inherent addiction potential, which is being intentionally downplayed by the gambling industry and governments. Lays bare the extent of gambling and its effects on society. Exposes the dilemma for policy makers, who are charged with protecting public health but also increasingly dependent on revenues earned from gambling. Written by Jim Orford, an internationally respected authority on the topic. International examples broaden the argument and reveal the global stakes involved.
Drawing on a statistical analysis of Norwegian newspapers, this paper explores the structure of power regulating the Norwegian gambling market. A basic assumption is that structures of power have to be identified before desirable changes of markets can be made. The analysis indicates that the press's view on gambling in the mid-2000s was split. Whereas governmental gambling services such as lotteries and bookmakers were seen from a market view in which gambling is seen as being like any other product on the market, non-governmental gambling services such as slot machines and online gambling services were seen from a medical point of view, which suggests that gambling is a dangerous source of addiction. The importance of this split should not be underestimated, as it legitimizes the state's gambling policy. To get a more complete picture of the structure of power regulating western gambling markets today, similar studies from other countries should be conducted.
Aims:
To provide an overview of gambling in the Netherlands, focusing on historical background, policy, legislation, prevalence of problem gambling, availability of treatment options and research base.
Methods:
Literature review.
Results:
Contradictions between gambling policy and practice have been present in the past 15-20 years, and have led to an increasingly stricter gambling regulation to retain the government policy to restrict gambling within a national monopoly. Conversely, political efforts have been made to legalize internet gambling, but have not yet been approved. Compared to other European countries, slot machine gambling and casino gambling are relatively popular, whereas betting is relatively unpopular. Last-year problem gambling prevalence (South Oaks Gambling Screen score > 5) is estimated at 0.22-0.15% (2005, 2011). Treatment for problem gambling is covered by health insurance under the same conditions as substance dependence, but only a small proportion of Dutch problem gamblers seeks help at addiction treatment centres.
Conclusions:
Gambling policy in the Netherlands has become stricter during recent last years in order to maintain the Dutch gambling monopoly. Problem gambling in the Netherlands is relatively stable. Dutch research on problem gambling has a lack of longitudinal studies. Most of the epidemiological gambling studies are reported in non-peer-reviewed research reports, which diminishes control by independent peers on the methodology and interpretation of results. Recent efforts to enhance consistency in research methods between gambling studies over time could enhance knowledge on changes in (problem) gambling in the Netherlands.
Aims:
To describe the current situation of gambling in Spain, sketching its history and discussing the regulations and legislation currently in force within the framework of the European Union (EU), and to review the epidemiology of gambling in Spain, the self-help groups and professional treatments available, and their potential effectiveness.
Methods:
A systematic computerized search was performed in three databases (EMBASE, PubMed and PsychINFO, including articles and chapters) and the reference lists from previous reviews to obtain some of the most relevant studies published up to now on the topic of pathologic gambling in Spain.
Results:
Similar to other EU countries, Spain has a high prevalence of pathologic gambling, focused on specific culturally bounded types of gambling. Expenditure in online gaming has risen significantly in the last few years, prompting the Spanish government to draft new legislation to regulate gaming.
Conclusions:
The gaming industry is expected to be one of the fastest growing sectors in Spain in the coming years owing to the rise of new technologies and the development of online gaming.
AimTo provide an overview, with respect to Sweden, of the cultural history of gambling, the commercialization of gambling, problem gambling research, the prevalence of problem gambling and its prevention and treatment. MethodA review of the literature and official documents relating to gambling in Sweden; involvement in gambling research and regulation. ResultsGambling has long been part of Swedish culture. Since about 1980 the gambling market, although still largely monopolistic, has been commercialized. At the same time, problem gambling has emerged as a concept in the public health paradigm. Debate regarding whether or not Sweden's national restrictions on the gambling market are compliant with European Community legislation has helped to put problem gambling on the political agenda. Despite expanded gambling services, the extent of problem gambling on the population level has not changed significantly over the past decade. Conclusions
The stability of problem gambling in Sweden at the population level suggests a homeostatic system involving the gambling market, regulation, prevention and treatment and adaption to risk and harm by gamblers. We have relatively good knowledge of the extent and characteristics of problem gambling in Sweden and of how to treat it, but little is known of how to prevent it effectively. Knowledge is needed of the effectiveness of regulatory actions and approaches, and of responsible gambling measures implemented by gambling companies.
