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Mycotoxins in Spices and Herbs: An Update
Critical Reviews In Food Science and Nutrition
Abstract
Spices and herbs have been used since ancient times as flavour and aroma enhancers, colourants, preservatives and traditional medicines. There are more than thirty spices and herbs of global economic and culinary importance. Among the spices, black pepper, capsicums, cumin, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, turmeric, saffron, coriander, cloves, dill, mint, thyme, sesame seed, mustard seed and curry powder are the most popular worldwide. In addition to their culinary uses, a number of functional properties of aromatic herbs and spices are also well described in the scientific literature. However, spices and herbs cultivated mainly in tropic and subtropic areas can be exposed to contamination with toxigenic fungi and subsequently mycotoxins. This review provides an overview on the mycotoxin risk in widely consumed spices and aromatic herbs.
... Mycotoxin contamination is often linked to drying spices on the ground, creating ideal conditions for fungal growth. According to the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), the most reported border rejection notifications in the European Union in 2016 were the products contaminated with mycotoxins (14). Mycotoxin contamination has emerged as a critical threat to food security over the past twenty years, with fumonisins being particularly widespread in essential crops. ...
... The primary mycotoxins found in spices were OTA and Afs, along with other mycotoxins detected in food products that include fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), trichothecenes, zearalenone (ZEN) (8,20). Spices are particularly susceptible to mycotoxin contamination due to cultivation, storage and processing conditions in tropical/ subtropical regions (14). Ochratoxin A's dual threat as a potent kidney toxin and potential carcinogen is particularly concerning in spices. ...
... Improper irrigation practices, such as over-irrigation, water stress and the use of contaminated water, can adversely affect crop health and soil quality (76). Delayed harvesting, such as leaving crops in the field too long or harvesting under wet conditions, can increase the risk of spoilage and contamination (14). Inadequate drying, including slow or improper methods and incomplete drying, can lead to the growth of spoilage organisms and reduce crop quality (77). ...
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi, primarily from the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium and Alternaria. The attention is on the existence of mycotoxin compounds in food substances that jeopardize public health and it is directed to systematic regulation to overcome these issues. Pathogenic fungi, including Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium species, infiltrate spice crops during the pre-harvest, postharvest and storage stages. These fungi create toxic secondary metabolites called mycotoxin. The reviews' intend to examine the prevalence, types and levels of mycotoxins commonly found in spices, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins. The study highlights the factors that influence mycotoxin contamination, such as environmental conditions, agricultural practices and storage methods. Analytical techniques for detecting mycotoxins, including chromatography and immunoassays, are evaluated for efficacy and sensitivity. It also discusses the regulatory frameworks and safety standards established by international bodies like the Codex Alimentarius Commission to mitigate mycotoxin risks. In addition to these regulatory measures, mycotoxin detection needs to be addressed before framing the standards. The preventive strategies and mitigation measures, including good agricultural practices (GAP), proper drying, storage conditions and biocontrol agents, were explored based on previous research conducted earlier. This comprehensive review underscores the critical importance of implementing integrated approaches combining advanced detection methods, harmonized regulatory standards and preventive strategies to ensure the safety and quality of spices in the global food supply chain.
... Black pepper, capsicums, cumin, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, turmeric, saffron, coriander, cloves, dill, mint, thyme, and curry powder are some of the most extensively used spices in the food and culinary business as organoleptic enhancers, preservatives, and medicines in some cultures. Unfortunately, spices and herbs have been linked to human aflatoxin exposure (Kabak and Dobson, 2016). Although some researchers have found that black pepper plants have inhibitory effects on the growth of toxigenic strains of A. flavus and A. parasiticus, as well as toxin production, others have found aflatoxin in black pepper. ...
... Aflatoxin levels in chilli have been found in Nigerian food to be greater than regulatory limits in reports from around the world (Ezekiel et al., 2019b). Aflatoxin contamination of various spicy goods has been documented by Kabak and Dobson (2016), including cinnamon and cassia, cloves, coriander, cumin, ginger, nutmeg, saffron, turmeric, black cumin, dill, mint, thyme, and curry powder. ...
... Processing has, however, been reported to CROATIAN JOURNAL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND NUTRITION result in some amounts of decrease. For example, researchers found that pasteurizing aflatoxin M1-infected milk (at 95 °C for 5 minutes) reduced the amount of aflatoxin M1 by 18 and 16% in milk contaminated with 1.5 and 3.5 µg/kg of aflatoxin M1, respectively (Kabak and Dobson, 2016). With comparable processing settings, another study observed a 7.62% reduction in aflatoxin M1 (Kamkar et al., 2011). ...
Aflatoxins are a family of poisonous, mutagenic, and carcinogenic mycotoxins that contaminate a wide range of foods and agricultural goods. Aspergillus species, such as Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus parasiticus are the most common producers. Aflatoxin generation can occur at any point of the food chain, including pre-harvest, drying, storage, transit, processing, and handling, if conditions are favourable for fungus to create toxins. It is classified into six main types which are Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin B2, Aflatoxin G1, Aflatoxin G2, Aflatoxin M1 and Aflatoxin M2. In Nigeria, Aspergillus species that produces aflatoxin has been isolated from agricultural products such as cereals, spices, locally fermented food, oil-seeds, and animal products. Aflatoxin contamination is high due to poor storage of food crops and lack of awareness of aflatoxins contamination among farmers, marketers and the consumers of these goods. Locally fermented foods such as ogiri, ugba, ogi-baba, and iru have been said to be contaminated by aflatoxin. Preventive measures should be carried out by the policy-making bodies to create awareness and sustain ongoing measures to effectively manage aflatoxin contamination in Nigeria so as to reduce the health risk of aflatoxins on the people and economy of the country.
... Black pepper contains many phenolic compounds which are responsible for its antimicrobial trait (Banach et al., 2016). Although having antifungal properties, black pepper is not immune to fungal contamination, and various fungi and their mycotoxins can infect the plant and the derived spice (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). In surveys in several countries, Aspergillus genus was the prevailing fungus contaminating black pepper (Francisco das Chagas et al., 2000;Gatti et al., 2003;Mandeel, 2005;Reddy et al., 2011). ...
... According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus fungi and is classified as a group 1 carcinogen (IARC, 2017). AFB1 and OTA can contaminate spices during growth, drying, and storage (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). ...
... Spices are generally produced in tropical or subtropical regions that enjoy high humidity, high temperatures, and frequent rainfalls (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). These growth conditions, accompanied by the conventional steps involved in preparing spices and subsequent unsanitary and humid storage conditions, can lead to contamination by microbes, including fungi and bacteria, as well as heavy metals absorbed from the soil (Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Vithu and Moses, 2016). ...
The current study assessed the risk posed to Iranian consumers by oral exposure to a mixture of ten mycotoxins in 138 packaged and unpackaged spices collected from the Iran market. Concentrations of mycotoxins in samples were quantified by liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole, and ion trap. Probabilistic health risks of oral exposure to these mycotoxins for Iranians were assessed under percent tolerable daily intake (TDI) and cancer risk scenarios. Mean concentrations of mycotoxins in both packaged and unpackaged spice samples showed statistically significant variation among different spice samples. Based on a Monte Carlo simulation model, at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, oral consumption of the analyzed samples poses no carcinogenic risk for exposure to aflatoxin. Moreover, in both packaged and unpackaged samples, while the percent TDIs for ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin, fumonisin B1, and fumonisin B2 were below 1.0 at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, the value was above 1.0 for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and aflatoxin G2 at each of these centiles.
... These toxic molecules are secondary fungal metabolites that can accumulate at all stages of the supply chain. Depending on environmental factors (temperature, humidity, rainfall) and farm management practices (planting, harvesting, and storage conditions), fungal growth and mycotoxin excretion can occur at any stage of the agricultural product life cycle (Wan Ainiza et al., 2015;Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Potortì et al., 2020). The most widespread and dangerous mycotoxins are aflatoxins (AFs) released by certain fungi almost all of which belong to genus Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium (Frisvad et al., 2019). ...
... The occurrence of AFs and other mycotoxins has already been studied in some alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer and cider (Pizzuti et al., 2014;Carballo et al., 2021), as well as in spices and herbal products (Boonzaaijer et al., 2008;Ashiq et al., 2014;Dubey et al., 2014;Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Zhang et al., 2018;Potortì et al., 2020;Caldeirão et al., 2021;Oztekin and Karbancioglu-Guler, 2022;Palma et al., 2022). ...
... Although the levels of AFs contamination found by several authors in herbs and spices produced in humid and tropical climates may exceed the maximum levels for AFB 1 and total AFs established by European regulations and/or other international standards (Salgueiro et al., 2010;Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Potort et al., 2020), they contribute to minimizing AFs contamination in flavor preparations (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). Furthermore, given the integrated application of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), and given the current monitoring programs for the raw materials used, the contamination of aflatoxins that can be found in various aromatic preparations will not be a cause for concern or a hazard (Gallo et al., 2021). ...
An exploratory study was carried out to determine the occurrence of aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G 1, and G 2 in different aromatic preparations used in the production of bitters, liqueurs and flavored wines. Aflatoxin analysis was performed by liquid-liquid extraction followed by immunoaffinity column for purification of the extracts. The aflatoxins were quantitatively detected using high performance liquid chromatography technique with post-column derivatization and fluorescence detection. After in-house validation, the method was applied to the determination of aflatoxins in 40 samples of aromatic preparations used in the production of aperitifs and bitter drinks, vermouths and aromatized wines, and nut and citrus liqueurs. This method showed good accuracy between days (72%–95% recovery) and precision (3%–13% relative standard deviation). None of the samples analyzed contained detectable levels of aflatoxins. Only in one sample of aromatic extract of vermouth and aromatized wine aflatoxins B1 and G1 were found below the limit of quantification. From the results, it was concluded that these extracts for commercial purposes are safe for human consumption in terms of aflatoxin concentrations. In addition, the general outcome of the study showed that an accurate analysis of AFs can be obtained in a short time with a high sensitivity, even on difficult matrices such as hydro-alcoholic mixtures of different aromatic preparations.
... Biological detoxification methods, including enzymatic degradation and probiotic interventions, offer innovative solutions for mycotoxin mitigation in pig feed. Enzymatic treatments targeting mycotoxin deactivation, such as esterases and oxidoreductases, promote feed safety by neutralising toxic compounds before ingestion [187,188]. Certain microbial strains, such as Lactobacillus, Bacillus, and Saccharomyces, have been shown to degrade mycotoxins or reduce their bioavailability in the GIT [189]. Advancements in mycotoxin-binding agents, including activated clays and yeast-derived products, also contribute to minimising mycotoxin exposure in pig diets [190]. ...
The intensifying global demand for food presents significant challenges for sustainable pig production, particularly in the context of escalating input costs, environmental degradation, and resource scarcity. Life cycle assessment provides a comprehensive framework for quantifying environmental impacts and identifying production hotspots within pig production systems. Feed production and manure management are consistently identified as major contributors, emphasising the need for targeted interventions. Although soybean meal remains a key protein source, its association with deforestation and biodiversity loss is driving an interest in more sustainable alternatives. In temperate climates, faba beans offer a promising, locally sourced option, though their wider adoption is limited by amino acid imbalances and anti-nutritional factors. Grain preservation is another critical consideration, as post-harvest losses and fungal contamination compromise feed quality and animal health. Organic acid preservation has emerged as an energy-efficient, cost-effective alternative to industrial drying, improving storage stability and reducing fossil fuel dependence. Additional nutritional strategies, including dietary crude protein reduction, carbohydrate source modification, feed additive inclusion, and maternal nutritional interventions, can enhance nutrient utilisation, intestinal health, and herd resilience while mitigating environmental impact. This review explores practical feed-based strategies to support sustainable, resilient, and resource-efficient pig production and contribute to global food security.
... For instance, the combined toxicity of aflatoxin B 1 , zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol mixture exhibits enhanced hepatotoxicity in rat hepatocytes compared to their individual effects. Furthermore, certain matrices are susceptible to contamination by both masked and emerging mycotoxins [6][7][8]. These circumstances pose significant threats to public health [9][10][11]. ...
