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British Journal of Education, Society &
Behavioural Science
11(2): 1-9, 2015, Article no.BJESBS.19565
ISSN: 2278-0998
SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org
Social Implications and Factors Associated With
Street Hawking Among Children in Uyo, Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria
Ofonime E. Johnson
1*
and Chukwuemeka A. Ihesie
1
1
Department of Community Health, University of Uyo Teaching Hospital, Uyo, Nigeria.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Author OEJ designed the study,
wrote the protocol and the first draft of the manuscript, while author CAI supervised the data
collection, analyzed the data and contributed to the first draft of the manuscript. Both authors read and
approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/BJESBS/2015/19565
Editor(s):
(1) Madine VanderPlaat, Department of Sociology and Criminology, Saint Mary's University, Canada.
(2)
Sheying Chen, Social Policy and Administration Pace University, New York.
(3)
Sagini Keengwe, Department of Teaching and Learning, University of North Dakota, USA.
Reviewers:
(1) Omesh Kumar Bharti, State Institute of Health & Family Welfare, Shimla, HP, India.
(2)
P. Moodley, Department of Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
(3)
Maria Teresa Jacinto Sarmento Pereira, Institute of Education, University of Minho, Portugal.
(4)
Luciana de Barros Correia Fontes, Departamento de Clínica e Odontologia Preventiva, Universidade Federal de
Pernambuco, Brazil.
Complete Peer review History:
http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/10469
Received 16
th
June 2015
Accepted 28
th
July 2015
Published 9
th
August 2015
ABSTRACT
Background:
Street hawking is one of the commonest forms of child labor in Nigeria. This study
aimed at determining the social implications and factors associated with street hawking among
children in Uyo, South-South Nigeria.
Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional descriptive study carried out in Uyo in April,
2015. The instrument of data collection was a self designed, interviewer administered semi-
structured questionnaire. All consenting children aged 5-17 years hawking along major traffic light
intersections within Uyo Metropolis during the days of data collection were included in the study.
Data was analyzed using SPSS version 20.Level of significance was set at 0.05.
Results: A total of 225 respondents participated in the study; 119 (52.9%) were males and
Original Research Article
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
2
106 (47.1%) females. The mean age of respondents was 13.27 (2.52) years. Only 157 (73.03%)
were presently in school, while 48 (21.3%) had dropped out and 10 (4.4%) never went to sch
ool.
Up to 66 (29.3%) could not communicate fluently in English. Fifty six (35.7%) of those in school
reported worsening of their grades since hawking began. A greater number, 168 (74.7%) lived with
their parents. The most common singular occupation of respondents’ mothers, 139 (61.8%) and
fathers, 52(23.1%) respectively was trading. Up to 42 (18.7%) had lost their fathers. While hawking,
112 (49.8%) were robbed, 82 (36.4%) were involved in fights, 101 (44.9%) were physically
harassed by older adults and 6 (2.7%) had been targets of attempted kidnapping. Majority, 145
(64.4%) hawked to augment family income, while 63 (28.8%) hawked to earn a living. More than
half, 131 (58.2%) were unhappy with the work and desired to quit.
Conclusion: In view of the numerous negative effects of hawking on children, government should
implement and enforce the legislation addressing child street hawking in Nigeria and also set up
poverty alleviation programmes.
Keywords: Hawking; children; social implications; parents; Uyo; Nigeria.
1. INTRODUCTION
Street hawking is one of the commonest forms of
child labor in Nigeria and indeed sub-Saharan
Africa. Child hawking involves the selling of
things along the road and from one place to the
other by children below 18 years [1]. Street
trading has been reported to have numerous
negative consequences [1-3]. Children who
engage in street hawking more often than not are
deprived among other things of the opportunity of
being in school completely or partially because of
the long hours they are expected to work.
According to the ILO, child labour is defined as
"work that deprives children of their childhood,
their potential and their dignity, and that is
harmful to physical and mental development" [4].
Globally, 111 million children under 15 years
were reported to be in hazardous work in 2006
[5]. As at 2012, it was estimated that 168 million
children were engaged in some form of child
labour with sub-Saharan Africa accounting for
the highest incidence worldwide [6]. This
situation is a cause for concern especially
considering the negative effect on the future of
the child.