The objective of this paper is to present an overview of gambling in Germany, including historical development, legislative and economic changes as well as treatment options and their effectiveness.
The available scientific literature and research reports on gambling in Germany were reviewed to obtain relevant information on history, commercialization, legislation, treatment and research agenda.
Gambling in Germany is characterized by compromises between protective and economic efforts. At present, gambling is illegal in Germany, and provision is subject to the state monopoly. Mere gaming machines (specific slot machines) are not classified as gambling activity, permitting commercial providers. In recent years, implementing regulations for state gambling and gaming machines have been changed. Concerning the treatment of pathological gambling, various options exist; treatment costs have been covered by health and pension insurance since 2001. Information on the effectiveness of treatment in Germany is limited. Similarly, the number of peer-reviewed publications on gambling is small.
German gambling legislation was subject to major changes in the past years. Based on the available body of research (longitudinal), studies on risk and protective factors and the aetiology of pathological gambling are needed. The effectiveness of pathological gambling treatment in Germany and the impact of gambling regulations on gambling behaviour also need to be investigated.
Aims The aim of this paper is to offer an account of the history and current status of gambling research in the United States.
Methods A review of the literature.
Results Gambling has been a part of society in the United States since its early history. However, it was not until 1980 that the medical profession in the United States first recognized pathological gambling as a psychiatric disorder. Today, it is still rarely diagnosed or treated, and relatively little federal funding is available to support research in this area. With the upcoming fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, pathological gambling is likely to be included alongside substance use disorders as the first non-substance-related addictive disorder. This change may represent an opportunity to expand research on gambling and treatment of pathological gambling.
Conclusions We provide 10 suggestions for reducing societal and personal harm associated with this disorder.
Aim:
To provide an overview of gambling and problem gambling in Britain, including historical background, current regulations and the recognition, prevalence and treatment of problem gambling.
Methods:
A new theory, Gambling Restraint Erosion Theory (GRET), is used as a framework for understanding the history of gambling regulation in Britain in the 20th century and evidence about the prevalence of gambling and problem gambling, as well as public attitudes towards gambling, in Britain in the first decade of the 21st century.
Findings:
Restraints on gambling were progressively dismantled as regulation moved from partial prohibition, to tolerance, and then to liberalization by the turn of the millennium. British adult gambling prevalence surveys carried out in 1999/2000, 2006/07 and 2009/10 suggest that the British public is still relatively restrained in its engagement in gambling, and is still suspicious of gambling. There is evidence from the last of those surveys that engagement in some forms of gambling, and the prevalence of problem gambling, have risen, and that attitudes have become less negative towards gambling.
Conclusions:
Restraints which kept British gambling circumscribed, and the prevalence of problem gambling low, may be in the process of being eroded. Meanwhile, an effective public health response to problem gambling is constrained by lack of Department of Health interest and a failure to develop a research and treatment base independent of the gambling industry.
The aim of this paper is to provide a critical overview of the development and current status of gambling in Australia.
The paper examines the history and current status of gambling in Australia with a particular focus on the prevalence of problem gambling in the community and developments in policy and treatment services.
The paper highlights the contradictory role of State governments as both providers of treatment services as well as agents for the liberalization for gambling. It also shows how the notion of 'addiction' is conceptualized in Australian research and treatment services, including the preference for harm-based and public health approaches. Such perspectives view problem gambling as having multiple pathways and determinants that extend beyond the pathology of individuals.
Gambling in Australia provides a curious paradox. Highly liberalized State government policies that allow the proliferation of high intensity gambling coexist with extensive policy, regulation and research designed to address the negative impact of gambling on the Australian community.
This paper provides a critical overview a decade after the New Zealand Government announced its intention to formally incorporate a public health approach into its comprehensive revision of gambling legislation.
The initial enthusiasm and the subsequent disillusionment with this approach are tracked. Four reasons for its lack of success are examined.