The current status of multi-mycotoxin contamination in edible and medicinal plants demands urgent development of high-throughput analytical methods for mycotoxin detection. In this study, a reliable and sensitive method for the simultaneous analysis of 73 mycotoxins was established and successfully applied to detect mycotoxins in 260 samples of four dual-purpose plants (lotus seed, coix seed, licorice root, and dried tangerine peel). Sample preparation involved optimized QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) extraction combined with liquid–liquid extraction purification, and an enhanced ion pair library was established to reduce matrix interference and improve the method’s universality. Method validation demonstrated recovery rates ranging from 61.6% to 118.6% for all compounds, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 15%. The limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.25–12.25 μg/kg and 0.5–25 μg/kg, respectively. Based on the contamination analysis and health risk assessment using Margin of Exposure (MOE) and Hazard Index (HI) methods, we found that multi-mycotoxin contamination is highly prevalent in edible and medicinal plants, with different components being susceptible to invasion by distinct fungal genera. Seed-type plants showed high susceptibility to Aspergillus (53.3%) and Fusarium (22.2%) contamination, with MOE values below 10,000 for aflatoxins indicating potential health risks. Physical state and good storage conditions significantly influenced contamination levels, with fragmented samples showing substantially higher mycotoxin levels. Additionally, mycotoxins with associated biosynthetic metabolic pathways were frequently detected simultaneously in highly contaminated samples. Based on these findings, we recommend implementing strict moisture control during storage, maintaining intact product form where possible, and establishing comprehensive supplier qualification systems. This study provides valuable reference for monitoring mycotoxin contamination in similar plants.
... These products, which are generated from plants, offer a plethora of bioactive chemicals that have the potential to be used in therapeutic settings [75]. Ayurveda, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), and native healing methods are just a few of the many traditional systems that use herbal medications [76]. The perception of natural origin and historical use of herbal medicinal items is a major reason for their continued popularity. ...
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is widely regarded as one of the most effective and adaptable methods for separating and analyzing the components of herbal mixtures. It is utilized to identify and quantify phyto-components within these mixtures. This chapter focuses on the utilization of HPLC techniques, including ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) or ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), in the analysis of various herbal products. It provides several specific examples of protocols for such analysis and offers a brief overview of available HPLC techniques and methods. Additionally, this chapter includes step-by-step protocols for the chemical profiling or fingerprinting of herbs, herbal mixtures, and herbal products.
... Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) [6], ochratoxin A (OTA) [7], and zearalenone (ZEA) [8] usually contaminate wine through raw materials [9][10][11][12]. The additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effects of mycotoxins enhance their harm to human health and drive a demand for the classification of multiple mycotoxins [13][14][15]. Mycotoxins' high toxicity [16] has led many countries and organizations to set strict standards for mycotoxins in wine at the ppb level [9,17]. Given the mass consumption of wine, developing a sensitive, low-cost, and rapid detection method for multiple mycotoxins is urgent [18][19][20][21][22]. ...
Food safety requires point-of-care testing (POCT) for mycotoxins, since their presence in wine significantly impacts the wine industry and poses a severe threat to human life. Traditional detection methods are usually limited to detecting one mycotoxin and cannot achieve high-throughput, automated, and rapid quantitative analysis of multiple mycotoxins in real samples. Here, we propose a portable automated microfluidic platform (PAMP) integrating a chemiluminescence (CL) imaging system and a microfluidic chip to realize POCT for multiple mycotoxins in real samples, simplifying complex manual operations, shortening the detection time, and improving the detection sensitivity. Specially, silicone films were used as substrates on microfluidic chips to incubate mycotoxin conjugations, and the streptavidin–biotin (SA-B) system and an indirect immunoassay were implemented on silicone films to improve the sensitivity of reaction results. Interestingly, these methods significantly improved detection results, resulting in sensitive detection of mycotoxins, including zearalenone (ZEA) ranging from 1 to 32 ng/mL, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) ranging from 0.2 to 6.4 ng/mL, and ochratoxin A (OTA) ranging from 2 to 64 ng/mL. The recovery of samples reached 91.39–109.14%, which verified the reliability and practicability of the PAMP. This PAMP enables sensitive and rapid detection of multiple mycotoxins in markets or wineries that lack advanced laboratory facilities. Therefore, it is essential to develop a portable microfluidic platform for POCT to detect mycotoxins in real samples.
... The climatic conditions found in the Central region of Brazil, as well as in other tropical and subtropical countries, favor the growth of filamentous fungi of the genus Aspergillus, according to reports (Pitt and Hocking, 1999). Kabak & Dobson (2017) describe that spices and herbs grown mainly in tropical and subtropical areas can be exposed to contamination with toxigenic fungi and subsequently with mycotoxins. In our series, in the Central region of Brazil, Mato Grosso, this characterization is quite consistent with the physiognomic characterization presented by these researchers. ...
Thirteen types of condiments and aromatic spices (cloves, cinnamon sticks, star anise, fennel, calabrian pepper, ginger, garlic, cumin, black pepper, turmeric, bay leaves, oregano and nutmeg) from street markets and of supermarkets in the city of Cuiabá-MT, Brazil, were evaluated for contamination by fungi and bacteria. Of the 78 plates containing microbiological samples, 68 (87.2%) presented a positive result, isolating 58 species, 43 (74.1%) of filamentous fungal species, 10 (17.2%) of yeast-like fungal species, with two groups identified only at the genus level and 5 (8.6%) bacterial species identified. The values of colony-forming units per gram of product (CFU/g) detected in samples of condiments sold in free fairs and industrialized markets were higher than those of the federal reference standard, varying up to 8.2×10 4 CFU/g. There was no significant difference between these values. Aspergillus spp. was the most isolated genus, with the species Aspergillus niger predominating, followed by species from the genus Penicillium, Cladosporium and Fusarium. Among the yeasts found, the most prevalent genera were Candida spp., Saccharomyces spp. and Rodothorula spp. with the highest amount of CFU/g isolated in cinnamon bark samples. The bacteria were the least isolated, with the highest CFU/g value coming from the cumin Streptococcus gengivalis (3.2x10 3). The condiments analyzed in this study showed contamination by potentially pathogenic fungi and mycotoxin producers, the isolated bacteria may pose a risk to the health of consumers.
... The climatic conditions found in the Central region of Brazil, as well as in other tropical and subtropical countries, favor the growth of filamentous fungi of the genus Aspergillus, according to reports (Pitt and Hocking, 1999). Kabak & Dobson (2017) describe that spices and herbs grown mainly in tropical and subtropical areas can be exposed to contamination with toxigenic fungi and subsequently with mycotoxins. In our series, in the Central region of Brazil, Mato Grosso, this characterization is quite consistent with the physiognomic characterization presented by these researchers. ...
Thirteen types of condiments and aromatic spices (cloves, cinnamon sticks, star anise, fennel, calabrian pepper, ginger, garlic, cumin, black pepper, turmeric, bay leaves, oregano and nutmeg) from street markets and of supermarkets in the city of Cuiabá – MT, Brazil, were evaluated for contamination by fungi and bacteria. Of the 78 plates containing microbiological samples, 68 (87.2%) presented a positive result, isolating 58 species, 43 (74.1%) of filamentous fungal species, 10 (17.2%) of yeast-like fungal species, with two groups identified only at the genus level and 5 (8.6%) bacterial species identified. The values of colony-forming units per gram of product (CFU/g) detected in samples of condiments sold in free fairs and industrialized markets were higher than those of the federal reference standard, varying up to 8.2×104 CFU/g. There was no significant difference between these values. Aspergillus spp. was the most isolated genus, with the species Aspergillus niger predominating, followed by species from the genus Penicillium, Cladosporium and Fusarium. Among the yeasts found, the most prevalent genera were Candida spp., Saccharomyces spp. and Rodothorula spp. with the highest amount of CFU/g isolated in cinnamon bark samples. The bacteria were the least isolated, with the highest CFU/g value coming from the cumin Streptococcus gengivalis (3.2x103). The condiments analyzed in this study showed contamination by potentially pathogenic fungi and mycotoxin producers, the isolated bacteria may pose a risk to the health of consumers.
... Capillary electrophoresis (CE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic, proteomic, and biosensor-based quality control methods are also utilized now days for ensuring the quality and safety of food spices Belmonte-Sánchez et al., 2021;. 3. Determination of toxic contaminants such as heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, etc.), pesticide residues, microbial loads (bacterial and fungal contents), aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, and Q1) are also important parameters to determine for ensuring safety of food spices (Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Reinholds et al., 2017). ...
Alkaloids are considered major secondary plant metabolites and are found mostly in plants. Some alkaloids are used as a spice in foodstuffs such as fenugreek, black pepper, and long pepper. These spices have large quantities of alkaloidal compounds. Trigonelline is a major alkaloidal compound present in fenugreek seeds, and piperine is present in peppers. Black pepper has a long history of usage in traditional medicines all throughout the world as well as food and condiments (Kaltner et al., 2020). In the Piperaceae, or pepper family, there are about 2,000 species in the Piper genus (Durant-Archibold et al., 2018). Only a few spices from the genus Piper include alkaloids, the biggest class of nitrogenous natural chemical substances. The two species that are most well-known are Piper longum and Piper nigrum, also known as pippali and black pepper, respectively. This genus contains piperidine-type alkaloids (Martha Perez Gutierrez et al., 2013). Numerous traditional medical systems, including traditional Chinese medicine, the Indian Ayurvedic system, and folkloric medicines of Latin America and the West Indies, have used plants from the genus Piper as a cure (Zaveri et al., 2010). Another alkaloid-containing species we have included in this chapter is a short-living and annual medicinal herb Trigonella foenum-graecum belonging to the Fabaceae family. Its major alkaloids are Trigonelline and 4-hydroxy-isoleucine (Nagulapalli Venkata et al., 2017).
This chapter provides an overview of food spices containing alkaloids as major chemical compounds. The major focus is on the sources, traditional uses, and phyto-pharmacological properties of food spices containing alkaloids.
... A wide range of food items, including, wine, juices, spices, dried fruits, ginger, bee pollen, beer, meat, egg, and coffee have also been found to contain AFs. Sadly, spices and herbs are prone to fungus growth and AF contamination due to their pre-and post-harvest storage conditions (Kabak & Dobson, 2017). Environmental factors like high temperatures and humidity, insufficient production processes, poor collection conditions, subpar drying, inadequately shielded transport, and proper storage can promote contamination (Abrehame et al., 2023). ...
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungal and mold species. One of the mycotoxin families that is often regarded as the most concerned one in human and animal feeds, is aflatoxin. Aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus species are very toxic and cause significant contamination of food supplies, resulting in serious health repercussions including carcinogenicity. To date, several regulations on aflatoxin permissible level limits have been established in a number of nations. Based on government guidelines and restrictions, consumers and food producers anticipate that aflatoxin contamination in food should not negatively impact human and animal health. Aflatoxin contamination of food commodities poses a consequential risk to humans and is also associated with substantial financial losses. Conventional mycotoxin reduction strategies involve both preventative and decontamination approaches. The present review gives an update on recent research on conventional approaches, including pre-and post-harvest procedures that could potentially be used to decontaminate aflatoxin. Additionally, the current study delves into the source of contamination, global occurrence, impact on human health, and management strategies to assure food security and safety.
... As a result, countless food safety incidents worldwide pose a serious threat to property and lives. In recent years, several typical severe food safety incidents have occurred, including the "Poisonous Ginger" Incident in Shandong (Kabak & Dobson, 2017;Xu et al., 2020), Illegal Issues at Xinchengda Nutrition Meal Distribution Center in Tianjin (Gregoric et al., 2015), imported food safety incidents (Braden & Tauxe, 2013;Chen, Mao, et al., 2022), take-out food safety inci-dents (Larson et al., 2021), and Starbucks caught using expired ingredients, in which the Starbucks employees changed the ingredient labels. Consequently, food safety testing is necessary, usually achieved using chromatography, spectroscopy-based technologies, and biotechnologies. ...
Food is consumed by humans, which is indispensable to human life. Therefore, considerable attention of the whole society has been paid to food safety. Over the last few years, dramatic social development has brought new challenges to food safety, making developing new and quick methods for on‐site food safety testing an important necessity. As a result, DNA‐fueled molecular machines, characterized by high efficiency, accuracy, and sensitivity in testing, have come into the spotlight, based on which sensors can be constructed to detect toxic and harmful substances in food products. This study reviewed recent research on several DNA‐fueled molecular machines, including DNA tweezers, DNA walkers, and DNA origami, for rapidly detecting toxic and harmful substances. Based on the above studies, the sensitivity and timeliness of several DNA molecular machines were summarized and compared, and the development prospect of DNA fuel molecular machines in the field of food safety detection was prospected.