In Nigeria, Ebigbo identified that aside from
sexual abuse and child abandonment, street
hawking by children was a commonly reported
form of child abuse and neglect [7]. These
children engage in street trading on a regular
basis with the aim of earning a livelihood for
themselves or their families. Such findings have
been reported in other studies [8,9].
The International Labour Organization (ILO)
instituted two main conventions addressing child
labour: Convention No. 138 on minimum age
which sets 15 years for engagement of children
in light work as long as it doesn’t threaten their
health, safety and educational pursuits; and
convention No. 182 on the worst forms of child
labour which abhors hazardous work [4]. These
conventions have been ratified by Nigeria.
Historically, legislation against street trading/
hawking by children had been in existence and
was implemented by the British colonialist since
the 1950s’ before Nigeria’s independence [10].
Moreover, post-independence, Nigeria has
enacted legislation concerning child labour within
the Labour Act and has also adopted the Child
Right Act (CRA) (2003). A key provision of the
CRA states that using children for hawking is a
punishable offence under the Act while Section
59 (b) of the Labour Act prohibits the
employment of children under the age of 16
years in any work which is dangerous and
injurious to their health [11,12]. The prevalence
of street hawking in Nigeria indicates that
although Nigeria has legislation addressing child
labour in the form of street hawking,
implementation and enforcement are however
lacking [12].
Traditional views of children as helpers for socio-
economic advancement of the family are a
common perception in African climes [13]. This
socio-cultural disposition may be a major factor
fuelling the incidence of street hawking by
children.
Family-related factors and characteristics have
also been found to be associated with street
hawking. Studies in south-western Nigeria
established an association between family size,
socio-economic class and the prevalence of
street hawking by children. Children from larger
families and lower socio-economic class were
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
3
more likely to engage in street hawking to
augment family income [12]. The nature of inter-
relationship between members of the family unit
or the family environment was also found to have
a major influence on street hawking. Discordant
family units and violence against children at
home predicted violence against authority among
young adolescent children who may run away
from home and get involved in street hawking to
earn a living. This underscores the need for
efforts aimed at increasing and emphasizing
family relationships and cohesiveness [14]. Child
hawkers also stand the risk of becoming “street
children or children of the street” who live on their
own and fend for themselves on the street. This
may occur when they run away from home due
to parental or guardian abuse [12].
Children who are involved in street hawking have
been found to be exposed to a number of
associated hazards. These include being robbed
of their day’s cash sales, street fight incidents,
physical harassment by older adults and being
the targets of attempted kidnapping, poor school
performance and even death.
The negative effect of street hawking on the
academic performance of in-school children was
demonstrated in a study in South-western
Nigeria, where it was found that children who
hawked were more likely to have failed their last
academic term examinations [15]. The risk of
dropping out of school due to poor performance
as a result of street hawking could be a major
threat to the achieving universal primary
education as targeted by Millennium
Development Goal 2.
Children form the bulk of street hawkers. In a
study carried out in 2014 in Aba, Nigeria, 58.0%
of the hawkers were children between the ages
of 10 and 19years [9]. The objectives of the
present study were to determine the social
implications and factors associated with street
hawking among children in Uyo, metropolis in
South-South Nigeria with the intention of making
recommendations to relevant stakeholders.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study Area
The study was carried out in Uyo the capital of
Akwa Ibom State, one of the States located in
the southern part of Nigeria. The estimated
population of Uyo metropolis is 413,381 [16].
Most inhabitants are civil servants and traders.
2.2 Study Design/ Population
This was a cross sectional descriptive study
carried out among children aged 5-17 years
involved in hawking at traffic light intersections in
Uyo Metropolis in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
2.3 Sampling Size
A sample size calculation for cross sectional
studies was carried out using the formula for
estimating single proportion [17], with a
prevalence (p) of 0.16 being the proportion of
child street hawkers involved in road traffic
accident from a previous Nigerian study [12], with
z of 1.96, sampling error set at 5%, and 10%
over estimation to accommodate for non
response. A sample size of 230 was obtained.