The New Zealand experiment with a public health approach to gambling is seen to have floundered in a network of vested interests. The pathways for influence included inappropriate industry input as well as community and government sector reliance on gambling profits. The new legislation neglected to set up systems for strong independent accountability, and this weakened the potential of public health initiatives.
As with tobacco control, the policy integrity of a public health approach to gambling requires close attention to ways of reducing vested interests in both government and community sectors and to establishing strong points of independent accountability.
In this article, findings of a panel study among former EGM gamblers are discussed. The data were collected in two waves during 2007, and 1293 people, 18 years or older, participated. The background for the study was the Norwegian ban on EGMs from 1 July 2007, and the aim was to investigate how this ban affected gambling involvement and problem levels in the sample. The analysis shows that gambling participation, gambling frequencies and gambling problems were reduced after EGMs disappeared from the market. There was no indication of the development of an illegal EGM market, or of substitution of EGMs with other types of gambling. A reduction in other types of gambling is interpreted as an indication of synergetic effects between games. Reduced gambling participation among the most active EGM gamblers, and among risk gamblers, shows that the reductions in gambling availability had an effect even on highly involved gamblers.
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the market and problem gambling? Described in Revheim T.
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Uskyldig moro? Pengespill og dataspill blant norske ungdommer [Innocent Fun? Gambling and Computer Gaming Among Norwegian Youth
- L R Frøyland
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Frøyland L. R., Hansen M., Sletten M. A., Torgersen L., von
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Underholdning med bismak Ungdom og pengespill [Entertainment with Side Effects. Youth and Gambling]
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Australian Tax Research Foundation Research Studies
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Undersøkelse om pengespill Spillevaner og spillepilleproblemer i befolkningen[Study of Gambling for Money. Gambling and Gambling Problems in the Population
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Kavli H., Berntsen W. Undersøkelse om pengespill Spillevaner og
spillepilleproblemer i befolkningen [Study of Gambling for Money.
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Pengespill og pengespillproblem i Norge 2007[Gambling and Gambling Problems in Norway
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Spillevaner og spilleproblemer i den norske befolkningen [Gambling Behaviour and Gambling Problems in the Norwegian Population
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Norge 2008 [Gambling and Gambling Problems in Norway
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Spillevaner og spilleproblemer i befolkningen [Gambling Behaviour and Gambling Problems in the Population
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[Gambling Behaviour and Gambling Problems in the Population].
Pengespill og dataspill. Endringer over to år blant ungdommer i Norge [Gambling and Computer Gaming. Changes Over Two Years Among Youth in Norway
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Brunborg G. S., Hansen M. B., Frøyland L. R. Pengespill og
dataspill. Endringer over to år blant ungdommer i Norge
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Pengespill og pengespillproblemer i Norge 2008 [Gambling and Gambling Problems in Norway
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Norge 2008 [Gambling and Gambling Problems in Norway
2008]. Trondheim: SINTEF Helse; 2008.
Spillevaner og spilleproblemer i befolkningen [Gambling Behaviour and Gambling Problems in the Population
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Omfang av penge-og dataspillproblemer i Norge 2013 [Extent of Gambling and Computer Gaming Problems in Norway
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Pallesen S., Hanss D., Mentzoni R. A., Molde H., Morken A. M.
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Ungdom og pengespill[Entertainment with Side Effects. Youth and Gambling
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Prevention of Problem Gambling: A Comprehensive Review of the Evidence and Identified Best Practices. Ontario: Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre and the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care
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Regulatory changes and finally a ban on existing slot machines in Norway: what's the impact on the market and problem gambling? Described in Revheim T. & Buvik K. (2009): Opportunity structure for gambling and problem gambling among employees in the transport industry
- Engebø J.
The Population Prevalence of Problem Gambling: Methodological Influences Standardized Rates Jurisdictional Differences and Worldwide Trends. Ontario:Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre
- J Williamsr
- A Volbergr
- Stevensr
Pengespill og pengespillproblemer i Norge
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Gambling Taxation in Australia.Sydney Australia:Australian Tax Research Foundation Research Studies
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