... Derived from plants and plant-derived materials, these products offer a rich source of bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic benefits (Chrysant and Chrysant, 2017). The use of herbal medicines spans diverse traditional systems, such as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), ayurveda, and indigenous healing practices Kabak and Dobson, 2017). One of the key reasons for the enduring popularity of herbal medication products is their perceived natural origin and historical use. ...
This manuscript provides an in-depth review of the significance of quality control in herbal medication products, focusing on its role in maintaining efficiency and safety. With a historical foundation in traditional medicine systems, herbal remedies have gained widespread popularity as natural alternatives to conventional treatments. However, the increasing demand for these products necessitates stringent quality control measures to ensure consistency and safety. This comprehensive review explores the importance of quality control methods in monitoring various aspects of herbal product development, manufacturing, and distribution. Emphasizing the need for standardized processes, the manuscript delves into the detection and prevention of contaminants, the authentication of herbal ingredients, and the adherence to regulatory standards. Additionally, it highlights the integration of traditional knowledge and modern scientific approaches in achieving optimal quality control outcomes. By emphasizing the role of quality control in herbal medicine, this manuscript contributes to promoting consumer trust, safeguarding public health, and fostering the responsible use of herbal medication products.
... More than a hundred distinct spices are grown across the world, with Asia being the primary producer [5]. The global trade of spices is around USD 3 billion, while the reported per capita daily intake of spices is around 5 g [6]. ...
There are growing concerns for food safety due to the risks associated with heavy metal contamination of culinary herbs and spices in developing countries like Bangladesh. The objective of the present cross-sectional study is to determine the concentrations of the heavy metals Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), and Iron (Fe) in the branded and non-branded spices collected from the Noakhali district by Atomic absorption spectrophotometry method, as well as to assess the health hazard risk associated with heavy metals intake via consumption of spices. The findings revealed that the greatest concentrations of Pb (15.47 ± 1.93), Cd (1.65 ± 0.011), Cr (31.99 ± 3.97), Cu (18.84 ± 1.97), and Fe (9.29 ± 1.71) were found in Cardamom, Coriander leaf, Bay leaf, Dried chili, and Black pepper respectively. Around 37 % of Cr and 5 % of Fe Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) were greater than reference doses (RfD). All spices had Total Hazard Quotient (THQ) values for Pb, Cd, Cu, and Fe that were below acceptable, and 37 % of all spices had Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ) values for Pb, Cd, Cu, and Fe that were over the standard range, suggesting adverse health impacts for consumers. Green chili, ginger, coriander leaf, and all kinds of chili powder and turmeric powder have been reported to have exceptionally high TTHQ levels of Cr. The estimated carcinogenic risk for chromium in non-branded coriander leaf was found to be higher than safe levels. This study provides valuable insights into the commonly consumed spices in Bangladesh and their potential health risks associated with heavy metal contamination. The findings of this study can be used by regulatory authorities to develop effective strategies and actions to mitigate these risks and safeguard public health.
... Fungal and oomycete pathogens belonging to the genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Colletotrichum, Didymella, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium, Phomopsis, Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizopus and Sclerotium have been reported in several countries as causal agents for pepper fruit rot (O'Neill & Mayne, 2015). The fungal genera Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium are known to be the main causative agents of mycotoxin in dried fruits, nuts, and spices (Ham et al., 2016;Kabak & Dobson, 2017). The soil-borne fungal genus Fusarium is widespread worldwide and occurs in all types of soils (Backhouse et al., 2001). ...
Chilli pepper ( Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most important commercially cultivated and consumed vegetables in Turkey. During a disease survey, typical symptoms of fruit rot were observed on mature chilli pepper fruits in several surveyed fields and on dried pepper fruits obtained from local retailers/bazaars in Hatay Province, Turkey. Disease incidence varied from 15 to 45% of the plants in the inspected fields. Following standard isolation procedures, 40 fungal isolates were isolated, purified and single‐spore cultures were obtained from surface‐disinfected, rotted dried pepper tissue. Of these isolates, six fungal isolates with dense, cottony white aerial mycelia that became beige with age, were isolated on a potato sucrose agar. All isolates were found to be pathogenic on artificially inoculated chilli pepper fruit. Based on morphological characteristics, the isolates were initially identified as Fusarium incarnatum (Desm.) Sacc. 1886. Morphological identification of F. incarnatum isolates was further confirmed by MALDI‐TOF and molecular analyses using the sequences of the i nternal t ranscribed s pacer ( ITS ), partial t ranslation e longation f actor‐1α ( TEF‐1α ) and second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II ( RPB2 ) loci. Phylogenetic analysis based on ITS , TEF‐1α , RPB2 and concatenation of TEF‐1α , RPB2 loci sequences performed with several isolates of Fusarium spp. confirmed that representative fungal isolates (MKUZF1 and MKUZF4) belong to F. incarnatum . To our knowledge, this is the first report of F. incarnatum causing fruit rot in chilli peppers grown in Turkey.
... Capillary electrophoresis (CE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic, proteomic, and biosensor-based quality control methods are also utilized now days for ensuring the quality and safety of food spices Belmonte-Sánchez et al., 2021;. 3. Determination of toxic contaminants such as heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, etc.), pesticide residues, microbial loads (bacterial and fungal contents), aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, and Q1) are also important parameters to determine for ensuring safety of food spices (Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Reinholds et al., 2017). ...
... Capillary electrophoresis (CE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic, proteomic, and biosensor-based quality control methods are also utilized now days for ensuring the quality and safety of food spices Belmonte-Sánchez et al., 2021;. 3. Determination of toxic contaminants such as heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, etc.), pesticide residues, microbial loads (bacterial and fungal contents), aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, and Q1) are also important parameters to determine for ensuring safety of food spices (Kabak and Dobson, 2017;Reinholds et al., 2017). ...
... Spices can contain a significant amount of microbial contaminants, such as xerophilic molds, mesophilic bacteria, and enterobacteria. Most bacterial species are pathogenic, while fungal species are potential producers of mycotoxins that have toxic and carcinogenic effects in humans and animals, e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxins and sterigmatocystin [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. ...
Abstract
Spices are used in almost all types of food preparation, and their microbial contamination can lead to spoilage and pose a risk to public health. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the microbiological contamination of spices available in the markets of Karachi, Pakistan. 149 samples of 12 different types of spices were collected from different markets in Karachi. The spices were examined using standard microbiological procedures (U.S. Food and Drug Administration) to analyze Aerobic Plate Count (APC) and Mold and Yeast Count (MYC). The number of colonies in salt was lower (APC 4.01 × 104), while in mixed spices sample the highest APC (5.72 × 105) was recorded. The Food Quality Index (FQI) for bacterial contamination of spices indicates the highest level of contamination (FQI; 3199.15). The Mold and Yeast Count (MYC) was higher in mixed spices (3.93 × 103), the lowest MYC was observed in the pomegranate seed sample (11.0 × 101). Mold and yeast contamination of spices also indicated a higher contamination level of FQI (743.40). The evaluation of the spices based on APC, MYC, and FQI indicates that the spice samples are of very poor quality." Consumption of these contaminated spices may endanger human health.
... Spices are generally derived from the non-leafy parts of the source plants including the seeds, bark, root, flowers, or fruits [1]]. They are widely used to enhance aroma, taste, colour, smell, and flavour in daily food preparations [2]. Due to their preservative characteristics, spices have potential applications in the food industry. ...
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most important toxic metabolites
of fungi found in agricultural products. This study aimed to estimate
the prevalence and concentration of OTA in spices through meta analysis. Therefore, online databases including PubMed, Embase,
Web of Science, and Scopus were screened systematically from
1995 to 2022 to collect the related data. After assessing eligibility,
36 articles with 1686 samples were included in the current study.
According to the findings, the global pooled prevalence of OTA was
counted as 50% (95% CI: 47–52%). Also, a positive correlation
between the prevalence of OTA with the year of study, region,
and sample size was observed. Moreover, the highest and lowest
concentrations of OTA in spices were noted in paprika (50.66 ng/g)
and cinnamon (3.4 ng/g), respectively. The outcome of this meta analysis can be used for risk assessment model development, aiming to help the government and industries to find a specific way to
reduce the prevalence of OTA spice products
... Traditionally, medicinal herbs are cultivated mainly in tropical and subtropical regions which are also favorable for fungal growth and mycotoxin production [4]. Improper agricultural and harvesting practices and poor storage conditions have major implications on the quality and safety of medicinal herbs [5]. ...
Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) was optimized for the simultaneous extraction of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) from powdered senna leaves and pods. Detection was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and pre-column derivatization. The parameters affecting the DLLME extraction efficiency were evaluated. Chloroform (200 µL) was used as an extraction solvent, 500 µL of distilled water was used as a dispersive solvent, and the extraction was performed at pH 5.6 with no salt added. The optimized method was validated using leaves and pods according to the European Commission guidelines. The linear range for all aflatoxins was 2–50 µg/kg, with values for regression coefficients of determination exceeding 0.995. The recoveries of spiked senna leaves and pods were in the ranges of 91.77–108.71% and 83.50–102.73%, respectively. The RSD values for intra-day and inter-day precisions were in the ranges of 2.30–7.93% and 3.13–10.59%, respectively. The limits of detection and quantification varied in the ranges of 0.70–1.27 µg/kg and 2.13–3.84 µg/kg, respectively. The validated method was successfully applied for the quantification of aflatoxins in 60 real samples of dried senna leaves and pods.
... Farklı kimyasal yapıları ve biyosentetik kökenleri, biyolojik etkileri, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium ve Alternaria türleri tarafından üretilmeleri dolayı FFM 4 farklı ana kategoriler altında sınıflandırılmaktadır (Kurtzman vd., 1987;Weidenbörner 2014;Kabak ve Dobson, 2017). Yapılan detaylı kimyasal analizler sonucunda "aflatoksin", "okratoksin", "trikotesen", "zearalenon", "fumonisin" ve "patulin" gibi bazıları agro-ekonomik açıdan önemli kabul edilen yüzlerce FFM tespit edilmiĢtir. ...
... Tropical and subtropical agroecosystems are the suitable zones to produce most spices (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). The simple production conditions, hot and humid climate, long drying time and inappropriate actions of farmers can result in many quality and health problems of spices. ...
... Tropical and subtropical agroecosystems are the suitable zones to produce most spices (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). The simple production conditions, hot and humid climate, long drying time and inappropriate actions of farmers can result in many quality and health problems of spices. ...
Nowadays, the irradiation process has gained great attention in food industries, especially for spices owing to its microbial decontamination power. Therefore, the impact of irradiation on the bioactive compounds and physicochemical attributes of food products needs to be investigated during their shelf life. In the present survey, during one year of storage the impact of gamma irradiation at different doses (0, 5, 10 and 15 kGy) under various packaging atmospheres (air, vacuum and N2) on the chemical components and antimicrobial characteristics of essential oil (EO) and Hunter's color values of turmeric powder was evaluated. The findings showed that by increasing the storage time, and consequently, accelerating the oxidation process, the content of total chemical compounds of EO in all samples decreased and the influence of storage time on the physicochemical attributes of turmeric powder was much stronger than the impact of packaging atmospheres and irradiation. Irradiation was impressive in discoloration (ΔE) of turmeric powder; furthermore, storage time and air atmosphere had an increasing effect on its ΔE.
... Mycotoxin contamination of ginger compromises its quality and safety, thus presenting a serious obstacle to improving the competitiveness of Nigerian ginger at international markets as it results in rejections of ginger (Kabak and Dobson, 2017). The objective of this study was therefore to determine the natural occurrence and concentrations of AF, FBs, and OTA in Kaduna state that produce 95% of Nigeria's ginger and Plateau state where the commodity is being re-introduced at several points of ginger value chain. ...
Background: Ginger which serves as both spices and medicine is susceptible to mycotoxin contamination. This research determined the incidence of major mycotoxins, including Aflatoxins (AFs), Ochratoxin A (OTA), and Fumonisins (FBs) in Nigerian ginger sampled from two main ginger producing states of Nigeria.
Methods: Totally, 105 ginger samples were collected including freshly harvested and dried sliced forms. These samples were collected randomly across five stations; farms, aggregating points, processing points, open markets, and storage facilities during the rainy season in June, 2019. The samples were analysed using the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and read by a microplate reader.