2.4 Data Collection Instrument
A semi-structured interviewer administered
closed ended questionnaire was used to obtain
information on the socio-demographic
characteristics of the respondents, school
performance, work history, social hazards and
reasons for hawking. Four research assistants
with a minimum qualification of West African
School Certificate were recruited into the study.
The research assistants went through a one day
training session on how to use the questionnaire
in English and the local dialect after which the
research instruments were pretested on some
child hawkers at a traffic light to determine their
comprehension and exclude any ambiguity. The
questionnaire was found to be simple and well
understood by the hawkers in both English and
the local dialect. The children were interviewed in
any language they felt comfortable using. One of
the authors personally supervised the data
collection process in order to ascertain reliability.
The research assistants were community health
officers in training who had been involved in
other researches in the past and were very
familiar with use of the research tool.
2.5 Sampling Technique
All eligible consenting children hawking at major
traffic light points in Uyo metropolis were
interviewed over a four day period till the sample
size of 230 was obtained.
2.6 Data Management
The data obtained was edited manually, entered
into computer and analyzed using the Statistical
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
4
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version
20. Data analysis was done using descriptive
statistics (Frequency, proportions, means and
standard deviation to summarize variables) and
Inferential statistics (chi square, to test the
significance of association between two
categorical variables) with level of significance
set at 5%.
2.7 Ethical Considerations
Ethical clearance was obtained from Akwa Ibom
State Ministry of Health Ethical Review
Committee. Verbal informed consent was
obtained from each respondent after explaining
the purpose of the study and what it entailed.
Respondents who did not wish to participate
declined being interviewed and suffered no
consequence for such decision. In order to
ensure confidentiality and anonymity, serial
numbers and not names were used. Data
collected was kept secure and made accessible
to only members of the research team.
2.8 Limitation
Many of the hawkers were not willing to spare
too much time to be interviewed as they were
eager to return to their sales. This may have led
to the withholding of certain information in order
to save time. Also, the issue of self reporting was
considered a limitation as the findings of the
study were entirely based on the information
given by the respondents. Noise factor was not
very pronounced at the traffic light intersections
as the hawkers generally just showed their
articles to the motorists to see if they would buy.
This is different from the scenarios at the motor
parks and markets, where there is a lot of noise
pollution.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Results
A total of 230 questionnaires were administered
out of which 225 were completely filled, giving a
response rate of 97.8%. The mean age of
respondents was 13.27 (±2.52), with 137 (60.9%)
being 10 - 14 years. The hawkers were made up
of 119 (52.9%) males and 106 (47.1%) females,
giving a M:F ratio of 1.12:1. A total of 215
(95.6%) of the hawkers had commenced primary
or secondary education. However, only 157
(73.03%) of them were presently in school, while
48 (21.3%) had dropped out of school and 10
(4.4%) never went to school at all. Up to 66
(29.3%) could not communicate fluently in
English (Table 1).
A greater number, 168 (74.7%) of the
respondents lived with their parents. The most
common singular occupation of respondents’
mothers, 139 (61.8%) and fathers, 52 (23.1%)
respectively was trading. Up to 42(18.7%) of the
respondents had lost their fathers. A total of 162
(72.0%) had 4 or more siblings, with 103 (45.8%)
being either 1
st
or 2
nd
in birth order (Table 1).
A total of 56 (35.7%) of respondents in school
reported a worsening of their grades since they
began hawking (Table 2).
Up to 80 (35.6%) of the respondents had been
hawking for 1 – 2 years and fruits were the most
frequently hawked items (32.4%). Other common
items included snacks 56 (24.9%) and water, 37
(16.4%). More than half, 131 (58.2%) of
respondents were unhappy with the work and
would like to quit. They made a median income
of N3,000 (13.6 dollars) daily (Table 3).
During the course of their trading, 112 (49.8%
had been robbed of their day’s cash sales, 82
(36.4%) had been involved in street fight
incidents, 101 (44.9%) had been physically
harassed by older adults and 6 (2.7%) had been
the targets of attempted kidnapping. There was
no statistically significant difference between
males and females in the hazards experienced
(Table 4).