Results: Incidence of the studied mycotoxins was 80.9, 68.6, and 90.5% for AFs, OTA, and FBs, respectively. While there were low levels of OTA and FBs across the various sample forms. Mean concentrations of AFs were 1.77±1.86 µg/kg (0.00-8.68) and 6.46±6.71 µg/kg (0.00-36.72) in fresh and dried ginger samples, respectively. The results revealed higher levels of AF in storage samples (9.04±10.72 µg/kg) and market samples (4.05±4.41 µg/kg) compared to other samples. However, no significant difference (p>0.05) was observed in the level of contamination across the sample sources.
Conclusion: Freshly harvested ginger samples were less contaminated than dried ginger. Among the studied toxins, AF was found as a potential health concern in Nigerian ginger.
DOI: 10.18502/jfqhc.9.2.10642
... The economic impact of mycotoxins is felt across a wide spectrum of commodities other than cereals from dried fruits, 25,26 wine and grape juice, 27 coffee, 28,29 to spices. 30,31 In Africa as well as parts of Latin America and East Asia, more than 500 million people are exposed to aflatoxin and fumonisin at multiples, sometimes orders of magnitude of safe levels. This results in enormous losses in human life and animal productivity. ...
This chapter discusses the mycotoxins of greatest importance to human and animal health including aflatoxin, fumonisin, deoxy-nivalenol, zearalenone and ochratoxin. For each toxin, the fungi concerned, their management through the value chain as well as the basis for their regulation are discussed. Despite the passage of more than 60 years since the isolation and characterization of the first of these toxins, aflatoxin, the challenges have in some ways become greater because of genetic change in the fungi, unanticipated effects of crop breeding and most of all climate change.
... Overall, fungal contamination of spices occurs when they are insufficiently dried or stored for long periods under humid conditions [3]. The relative humidity is a primary variable that affects spore germination and fungal growth, with subsequent production of mycotoxin being substantial if such conditions are not effectively controlled during storage [8]. ...
The study aimed at monitoring the effect of long storage of the daily-used spices under varying humidity on the development of mycotoxins and their producing fungi. The spices samples were analyzed for mycotoxins and their potential producing fungi. The results showed that Aspergillus, Eurotium, Fusarium, and Penicillium were the most frequent genera on spices. Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. niveus, Eurotium chevalieri, Fusarium oxysporum, F. verticillioides, Penicillium cyclopium, and P. waksmanii were detected as potential mycotoxin-producing fungi. The results exhibited the contamination of spices with aflatoxin B1 and G1, zearalenone, citrinin, and sterigmatocystin in high concentration (66.45µg/Kg, 12.64µg/Kg, 0.064µg/Kg, 0.065µg/Kg, and 0.065µg/Kg, respectively). The results proved that time were a key factor in development of fungi and their mycotoxins. After six months of storage under high RH% (75-80%), the total count of fungi was increased dramatically in some spices like as dill (9.1 x 104 CFU/ g) and sumac (23.16 x 102 CFU/g). However, in the other spices, storage under moderate (50-55%) or natural humidity (10-45%) encouraged the development of fungi more than under high humidity %. The study recommends consumers to use dry fresh spices and not store them for more than two months.
Feed and foods, including spices are prone to contamination by aflatoxigenic moulds, which produce secondary metabolite called aflatoxins, posing risks to trade, animal and human health and food safety globally. This study assessed aflatoxin contamination of locally processed pilau and tea masala spices produced by micro and small-scale enterprises in Tanga and Dar es Salaam regions. A total of 60 spice samples (30 each of pilau and tea masala) were analysed for aflatoxins AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector. Results revealed aflatoxins in 50% of pilau masala and 23.3% of tea masala samples with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) being the most prevalent. AFB1 contamination was found in 43.3% of pilau masala and 10% of tea masala samples, occasionally exceeding the East African Community (EAC) maximum limit of 5 μg/kg. The moisture content ranged from 8.41–14.22% in pilau masala and 8.07–13.98% in tea masala, with mean values of 11.04 ± 0.30% and 11.67 ± 0.22%, respectively. Notably, 73.3% of pilau masala and 86.7% of tea masala samples exceeded the regulatory moisture limit of 10% (EAS 919-2019/EAS 920-2019). Elevated moisture levels were attributed to improper drying methods and inadequate knowledge among small-scale processors fostering conditions favourable for fungal growth and aflatoxin production. A significant positive correlation ( ) between moisture content and AFB1 was observed, indicating that high moisture levels promote fungal proliferation and AFB1 production. The study highlights the critical role of moisture control during post-harvest handling and storage in mitigating aflatoxin contamination. Proper drying techniques, use of airtight packaging, sanitation of tools, and improved spice handling practices are recommended to enhance product safety and compliance with regulatory standards. These findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to address moisture related fungal contamination in spices, ensuring food safety and economic viability for small-scale processors.
This ethnobotanical review explores the culinary and medicinal uses of wild herbs and spices in Thailand, with an emphasis on documenting traditional knowledge and their ethnomedicinal uses. Analyzing 76 ethnobotanical studies, we identified 248 use reports encompassing 46 species, 10 families, and 26 genera, predominantly focusing on the flora of northern Thailand. The most frequently utilized wild herbs and spices include Alpinia galanga (64.5 %), Persicaria odorata (34.2 %), Litsea cubeba (32.9 %), Citrus hystrix (31.6 %), Boesenbergia rotunda, Piper sarmentosum (14.5 %), Elsholtzia griffithii (11.8 %), Zingiber kerrii (11.8 %) and Zanthoxylum armatum (10.5 %). Notably, 41 out of 46 investigated species were acknowledged for their ethnomedicinal properties, contributing to a total of 688 use reports in 22 categories, with a significant emphasis on their role in treating digestive and infection-related disorders. The wild herbs and spices with the highest use value include Acorus calamus (1.72), Alpinia galanga (0.79), Piper sarmentosum (0.76), Cinnamomum iners (0.63), Melicope pteleifolia (0.57), Citrus hystrix DC. (0.51), and Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker (0.51). These findings highlight the potential of wild Thai herbs and spices as nutraceuticals and enhance the understanding of Thailand's botanical heritage in traditional healthcare practices. The study highlights the importance of preserving traditional knowledge and promotes further research into the sustainable use of these valuable plant resources.
Türk mutfağı, tarihi boyunca çeşitli kültürlerin etkisi ve Anadolu’nun zengin toprakları sayesinde geniş bir baharat yelpazesine sahiptir. Bu çalışmada, Türk mutfağında yaygın olarak kullanılan baharatlar fonksiyonel bileşenler olan terpenoidler ve fenolik bileşikler açısından incelenmiştir. Terpenoidler antioksidan, anti-inflamatuar, antimikrobiyal ve antikanser özellikleri ile bilinirken; fenolik bileşikler güçlü antioksidan ve pro-oksidatif özellikler göstermektedir. Çalışmada, literatür araştırması yapılarak Türk mutfağında kullanılan 24 adet baharatın etken madde içerikleri, antioksidan kapasiteleri ve ORAC değerleri beslenme veri tabanları kullanılarak belirlenmiştir. Araştırmalar ve veri tabanlarından elde edilen bilgiler değerlendirildiğinde anason (11 çeşit), haşhaş (10 çeşit), karabiber (10 çeşit), tarçın (10 çeşit), kekik (9 çeşit), kişniş (8 çeşit) ve sumak (8 çeşit) olmak üzere bu baharatların en fazla terpenoid ve fenolik bileşen içeren baharatlar olduğu görülmüştür. Baharatlarda en yaygın görülen fonksiyonel bileşenler ise sırasıyla karoten (alfa, beta ve gama) (17 tanesinde), tokoferol (alfa, beta ve gama) (15 tanesinde), filokinon (11 tanesinde), lutein (9 tanesinde) ve betain (8 tanesinde) olarak bulunmuştur. Türk mutfağının vazgeçilmez unsurlarından birisi olan bu baharatların, içerdikleri çeşitli terponoid ve fenolik bileşikler ile insan sağlığı üzerinde antioksidan, anti-inflamatuar, antimikrobiyal ve antikanser gibi olumlu etkilere sahip olduğu çalışmalarla desteklenmektedir. Bu çalışma Türk mutfağının kullanılan baharatlar ile sağlığı korumayı ve iyileştirmeyi destekleyici özellikte olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Son yıllarda sağlık için artan fonksiyonel beslenme uygulamaları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda Türk mutfağı içerik bakımından fonksiyonel beslenmeyi destekleyici niteliktedir. Türk mutfağında kullanılan baharatların sağlık üzerindeki bu potansiyel faydaları göz önüne alındığında, bu baharatların günlük beslenme alışkanlıklarına dahil edilmesi sağlığın sürdürülebilirliği açısından önerilebilir.
Nutmeg seeds from Indonesia are an important agricultural commodity with various culinary and medicinal uses.
However, they often face issues with fungal and aflatoxin contaminations, leading to increased border rejections.
To address those issues, a study was conducted to minimize the risk of contamination by adjusting storage
temperatures for whole nutmeg seeds without shells. The research involved storing nutmeg seeds at different
temperatures (16, 22, and 28 ◦C) over three periods (0, 30, and 60 days) using hermetically sealed packaging to
control Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxin contamination. The findings revealed that storing the seeds at
16 ◦C resulted in optimal moisture content (5–6%) and minimal weight loss (below 4%), preventing significant
physical attribute degradation. This approach also effectively controlled mold growth (the least colony diameter
= 14–20 mm), and subsequently kept aflatoxin B1 (0.8–4.3 μg/kg), total aflatoxin (1.5–4.5 μg/kg), and ochra�toxin A (0.6–1.1 μg/kg) contaminations below the allowable limit for up to 60 days. These findings are signif�icant as they provide a viable solution for long-distance distribution, thereby reducing the risk of border
rejections and increasing market value in the nutmeg industry.
The contamination of foods with mycotoxins is a current issue of concern in the food safety field. The regulation of these compounds in different food commodities, as well as the development of efficient analytical methods, are essential to control them, preventing their negative impact on human health. In this framework, due to the complexity of food matrices, the sample treatment plays an important role to achieve a selective and sensitive determination of mycotoxins. In addition, due to the heterogeneity of mycotoxins in foods, the sampling stage is crucial to obtain a representative sample, particularly important in the case of solid samples such as cereal grains and nuts.
In this chapter, we have selected and discussed the most relevant sample treatment procedures reported within the last decade for mycotoxin determination in food matrices. A great variety of food commodities have been taken into consideration including cereals, milk, nuts, seeds, species, herbs, coffee, cocoa, meat, fish, eggs, alcoholic beverages, fruits, and their products thereof. In addition, we have considered the most important class of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, and patulin as well as emerging and masked mycotoxins. According to the target mycotoxins and the food matrix of interest, different sample treatment methodologies have been proposed, mainly including a clean-up step to reduce matrix interferences. Pre-concentration steps are also useful in order to fulfill legislation requirements. Moreover, there has been a growing interest in recent years toward innovative miniaturized sample procedures and multi-mycotoxin methods.
The study aimed to screen fungal diversity and ochratoxin A levels on culinary spice and herb samples sold in open-air markets and supermarkets in Nairobi County, Kenya. All herbs were grown in Kenya, while locally-produced and imported spices were purchased from both types of retail outlet. The results showed a high frequency of Aspergillus and Penicillium species contaminating the samples. The isolated species included Aspergillus ochraceous, Aspergillus nomiae, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus ustus, Aspergillus terrus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus clavutus, Penicillium crustosum, Penicillium expansum, Penicillium brevicompactum, Penicillium glabrum, Penicillium thomii, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium polonicum, and Cladosporium cladosporioides. Total fungal count on spice and herb samples collected from various sources varied between 6 and 7 CFU/mL. Of imported spices, garlic had the highest fungal diversity, while cardamom had the least. For spices from both open market and supermarket outlets, cloves had the highest fungal diversity, while white pepper had the least. For the herbs sampled from the open markets, basil was the most contaminated, while sage was the least. In supermarket samples, parsley, sage, and mint had the highest fungal diversity, and bay had the least. The results indicate the contamination of spices and herbs with OTA at high concentrations. The calibration curve was saturated at 40 µg/kg; with samples of garlic, cinnamon, red chili, basil, thyme, mint, sage, and parsley having levels above this. Of the spices, imported ginger had the highest OTA levels (28.7 µg/kg), while turmeric from the open market had the least, 2.14 µg/kg. For herb samples, parsley from the open market had the highest OTA levels at 29.4 µg/kg, while marjoram from the open market had the lowest at 6.35 µg/kg. The results demonstrate the presence of mycotoxigenic fungi and OTA contamination of marketed culinary herbs and spices beyond acceptable limits. Hence, there is a need for informed and sustainable mitigation strategies aimed at reducing human exposure in Kenya to OTA mycotoxicosis through dietary intake of spices and herbs.
Capsicum is a common spice used in food flavouring. However, they are prone to mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxins are natural toxins produced by filamentous fungi and can pose serious risks to human health. Fungal contamination was assessed in 130 randomly collected samples following ISO 21527–2:2008 standards. Results revealed that 84.6% of the samples exceeded the acceptable fungal count limit (102 CFU/g) according to Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) standards (GSO1016:2015). The predominant fungal isolates were Aspergillus (51.1%), notably Aspergillus flavus (38.8%) and Aspergillus niger (37.7%). Molecular characterization focused on crucial genes associated with aflatoxin (AF) and ochratoxin (OT) biosynthesis, 14.4% of the isolates exhibited all targeted AF genes. The mycotoxin analysis, conducted on 34.6% of samples via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), detected AFB1 in 28.8% (0.2–13.8 μg/kg) and OTA in 35.5% (6.87–59.00 μg/kg) of the tested samples. This study demonstrates the need of implementing rules governing the methods of storing, shipping, and packing spices in Saudi Arabia, which may help to minimizes the prevalence of toxigenic fungus and mycotoxins. This was the first study in KSA that focused on Aspergillus in Capsicum products.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungal and mold species. One of the mycotoxin families that is often regarded as the most concerned one in human and animal feeds, is aflatoxin. Aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus species are very toxic and cause significant contamination of food supplies, resulting in serious health repercussions including carcinogenicity. To date, several regulations on aflatoxin permissible level limits have been established in a number of nations. Based on government guidelines and restrictions, consumers and food producers anticipate that aflatoxin contamination in food should not negatively impact human and animal health. Aflatoxin contamination of food commodities poses a consequential risk to humans and is also associated with substantial financial losses. Conventional mycotoxin reduction strategies involve both preventative and decontamination approaches. The present review gives an update on recent research on conventional approaches, including pre‐ and post‐harvest procedures that could potentially be used to decontaminate aflatoxin. Additionally, the current study delves into the source of contamination, global occurrence, impact on human health, and management strategies to assure food security and safety.
Aflatoxins are immunosuppressive, carcinogenic, mutagenic, and toxic. As secondary metabolites, they are produced by Aspergillus fungi on a variety of agricultural and animal-based foods. The Codex Alimentarius has established maximum levels of total aflatoxins in certain nuts (almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts, pistachios, and Brazil nuts) intended for further processing. The EU maximum level for AFM1 in milk intended for adults is 0.050 g/kg, while the limit for infants and baby food production is 0.025 mg/kg+1. Aflatoxin harm to livestock and poultry manufacturers from adulterated feeds comprises death and adversarial effects of immune system suppression, a decreased growth rate, and decreased feed efficacy. Increased farm animal mortality, decreased livestock production, higher veterinary costs, and difficulty in disposing of polluted feeds and feed ingredients are all consequences of aflatoxins, which are accompanied by commercial and industrial influences. Due to the risks that aflatoxin poses to both humans and animals, it is critical that all links in the food supply chain pursue safe agricultural and manufacturing practices. It is critical to use halal-compliant detection methods, regulatory control measures, and appropriate methods for preventing and detoxifying aflatoxins. The purpose of this book chapter is to investigate the prevalence of aflatoxin in feedstuffs and foodstuffs as well as its impact on the wholesomeness of halal food.
Mycotoxins are among the most alarming food and feed contaminants threatening human and animal health. Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, the body of knowledge in the field of mycotoxins increased dramatically: biological syntheses have been unraveled; myriad analytical detection methods were developed; surveys in different matrices were conducted; investigations into toxicities took place; several methods for control have been tested; and legislative debates to protect the public from their toxic effects continue. Based on that, hundreds of review articles were published to summarize different areas in the mycotoxin field, including their contamination per country or per region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, have not been specifically reviewed. To this end, this work has been conducted to review the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world to identify the main knowledge gaps needed to enhance the safety of food and feed. Our search, using several keywords, covered all the (non-)indexed publications written in English or Arabic or French. To the best of our knowledge, a total number of 306 papers were published between 1977 and 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in different matrices, which fall under one of 14 different categories (animal feed; animal products; baby food; cereals; cereal by-products; dairy products; legumes and pulses; nuts; spices; fruits and vegetables; juices and drinks; biomarkers; oils; and others). The relevant information (e.g., detected mycotoxins; number of samples; concentrations; method of detection) were extracted, processed and visualized using Microsoft Excel, R, GraphPad Prism, and RAWGraphs. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxins has increased over the years, however the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries and regions; (ii) state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not well implemented; neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies in the Arab world, showing the need for capacity-building initiatives; (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights the current legislations in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives in order to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance the safety of food and feed and protect the consumers. Among these perspectives, we suggest some research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among the Arab countries.
Spices and herbs have been used since ancient times as flavor and aroma enhancers, colorants, preservatives and traditional medicines. As many other plant products, they can be exposed to contaminants, ones of which are mycotoxins, secondary metabolites of fungi. Such contamination can occur during harvesting, processing and storage, distribution, retailing and consumer use. Although they are used and consumed in small quantities, but added to a wide variety of products, especially ready-to-eat products. So the assessment of their contamination with mycotoxins is very important. The aim of the study was to investigate the contamination of spices and herbs with mycotoxins of fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium and Alternaria, as well as to assess the mycotoxins intake per person when consuming these food groups. Material and methods. Concentration of mycotoxins in 155 samples of spices and herbs was determined by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass-spectrometric detection (UHPLC-MS/MS). The list of mycotoxins included deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, fumonisins, sterigmatocistin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, enniatins, beauvericin, neosolaniol, citreoviridin, mycophenolic acid, citrinin, tentoxin, altenuene, alternariol and its monomethyl ether. Results. Among the regulated in plant products mycotoxins in the studied samples there were found aflatoxins (B1 - in 19% of samples, from 0.4 to 48.2 μg/kg, B2 - 8%, from < limit of quantitation (LOQ) to 3.2 μg/kg, G1 - 2%, 0.75-21 μg/kg, G2 - 5%, 0.5- 12.5 μg/kg), ochratoxin A (15% samples, 0.8-14 μg/kg), fumonisin B1 (8%, 16.1-722.6 μg/kg), and fumonisin B2 (14%, < LOQ - 79.6 μg/kg). T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol were found in 10% of samples (< LOQ - 6.5 μg/kg and < LOQ - 65.5 μg/kg respectively), zearalenone - in 4 samples (1.7-106.2 μg/kg), HT-2 toxin - in 8 samples (5.4-19.8 μg/kg). Among little-studied (emergent) mycotoxins in the spices and herbs samples there were found tentoxin (in 36% of samples, in an amount from 0.7 to 10.9 μg/kg), altenuene (in 8%, 14.5-161.5 μg/kg). 10% of the samples were contaminated with alternariol and its methyl ether (from less than LOQ to 12.8 and < LOQ to 55.7 μg/kg, respectively), 4% - with sterigmatocystin (0.4-7.8 μg/kg), 5% - mycophenolic acid (13.1-297 μg/kg), 2% of the samples were contaminated with citrinin and enniatin B (< LOQ - 27.7 and 0.1-1 μg/kg), in 9 samples (6%) beauvericin was detected (< LOQ - 1.7 μg/kg). Over 60% of samples were contaminated with more than one mycotoxin. The content of aflatoxin B1 exceeded the maximum permissible level set in the EU (5 μg/kg) in nine samples. Conclusion. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first in the Russian Federation to report results indicating to the contamination of spices and herbs with mycotoxins. High occurrence of aflatoxins, tentoxin, ochratoxin A and fumonisin B2 has been observed. In calculating the potential exposure of mycotoxins, the possibility of high levels of aflatoxin B1 intake have been shown to be possible, which could lead to a public health risk when consuming contaminated spices, herbs and foods containing them.
Food matrix interference is still a big challenge in analyzing multiclass mycotoxins. Herein, a novel cold-induced liquid-liquid extraction-magnetic solid phase extraction (CI-LLE-MSPE) coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) method was explored for the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in chili powders. Fe3O4@MWCNTs-NH2 nanomaterials were prepared and characterized, and the factors affecting the MSPE process were investigated. Based on this, the CI-LLE-MSPE-UPLC-Q-TOF/MS method was established for determining ten mycotoxins in chili powders. The proffered technique eliminated the matrix interference effectively and demonstrated strong linearity (0.5-500 µg/kg, R2 ≥ 0.999), high sensitivity (limit of quantification was 0.5-1.5 µg/kg), and the recovery was 70.6%-111.7%. The extraction process is simpler than conventional methods, as the adsorbent can be separated using magnets, and reusable adsorbents are beneficial in reducing costs. In addition, the method can provide a valuable reference for pretreatment procedures for other complex matrices.
India, the land of spices and condiments, is endowed with a plethora of herbs, spices, and unusual plants. Spices have been used as flavoring and coloring agents in Indian society since time immemorial. Spices have also been shown to have antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. Assessing spices’ taste, nutritional, and bioactive qualities during postharvest processing is critical for quality control and preventing adulteration. Various illegal colors are frequently used to adulterate spices for fraudulent trading operations. For instance, Sudan dyes are widely substituted with hot chili, red pepper, or tomato products; metanil yellow in turmeric; tartrazine, amaranth, and sunset yellow FCF in ginger and chili powder; and magenta III and rhodamine B in saffron. These adulterants degrade the flavoring, fragrance, cosmetics, medicinal, and preservative value of spices, their authentication is critical in quality control. Apart from these adulterants, various aflatoxins secreted after fungal contamination also cause quality degradation of spices. According to the literature evaluation, HPLC is a rapid and adaptable technique for efficiently identifying these compounds in spices. The proposed chapter summarizes application of HPLC for detection, quantification, and quality assessment of various spices. Some of the recently published work on the said topic from various search engines (Google scholar, Scopus, science direct, etc.) is mentioned in the chapter.
A range of analytical methods (GC-MS, LC-MS, voltammetry, microbiological and microscopic techniques, PCR) was used to assay a range of potential chemical and biological contaminants in soil and dandelion samples. The results provide the first comprehensive safety analysis of dandelion as a herbal product. Samples were collected from three different sites in Poland where the local population collects dandelion plants for their own consumption: Rudenka (a mountain meadow in the European Ecological Network of Natura 2000 protection area, free of agrotechnical treatments for over 30 years), Warszawa 1 (dense single-family housing with heavy traffic), and Warszawa 2 (recreation area with heavy traffic near a coal-fired heat and power plant). The assays of heavy metals and other chemical pollutants (PAHs, PCBs, dioxins, pesticides, mycotoxins) confirm that all collected soil and dandelion samples were chemically pure; however, 95 species of pathogenic bacteria were detected, including “carnivorous” Vibrio vulnificus, zoonotic Pasteurella pneumotropica, Pasteurella canis, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus lentus and Francisella tularensis as well as 14 species of pathogenic fungi and one protozoan parasite (Giardia intestinalis). The discovery of septicemia agents V. vulnificus, Fusobacterium mortiferum and Rahnella aquatilis in the soil surrounding dandelion roots and in the flowers, G. intestinalis in dandelion leaves and roots samples, all collected in Warsaw, is highly disturbing. This finding underlines the need for increased caution when collecting dandelion in densely populated areas with a large population of pets. Thorough washing of the harvested plants is necessary before using them for consumption, especially in the case of making salads from fresh dandelion leaves, which is becoming increasingly popular among people leading healthy and an environmentally friendly lifestyle.
Spices are widely used in daily life such as diet and have certain activity. Especially in China, spices have been mainly used as condiments for thousands of years in order to improve the sensory quality of food; in addition, they and their derivatives can also be used as preservatives. In this study, three spices with unique Chinese characteristics widely used were selected: cassia bark (bark of Cinnamomum camphora Presl), bay fruits
(Laurus nobilis), and cloves (Syzygiumaromaticum). The main components and antibacterial ability of these three spices were analyzed by simulated extraction method. Through headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis, it was determined that the main active compounds in the essential oils of cassia bark, bay fruits and cloves were cinnamaldehyde (78.11%), cinnamaldehyde (61.78%) and eugenol (75.23%), respectively. The agar plate diffusion test and the simulated food culture medium experiment confirmed that the essential oils extracted from the three flavors have antibacterial effects on Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria innocua, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria grayi and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The antibacterial activity of different strains has different optimal extraction conditions. Generally speaking, cinnamon essential oil has the strongest antibacterial activity, while laurel fruit has the lowest antibacterial activity. The study proved the antibacterial activity of these three Chinese-specific spices and provided some new ideas and methods for the subsequent research and preparation of natural food additives and food antibacterial agents.
Depolanmış ürünlerde sorun olan fungal hastalık etmenleri, hasat sonrası ürünlerde kaliteyi sınırlandıran önemli faktörlerden biridir. Hasat sonrası kurutulmalık biberler mikotoksin üreten fungal patojenler tarafından çok sık enfekte olmaktadırlar. Aspergillus niger, Alternaria alternata ve Fusarium incarnatum, birçok bitkide hasat öncesi ve sonrası dönemlerde hastalıklara neden olan potansiyel mikotoksin üretebilen önemli fungal etmenlerdir. Brassica spp. tarafından üretilen ve geniş antimikrobiyal etkiye sahip olan isothiocyanate (ITC)’lar, glukozinolatların biyolojik olarak aktif bozulma ürünleri ile bağlantılı allelokimyasal bileşiklerdir. Bu çalışmada, farklı kimyasal yapıdaki isothiocyanate bileşiklerden methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), 2-propenyl (Allyl) isothiocyanate (AITC), benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) ve ethyl isothiocyanate (EITC)’ın Aspergillus niger, Alternaria alternata ve Fusarium incarnatum izolatlarına karşı in vitro antifungal etkileri araştırılmıştır. Test edilen Fusarium incarnatum, Aspergillus niger ve Alternaria alternata’nın misel gelişimini tamamen engelleyen konsantrasyonları (MIC) baz alındığında en yüksek antifungal etkinlik MITC tarafından sırasıyla 0.06, 0.09 ve 0.09 μl petri-1 konsantrasyonlarında gösterilmiştir. En düşük antifungal aktivite ise A. niger ile F. incarnatum’a karşı EITC (0.15 ve 0.21 μl petri-1), A. alternata’ya karşı ise AITC ve BITC (0.21 μl petri-1) tarafından gösterilmiştir. Farklı yapıdaki ITC’ların MIC değerlerinde genelde fungisidal etkiye sahip olduğu belirlenmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar, oldukça düşük konsantrasyonlarda antifungal etkinlik gösteren isothiocyanate’ların, depolanmış tarımsal ürünlerde bozulmalara neden fungal etmenlere karşı fumigant olarak olarak uygulanabilir potansiyele sahip olduğunu göstermiştir.
The present study was carried out to investigate the contamination level of total aflatoxin in locally available spices collected from three different locations of Peshawar. Eighteen samples of six different types of spices such as coriander, cumin seed, powdered red pepper, omum seed, black pepper and turmeric powder were analyzed for aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 by using thin layer chromatography. Out of 18, analyzed samples 12 samples were found contaminated with aflatoxin B1 and. In the samples of hashtnagri coriander (5.59 μg / kg total aflatoxin) was found contaminated above the maximum level (4 μg / kg) prescribed by European Commission, while the other samples were either not contaminated or contaminated below the maximum level. Omum and turmeric were the samples contaminated (6.54 μg / kg) above the maximum level collected from firdos market. Similarly the samples collected from haji camp have coriander (6.54 μg / kg) and omum seed (7.46 μg / kg) contaminated above the maximum level. The overall results revealed that coriander and omum seed were found contaminated very much in all the samples analyzed for total aflatoxin.
Contents of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OA) in the samples of wheat and barley were detected by RIA method. Average contents of AFB1 in the samples of wheat and barley were 2.4 μg/kg and 2.2 μg/kg, respectively. Average contents of OA in the samples of wheat and barley were 3.1 μg/kg and 2.4 μg/kg, respectively. The contents of mycotoxins corresponded to the allowed limits in food. During the studies of mutagenic activity of mycotoxins and their combinations by means of Ames test it was found that OA could increase the mutagenicity of AFB1 in the case of their simultaneous occurrence in the same substrate.
Black pepper (Piper nigrum), an Indian native spice, has been widely used in human diet for several thousands of years. It is valued for its characteristic sharp and stinging qualities attributed to the alkaloid piperine. While it is used primarily as a food adjunct, black pepper is also used as a food preservative and as an essential component in traditional medicines in India and China. Since the discovery of black pepper's active ingredient, piperine, the use of black pepper has caught the interest of modern medical researchers. Many physiological effects of black pepper, its extracts or its bioactive compound, piperine, have been reported in recent decades. By stimulating the digestive enzymes of the pancreas, piperine enhances digestive capacity and significantly reduces gastrointestinal food transit time. Piperine has been documented to enhance the bioavailability of a number of therapeutic drugs as well as phytochemicals through its inhibitory influence on enzymatic drug biotransforming reactions in liver and intestine. It strongly inhibits hepatic and intestinal aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase and glucuronyl transferase. Most of the clinical studies on piperine have focused on its effect on drug metabolism. Piperine's bioavailability enhancing property is also partly attributed to increased absorption as a result of its effect on the ultrastructure of the intestinal brush border. Piperine has been demonstrated in in vitro studies to protect against oxidative damage by inhibiting or quenching reactive oxygen species. Black pepper or piperine treatment has also been evidenced to lower lipid peroxidation in vivo and beneficially influence antioxidant status in a number of experimental situations of oxidative stress. Piperine has also been found to possess anti-mutagenic and anti-tumor influences. Clinical studies are limited, but several have reported the beneficial therapeutic effects of black pepper in the treatment of smoking cessation and dysphagia. © 2009 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved.
The genetic diversity of a population of Aspergillus fl avus isolated from sesame seeds collected in 2004 and 2005 from various parts of Iran was studied through vegetative compatibility, and their mycotoxin production was determined. Sixteen vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) were identifi ed among the nit mutants. VCGs were not evenly distributed through Iran. With few exceptions, there was a relationship between a VCG and the amount of mycotoxins produced by its isolates .
The antifungal activity of essential oils of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Apiaceae), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae), mint (Mentha piperita L., Lamiaceae) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae) was evaluated against mycotoxin producers Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. High Resolution Gas Chromatography was applied to analyze chemical constituents of essential oils. The effect of different concentrations of essential oils was determined by solid medium diffusion assay. Mycelial growth and sporulation were determined for each essential oil at the concentrations established by solid medium diffusion assay. At the fifth, seventh and ninth days the mycelial diameter (Ø mm) and spore production were also determined. FUN-1 staining was performed to assess cell viability after broth macrodilution assay. Trans-anethole, zingiberene, menthol and thymol are the major component of essential oils of fennel, ginger, mint and thyme, respectively. The effective concentrations for fennel, ginger, mint and thyme were 50, 80, 50 and 50% (oil/DMSO; v/v), respectively. The four essential oils analysed in this study showed antifungal effect. Additionally, FUN-1 staining showed to be a suitable method to evaluate cell viability of potential mycotoxigenic fungi A. flavus and A. parasiticus after treatment with essential oils.
The effect of ten powdered spice plants was evaluated at the concentration of 1, 2, 3 and 4% to observe the mycelial growth and sporulation of Aspergillus niger and Eurotium repens. The spices were added to the culture media PDA and CYA20S. Clove completely inhibited the mycelial growth of the tested fungi. The other spices: cinnamon, garlic, thyme, mint, anis, oregano and onion were, in a decreasing order, promising antifungals. Bay leaf and basil did not show a pronounced fungistatic effect. The antitoxigenic potential of the spices was tested against one aflatoxin-producing strain of AspergiIIus flavus. The spices were tested at the same concentrations previously mentioned and were added to the culture medium YES, appropriate for the production of those metabolites. Clove completely inhibited the mycelial growth of Aspergillus flavus. Cinnamon and anis totally inhibited the production of Bl and B2 aflatoxin. Both bay leaf and basil inhibited the synthesis of aflatoxin starting from the concentration of 2%. The other spices did not have a pronounced antiaflatoxigenic effect.
The prevalence and population density of the mycobiota of 50 samples belonging to 10 kinds of spices (anise, black pepper, red pepper, black cumin, peppermint, cardamom, clove, cumin, ginger and marjoram) which collected from different places in Jeddah Governorate were studied. The natural occurrence of mycotoxins in those samples was also investigated. Fifteen genera and thirty - one species of fungi in addition to one species variety were isolated and identified during this study. The most common genera were Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. Aflatoxins (12~40 µg/kg) were detected in the extract of 5 samples of each of anise seeds and black pepper fruits; three samples of black cumin seeds and on sample only of each of peppermint and marjoram leaves out of 5 samples tested of each. Sterigmatocystin (15~20 µg/kg) was detected in some samples of red pepper, cumin and marjoram. The inhibitory effects of 10 kinds of powdered spices were tested against 3 toxigenic isolates of fungi (Aspergillus flavus, A. versicolor and Penicillium citrinum). Clove proved to be antimycotic compounds. It inhibited the growth of the tested toxigenic fungi. Black pepper, peppermint, cardamom, cumin and marjoram completely inhibited aflatoxins production, while black pepper and cardamom also completely inhibited sterigmatocystin production.
Fifteen spices obtained from common markets were examined for their mould profile. A total of 520 fungal isolates, representing 57 species, were recovered and identified from dried and ground spice samples on three different media using standard dilution plate method. The most heavily contaminated spice samples examined were observed in ginger in order of magnitude of 5325-6800 cfu/g. The most predominant fungal genera encountered were Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. Relative occurrence values of taxa disclosed ranged between 80% for Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Penicillium arenicola, and 10% for some species. Samples obtained from sumac encountered very rare colony counts indicating its antifungal prosperities. The present magnitude of contamination and spectra of mycobiota approximate those reported for similar spice samples. Several potentially mycotoxigenic fungi were isolated from the majority of samples. The present study attracts the attention to potential risk for mycotoxins contamination may be caused as a result of using these spices, especially in great quantities. The study strongly recommends reduction in application of heavily contaminated spices like ginger in food processing and using some others like clove and sumac due to their antimicrobial properties.
The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in chilies from Pakistan was determined by using HPLC in work undertaken in Pakistan.
Whole (n = 22) and powdered (n = 22) chilies were analyzed. Sixteen (73.0%) and 19 (86.4%) samples of whole and ground chilies, respectively, were contaminated.
The mean concentration in powdered chilies (32.20 μg/kg) was higher statistically than in whole chilies (24.69 μg/kg). Concentrations
ranged from 0.00 to 89.56 μg/kg for powdered chilies, compared with 0.00–96.3 μg/kg for whole chilies. The limits of detection
and quantification were 0.05 μg/kg and 0.53 μg/kg, respectively. The concentrations were high in general and greater than
the statutory limit set by the European Union. There is considerable scope for improvements in chili production in Pakistan.
S‐Carvone was isolated from Mentha spicata (Fam. Lamiaceae) and purified using chromatographic methods, and also characterized with GS‐MS, FTIR, and NMR techniques. The antioxidant activity of S‐carvone obtained from Mentha spicata was evaluated as in vitro using a total antioxidant activity test. Results were compared with a standard antioxidant, α‐tocopherol. The results indicate that S‐carvone possess high antioxidant activity compared to α‐tocopherol.
BACKGROUND: Fungal contamination and Callosobruchus infestation results in qualitative and quantitative losses of chickpea seeds during storage. Most of the synthetic chemicals used as preservatives have adverse effects. Therefore, the antifungal and insecticidal potential of Mentha arvensis essential oil was evaluated to determine whether this could be an eco‐friendly substitute of synthetic preservatives.
RESULTS: The stored chickpea seeds were dominated by Aspergillus flavus (46.1%) and 30% isolates among them were found toxigenic. The MIC of Mentha oil against A. flavus was recorded at 400 µL L ⁻¹ and it exhibited broad fungitoxic activity against 14 storage fungi. The oil was found superior to some prevalent synthetic fungicides. Mentha oil showed potent insecticidal activity against Callosobruchus chinensis at different concentrations and exposure times. The oviposition by C. chinensis was completely checked at 10 µL L ⁻¹ while F 1 emergence was completely inhibited at 200 µL L ⁻¹ . During in situ experiments, 94.05% protection of the chickpea from C. chinensis by Mentha oil showed superiority over the organophosphate insecticide malathion, where 90.75% protection was recorded.
CONCLUSION: The Mentha EO showing potent fungitoxic and insecticidal efficacy and may be recommended as a plant‐based preservative in the management of fungal and insect infestation of chickpea and other pulses during storage. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry
From ancient times, spices have played a major role in the lifestyle of people from certain parts of the world. They have served numerous roles through history, including as coloring agents, flavoring agents, preservatives , food additives and medicine. The active phytochemicals derived from these spices have provided the molecular basis for these actions. This chapter reviews the traditional uses of selected spices.
The effect of ten powdered spice plants was evaluated ( at 1, 2, 3 and 4% concentration) to observe the micelial growth and esporulation of Penicillium roqueforti Thompson and Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenberg: Fries) Vuillemin. The spices were added to the culture media PDA and CYA20S. Clove completely inhibited the mycelial growth of the tested fungi. The other spices; cinnamon, garlic, thyme, mint, anis, oregano and basil also have promising antifungal properties. Laurel and basil did not show a pronounced fungicide effect. In agreement with the first stage of work four spices were selected for the extraction of the essential oil by utilizing the vapor "draging" technique. The antitoxigenic potential of the species was tested against one ochratoxin A-producing strain of Aspergillus ochraceus Wilhelm. Clove completely inhibited the micelial growth of the fungi A. ochraceus. Garlic and laurel completely inhibited the ochratoxin A production. Cinnamon and anis inhibited the synthesis of ochratoxin A starting from the concentration of 3%, and mint starting from 4%. The other spices did not have a pronounced antiochratoxigenic action.
A comparison was made of total aflatoxins (AFs) in 43 samples of chilies collected during winter and 42 in summer to determine the effect of season on contamination. The samples were analyzed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. The limits of detection and quantification for AFB1 and AFG1 were 0.05 μg/kg and 0.50 μg/kg, whilst for AFG2 and AFB2 they were 0.10 μg/kg and 0.60 μg/kg. In the winter samples, AFs were detected in 18 (72%) whole and 14 (60%) ground chilies, with concentration ranges 0.00-52.30 μg/kg and 0.00-74.60 μg/kg respectively. In the summer samples, 17 (64%) whole and 12 (76%) ground chilies were contaminated with AFs at concentrations 0.00-61.50 μg/kg and 0.00-95.90 μg/kg respectively. The percentage of samples greater than the European Union statutory limit for AFB1 and total AF for whole chilies were 48 and 36%, compared with ground chili values of 50 and 45%, respectively, in the winter season. In the summer season, the samples greater than the European Union limit for AFB1 and total AF in whole chilies were 52 and 38%, compared with values of 54 and 49% in ground chilies respectively. AF contamination was found to be higher in summer chili samples and hence winter chilies may provide a better quality product with respect to AF contamination. The ability to undertake this analysis in Pakistan will enhance greatly the ability to improve chili production in that country, as described herein.
Samples of common Egyptian foods (17 nuts and seeds, 10 spices, 31 herbs and medicinal plants, 12 dried vegetables, and 28 cereal grains) were collected from markets in Cairo and Giza. A portion of each sample was extracted with chloroform, and the concentrated extract was cleaned by passing through a silica gel column. Aflatoxin Bi was determined by reversed-phase liquid chromatography with UV detection. The highest prevalence of aflatoxin B1 was in nuts and seeds (82%), followed by spices (40%), herbs and medicinal plants (29%), dried vegetables (25%), and cereal grains (21 %). The highest mean concentration of aflatoxin B1 was in herb and medicinal plants (49 ppb), followed by cereals (36 ppb), spices (25 ppb), nuts and seeds (24 ppb), and dried vegetables (20 ppb). Among nuts and seeds, the prevalence of aflatoxin B1 was highest (100%) in watermelon seeds, inshell peanuts, and unshelled peanuts. The lowest prevalence and concentrations were in hommos (garbanzo beans). The highest concentrations of aflatoxin B1 were detected in foods that had no potential for field contamination but required drying during processing and storage, such as pomegranate peel, watermelon seeds, and molokhia.
Known as the "King" of spices, black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and the "Queen" of spices, cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum M.), both perennial crops of the tropics, are the most important and most widely sought after spice crops of the world. They both have many uses, for example, both are used as flavourings and as a medicine. This book provides a comprehensive review of these two very important spice crops, covering origin, history, geographical distribution, production, economy and their uses. Discusses the two major spices of great economic value to the developing world The author is an eminent scientist who has won numerous awards for his work in this area.
A total of 84 medicinal plant samples and spices were examined for the contamination of molds and mycotoxins. Ten fungal genera of different taxonomic groups were detected. Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. niger, Fusarium oxysporum, and Penicillium viridicatum occurred most often on the medicinal plant samples. Direct determination of mycotoxins in medicinal plant samples revealed aflatoxin B-1 in 17 samples at an average of from 10 to 160 mu gkg(-1), ochratoxin-A in 3 samples at an average of from 20 to 80 mu gkg(-1), and no detection of penicillic acid, zearalenone, or T-toxin. Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. oryzae were aflatoxin-producers, whereas, A. ochraceus, P. viridicatum, and P. variable were ochratoxin-A producers. In addition P. viridicatum, P. chrysogenum, and P. commune were penicillic acid-producers. The molds produced high concentrations of mycotoxins in synthetic medium and low to zero concentrations in the medicinal plants.
Many herbal remedies have been employed in various medical systems for the treatment and management of different diseases. The Anethum Graveolens commonly known as "Dill" has been recognized in different system of traditional medicines for the treatment of different diseases and ailments of human beings. This review supports all updated information on its pharmacognosy, pharmacological activity and traditional uses. Preliminary phytochemical screening of this plant revealed the presence of flavonoids, essential oil, phenolic compounds. It has been reported as antibacterial, antispasmodic, hyperlipidimic, antiulcer activity, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, genotoxicity, diuretic effect. There is no report available on isolated constituents of bioactive compound from whole fruits of Anethum Graveolens which support its further to isolating a useful pharmacologically active compound as a drug.
Several natural commercially available food additives (marjoram, mint, basil, coriander, thyme, dill and rosemary) including essential oils were tested for their influence on growth and aflatoxin B1 production by A. flavus strain. Yeast extract- sucrose (YES) growth media at 25°C were also used for growth and aflatoxin B1 production by the tested strain. Aflatoxin production was determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).The obtained results showed that the tested essential oils caused a highly significant inhibition on fungal growth as well as the aflatoxin B1 production by the A.flavus strain. Results showed that essential oils of dill, coriander, basil, marjoram, rosemary, mint and thyme have antifungal activities against A. flavus and aflatoxin B1 production in vitro. Dill EO is the most effective against aflatoxin production, while both EOs of thyme and basil delayed the growth of A. flavus and complete inhibition was observed at 150 μl/100 ml medium. The data also showed that the essential oils added to the culture media were an effective practical way to control the aflatoxin B1 production and consequently to avoid its toxic effect.
This study is an attempt to prevent or minimize the negative effects due to ingesting feed contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs). An exposure study extended for two different stages was conducted using eighteen Egyptian male sheep. The 1st stage (pre-treatment) was suggested to compare the performance of animal groupings under the normal conditions before receiving any treatment, either level of contamination(s) or dosage(s) of additive, such stage extended for 2 weeks. The 2nd stage (treatment), animals received aflatoxin(s)-contaminated diets (10 mg/kilogram concentrated diet) and / or the thyme oil at two levels (250 and 500 mg / head / day), such stage extended for 4 weeks. The average body weights, body weight gains and feed conversion ratios were dramatically affected during the exposure stage to AFs. The thyme oil treatment reduced the adverse effects of aflatoxins and improved the rumen activity and motility and animal performance in general, either at low or high dose. The activities of gamma-glutamyl transferase (γGT); aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enzymes, were significantly elevated during exposure to aflatoxins. Also, serum uric acid level was increased; but the levels of serum glucose and albumin were decreased by dietary aflatoxin. On the other hand, the use of thyme oil either 250 or 500 mg / head / day; approximately normalizing such levels. The major excretory route of aflatoxins and their metabolites was found to be the urine (accounting for 39.71% to 68.32% of the tatoal AFs-excretion forms, whereas less than 10% of these forms were excreted in the feces. Only about 52% of the dose was recovered in the feces and urine in identifiable forms, mainly aflatoxin B2α (AFB2α) and unchanged aflatoxin B1(AFB1) without any detectable amount of aflatoxicol. In conclusion, our results may lead us to suggest that there is a significant liver dysfunction in these groups, 10 mg of aflatoxin/kg of diet was sufficient to impair performance and cause liver damage in male sheep, the thyme oil could be considered a potential natural antitoxicant for sheep and could protect sheep from hepato-toxicities which induced by aflatoxin-contaminated diet when used as a sole diet.
The purpose of this study was to investigate aflatoxins (AFs) B1, B2, G1 and G2 in contaminated dried red peppers and feedstuffs consumed in Turkey. The AFs were detected using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the results higher than 1 ppb were further confirmed by thin layer chromatography (TLC). In HPLC, the detection limit of B1 and G1 was 0.075 ng and for B2 and G2 it was 0.060 ng. In TLC, the detection limit of AFs was 1 ng. A total of 26 commercially available dried red pepper and 53 feedstuff specimens were analyzed. In Turkey for spices the allowed upper B1 level is 5 ppb and for all foods total AF level is 10 ppb. In dried red peppers, the B1 level higher than 5 ppb was 42.3% and the total AF level greaterthan 10 ppb was 38.4%. In Turkey for mixed feedstuffs the allowed upper total AF level is 50 ppb and in 7.5% of the feedstuffs the total level was higher than 50 ppb.
Together with its companion volume, Handbook of herbs and spices: Volume 2 provides a comprehensive and authoritative coverage of key herbs and spices. Chapters on individual plants cover such issues as description and classification, production, chemical structure and properties, potential health benefits, uses in food processing and quality issues. Authoritative coverage of more than 50 major herbs and spices, Provides detailed information on chemical structure, cultivation and definition, Incorporates safety issues, production, main uses, health issues and regulations.
Experiments were carried out with two species of seeds of sesame (Benniseed) (Sesamum indicum Link, and Sesamum radiatum Schumach) inoculated with a storage fungus (Aspergillus flavus) previously isolated from seeds of sesame The inoculated seeds were incubated for 10, 15 and 20 day intervals at 30°C. Results showed that S. indicum inoculated with the test fungus A. flavus and incubated for a period of 20 days showed the presence of aflatoxin B1 estimated to be 25 ppb. While seeds of S. rediatum inoculated with the same test fungus and inculcated for the same length of time did not show any presence of aflatoxin. All the seeds of the two species of sesamum inoculated with the test fungus and incubated for 10 and 15 day intervals showed no presence of aflatoxin. The results portray the danger of consuming infested seeds of sesame which usually appear uninfested to a casual observer when A. flavus grows on them and the inherent danger of using such seeds for livestock feed.
Aflatoxins display an insufficiently recognized risk to human health. They can be found in a variety of food items and are not destroyed by normal industrial processing or cooking. In this study, totally 134 spice samples including powdered red pepper, flaked red pepper, black pepper and cumin were investigated for total aflatoxin levels by ELISA. Spice samples were obtained from bazaars and markets in Burdur, Isparta and Antalya city centers. Total aflatoxin values of the samples not exceeded 10 μg kg-1 as legal limit of the European Union. All of the red pepper samples were contaminated with levels ranging from 3.55-9.55 μg kg-1. Black pepper samples contained levels ranging from 0.67-6.15 μg kg-1. Cumin aflatoxin levels were found to be ranging from 4.55-8.57 μg kg-1 while flaked red pepper contained aflatoxin levels maximum 9.46 μg kg-1.
In this work we studied the antimicrobial action of essential oils based on their chemical composition. For the experimental study were used essential oils obtained from dill (Anthum gruveoles), basil (Ocimun basilicum), thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum), specific plants for our geographical area (area Romania). Fungus strains used belong to the classes Aspergillus sp. (A. niger, A oryzae, A. ochraceus), Fusarium sp (Fusarium oxysporum). The experimental study aims to follow the development of colonies of mold growing on synthetic medium of malt, by monitoring the size and appearance of the colony formed. Experiments were carried out maintaining a specific microclimate for growth of microorganisms, rich in essential oils. It is found that for the type Aspergillus, essential oils induces a latency period in the growth of the colonies, from 48 to 96 h and the antifungal activity for Fusarium oxysporum is quite small, even to high quantity of oil.
A market survey in Sudan indicated the growing trend of import of essential oils as crude raw materials or in a form of semi-finished or finished products and commodities. Quality control and assessment of the imported essential oils need to be promoted bearing in mind the research and development in this field. The main objectives of the present paper were to evaluate some of these imported essential oils namely: mint oil, clove oil and olibanum oil and to compare their physical and chemical properties with essential oils prepared from plants available in the local market. The essential oils were investigated according to international standard methods: hydrodistillation, thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography - mass spectroscopy and British Pharmacopoeia procedures. According to the results obtained, it was obvious that the physico-chemical properties and chemical composition of traded (imported) essential oils were different when compared with essential oils prepared from local plant samples and were not compatible with the international standards. Quality control and assessment of imported and locally produced essential oils should be promoted with regard to their uses in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, aromatherapy and food industries.
In the present investigation, essential oil (EO) and methanolic extract of Tunisian Mentha spicata leaves were tested for their chemical composition and biological activities. Results showed that EO was characterized by the predominance of oxygenated monoterpenes (92.18%), followed by monoterpene hydrocarbons and sesquiterpenes whose respective amounts were 2.74 and 3.1% of the whole EO. The main volatile compound of M. spicata EO was L-menthone, accounting for 32.74% of the total volatiles, followed by pulegone (26.67%). The phenolic composition of methanolic extracts was determined by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The major flavonoid component was apigenin with a mean concentration of 38.4 mg/100 g dry weight. M. spicata leave extract tested for their antioxidant and antibacterial activities showed a significant antiradical and superoxide anion scavenging capacity in addition to the great potential for antimicrobial activities against the bacteria tested.
A total of 112 samples of spices (24 caraway, 20 coriander, 25 curcuma, 20 black pepper and 23 red pepper) and 110 samples of dried nuts (44 almonds, 42 peanuts and 24 pistachio) purchased from popular markets in 24 regions of Tunisia were analyzed for ochratoxin A (OTA) by fluorescence HPLC. The average levels of contamination of OTA found in spice samples were 244, 206, 290, 274 and 203 µg/kg, respectively, for caraway, coriander, curcuma, black pepper and red pepper. Concerning dried nut samples, the average levels were 61, 60 and 89 µg/kg, respectively, for almonds, peanuts and pistachio. Contamination levels were higher than the usual norms (10.0 OTA µg/kg) established by the European Commission in 2005 . This survey is the first to be carried out on the natural occurrence of OTA in the main spices and dried nuts consumed by the Tunisian population.
Non-sanitary conditions during the drying, transport and storage stages in the production of chili could introduce mycotoxin contamination. The aim of this study was to determine the level of the aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in 80 samples of chili marketed in supermarkets and open markets in Malaysia. Mycotoxins were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection after immunoaffinity column clean-up. The limits of detections (LODs) were 0.02, 0.02, 0.1, 0.06 and 0.02 ng/g for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 and OTA, respectively. Fifty-two chili samples (65.0%) were contaminated with total aflatoxin level in the range of 0.2–79.7 ng/g. The AFB1 exhibited the highest incidence compared to the other examined aflatoxins. Sixty-five of 80 chili samples (81.25%) were found to be contaminated with OTA in the range of 0.2–101.2 ng/g. Results showed that the level of mycotoxin contamination of the chili samples purchased from the open markets were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those of the chili samples obtained from supermarkets. It seems that more precaution and hygienic controls should be practiced to prevent mycotoxin contamination.
Samples of wheat and mustard were collected from traditional storage structures viz. gunny bags, kothi, mora and iron bins, and examined for fungal flora and for aflatoxin content. Of 197 wheat and 135 mustard samples, 50 and 42 respectively contained aflatoxins. The incidence of Aspergillus flavus and levels of aflatoxin B1 were highest in the samples collected from gunny bags. Of 593 A. flavus isolates, 39% produced aflatoxins in liquid culture (sucrose, MgSO47H2O, KNO3, yeast extract). The influence of storage structures on aflatoxin contamination is discussed.
A total of 102 helva samples consisting of 34 plain helva, 34 helva containing cacao, and 34 helva containing pistachio nuts purchased from helva-factories and supermarkets in Adana of Turkey were analysed for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by thin-layer chromatography. The detection limit of AFB1 was 1μgkg−1. Recovery experiments were carried out with spiked samples in the range 2–10μgkg−1 of AFB1. No AFB1 was found in any plain helva and helva containing cacao samples. On the other hand, of 34 helva containing pistachio nuts AFB1 was determined in eight samples. AFB1 was found in excess of Turkish legal limit of 5μgkg−1 in 4 of 102 helva samples. This paper reports the data of the first survey for the presence of AFB1 in helva in Turkey.
A survey for total aflatoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2) was conducted on 88 spices and processed spice products commercialized in Korea. The presence of aflatoxins was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector using immunoaffinity column clean-up. Total aflatoxins (AFs) are detected in 12 samples (13.6% of incidence) including seven red pepper powder, two red pepper pastes (Kochujang), two curry and one ginger product. The contamination levels are 0.08–4.45μg/kg as aflatoxin B1 and 0.08–4.66μg/kg as AFs. The liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) analysis on contaminated samples was conducted for the confirmation of detected aflatoxins. The 12 samples which showed aflatoxins by HPLC/FLD were confirmed as aflatoxins by LC–MS/MS.
The effect of storage under hermetically sealed or vacuum storage methods, compared with the traditional method, on important quality indices for Turkish red chili peppers (RCPs) was evaluated at a semi-commercial scale in a warehouse. One tonne lots of flaked and mechanically dried RCP of maximum moisture content 10 ± 1% were stored for six months under a low absolute pressure of 80–100 mm Hg, under sealed, airtight conditions, or under traditional storage conditions (bags stacked in barns; as a control). Basic quality parameters related to microbiological counts, amount of aflatoxins (B1 and total), pungency properties, colour levels, organoleptic characters and moisture contents were determined before and after 6 months of storage. The experiments indicated that the best quality RCPs were obtained by vacuum storage with quite low losses in quality indicators (capsaicin, colour and aflatoxin). Hermetic storage conditions resulted in major losses of colour, while microbial growth and aflatoxin occurrence were inhibited, and the pungency of RCP was protected. The results supported the feasibility of commercial application of airtight and vacuum storage technologies for long-term storage of RCP. The sealed flexible vacuum–hermetic storage technology introduces substantial advantages over traditional storage methods in the preservation of quality characteristics such as colour, pungency, and aflatoxin of RCP for longer storage periods.
Sample cleanup with Sep‐Pak cartridges and validation of an HPLC/fluorescence method for separation and identification of aflatoxins in pepper was carried out. The samples were extracted with chloroform/water and filtered. The filtrate was purified on a silica cartridge followed by a C18 cartridge. Aflatoxins were derivatized with trifluoracetic acid and analyzed by HPLC with a column containing TSK gel ODS 80 TM CTR. Validation of the method was evaluated by recovery studies and CV%. Samples of black and white pepper were spiked in triplicate with total aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 at 3, 6, and 12 µg/kg levels. Recovery values were in the range of 86.2–96.2 for aflatoxin B1, 91.2–97.7 for aflatoxin B2, 85.3–94.2 for aflatoxin G1, and 89.8–97 for aflatoxin G2 with CV% being less than 12.1%. The detection limits for each aflatoxin, based on a signal‐to‐noise ratio of 3, were 0.009 µgL for G1 and 0.006 µgL for B1, G2, and B2. Twenty‐two samples of pepper (4 black and 18 white) were analyzed for aflatoxins by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The degree of contamination in a lot of white pepper imported from India (six samples) and in sixteen samples randomly purchased from the market was estimated. Fourteen of the analyzed samples contained aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, or G2); however, they were below the limit of 20 ppb fixed by the European Union, except for one.
This investigation was designed to throw light on the microbial status of some crude herbal materials. A total of 303 samples, representing different types of spices and medicinal plants were collected from random sources in Egypt. Microbiological analysis was carried out for the detection and enumeration of microorganisms using standard media. Also, samples were investigated for the mycological point of view and aflatoxins analysis was performed. Representative figures for the microbial status of dried herbal materials including an aerobic bacterial count, spore-forming, coliform, E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, yeast and mold were (10 to 10 ), (10 to 10 ), (10 to 10 ), (3 to 10 ), (10 in positive samples), (not detectable), (10 to 10 ) and 3 3 4 3 2 4 (10 to 10 CFU/g), respectively. Moreover, fungi were found in all of the collected samples. Aspergillus, 4 Fusarium and Penicillium genera were more frequently detected than other genera (Alternaria, Absidia spp., Mucor spp., Rhizoctonia and Cladosporium spp.).The collected samples were found to be free of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2). It was concluded that spices and medicinal plants may be high risk products and therefore, more studies are necessary to find methods of decontamination.
A survey of red chilli (Capsicum indicum) for contamination with aflatoxins was performed on different samples comprising whole, crushed and powdered red chilli collected from various stores located in the city of Karachi, Pakistan. Red chilli required rather rigorous clean-up procedure for removal of adulterants and interference resulting from various types of compounds. A modified Romer method followed by bi-directional thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used for the detection of aflatoxins and confirmatory tests were performed by spraying the TLC plates with 50% sulphuric acid and making the derivative with trifluoroacetic acid. Of all the 176 samples of red chilli examined, 66% were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin B1. Generally, samples of red chilli exammined were found to be fairly low in aflatoxin B1 content, whereas only seven samples were found to contain concentrations greater than 25 μg/kg of aflatoxin B1.
7 varieties of mustards were cultivated in statistically designed field during 1988 through 1989 and 1989 through 1990 crops in order to ascertain the resistant or less susceptible varieties for aflatoxin elaboration. Under field condition, none of the varieties of mustard was found to be resistant. Maximum aflatoxin contamination was observed in the late planting time (15 th November) crops. Insect (Lipaphis erysime) incidence had significant negative correlation (r=-0.9354) with the yield (Q/hectare) while it had significant positive correlation (r=0.5705) with aflatoxin contamination.
A study of the occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) in sesame seeds was conducted in the Khorasan province of Iran between September 2009 and August 2010. Samples (n = 182) were analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC), and detection limits for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, were 0.45, 0.19, 0.61, and 0.22 ng/g, respectively. AFB1 was detected in 33 samples (18.1%), at a mean level of 1.62 ± 1.32 ng/g, and a maximum level of 5.54 ng/g. AFB1 levels exceeded the European Union (EU) maximum tolerated level (MTL, 2 ng/g) in 9 samples, and the Iran MTL (5 ng/g) in 1 sample. Regarding total aflatoxins (AFT), the mean level was 0.92 ± 1.36 ng/g, and the maximum level was 5.54 ng/g. No sesame sample exceeded the Iran MTL (15 ng/g), but two samples exceeded the EU MTL (4 ng/g) for AFT. It is concluded that low levels of AFs occur frequently in sesame from Iran.
In this presentation, the mycotoxin levels-as analysed by the analytical centre for mycotoxin surveillance of the state food laboratory (LAVES Braunschweig)-for approximately 500 food samples are reported. The samples were collected in the year 2009 at retail in the German federal state of Lower Saxony. Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A were analysed in dried fruits, spices, cereals and tree nuts. Ochratoxin A was detected in all samples of dried vine fruits, at levels up to 8.1 μg/kg. Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A were also found in nutmeg and curry powder: the maximum regulatory levels for aflatoxins were exceeded in 25% of the nutmeg samples. Nearly all samples of basmati rice contained aflatoxins, although at levels below the maximum regulatory level in all but one sample. Aflatoxins were also detected in about 50% of hazelnut samples, in 20% of the samples the maximum levels was exceeded (maximum 23.2 μg/kg). In contrast, aflatoxin contents in pistachios were surprisingly low. Fusarium toxins were analysed in cereals and cereal products such as flour, bread, and pasta. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was the predominant toxin found in these samples: DON was found in about 40% of the samples, although the maximum levels were not exceeded (max. 418 μg/kg). Fumonisins (FBs) and zearalenone (ZEA) were specifically analysed in maize products (snacks, flour and oil). Most of these samples (80%) were positive, but at levels not exceeding the maximum levels. Maximum levels were 98 μg/kg (ZEA) and 577 μg/kg (sum of FB1 and FB2). Ergot alkaloids (six major alkaloids) were analysed in rye flour, and approximately 50% were positive. The highest concentration of ergot alkaloids was 1,063 μg/kg; the predominant alkaloids were ergotamine and ergocristine. In conclusion, the results indicate that continuous and efficient control measures for mycotoxins in a wide range of critical foods are necessary to ensure compliance with maximum levels. Although the mycotoxin levels in the vast majority of samples were below maximum levels, year-to-year variation and changes in the production of relevant commodities may result in a different picture in the future.