Majority 145 (64.4%) of respondents were
hawking in order to augment the family income
and support their family, while 63 (28.8%)
hawked to earn a living (Table 5).
3.2 Discussion
This study set out to determine the social
implications and factors associated with street
hawking among children in Uyo metropolis in
southern Nigeria. About two thirds of the hawkers
in this study were 5 - 14 years. Children are
preferred to adults in hawking because they are
cheap labour to the employer [18,19]. This is a
cause for concern as children of this age group
ought to still be under tutelage of parents and
guardians and not left totally unsupervised.
Children within this age group can easily
succumb to negative peer pressure and acquire
numerous anti-social tendencies. Hughes
reported that child laborers tended to keep bad
company and were negatively pressured by
peers to engage in delinquent behavior [20].
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
5
Some of the behavioral problems reported by
Ugudulunwa et al. [21] among hawkers included
drug abuse, fighting, smoking and cheating in
examination. They are also vulnerable to
numerous hazards which they may be unable to
cope with by reason of their young age. Similar
findings were reported in a study carried out in
Yenegoa, Nigeria, where 90% of hawkers
interviewed were aged 6-14 years [22]. Both
male and female children engage in hawking. In
the present study, the ratio was approximately
the same, with the males being slightly more.
This is in contrast with other studies where the
females have been reported to far outnumber the
males [1,22].
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics N=225
Variable
Frequency
Proportion (%)
Age group (years)
5-9 13 5.8
10-14 137 60.9
15-17 75 33.3
Mean (SD) 13.27 (2.53)
Sex
Male 119 52.9
Female 106 47.1
Highest educational level
In primary
77 34.2
In secondary 138 61.3
None 10 4.4
Currently schooling
N=215
Yes
157
73.03
No 58 26.97
Speaks fluent English
Yes 159 70.7
No 66 29.3
Who do children live with
Parents
168 74.7
Relative 32 14.2
Master/Mistress 25 11.1
Mother’s occupation
Trading 139 61.8
Farming 37 16.4
Civil servant 14 6.2
Others 20 8.9
Dead 15 6.7
Father’s occupation
Trading
52 23.1
Farming 32 14.2
Civil servant 40 17.8
Others 59 26.2
Dead 42 18.7
Number of siblings
None
2 0.9
1-3 61 27.1
4-6 88 39.1
>6 74 32.9
Position in family
N=224
1
st
60 26.8
2
nd
43 19.2
3
rd
50 22.3
4
th
48 21.4
5
th
and above 23 10.3
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
6
Table 2. School performance based on those currently in school (N=157)
Variable
Frequency
Proportion (%)
Current school performance
Poor
19 12.1
Average 59 37.6
Good 79 50.3
School performance since hawking began
Better grades
49 31.2
Worse grades 56 35.7
No change 52 33.1
Table 3. Respondents’ work history (N=225)
Variable
Frequency
Proportion (%)
Duration of hawking in years
<1 yr 68 30.2
1-2 yrs 80 35.6
3-4 yrs 51 22.7
>4 yrs 26 11.6
Items hawked
Fruits
73 32.4
Food 32 14.2
Snacks 56 24.9
Water 37 16.4
Others 27 12.0
Average daily sales in Naira
Median
N3,000
Range
N300 – N12,000
Happy with work
Yes
94 41.8
No
131 58.2
Table 4. Hazard indicators disaggregated by sex
Male (N=119)
Female (N=106)
Total (N=225)
Statistical indices
Ever had a robbery/ theft incident
Yes 63 (52.9) 49 (46.2) 112 (49.8) χ
2
= 1.011
No 56 (47.1) 57 (53.8) 113 (50.2) P = 0.32
Involved in a fight incident
Yes 47 (39.5) 35 (33.0) 82 (36.4) χ
2
= 1.015
No 72 (60.5) 71 (67.0) 143 (63.6) P = 0.31
Ever had physical harassment
Yes
51 (42.9) 50 (47.2) 101 (44.9) χ2 = 0.421
No
68 (57.1) 56 (52.8) 124 (55.1) P = 0.52
Ever experienced an attempted kidnapping
Yes
4 (3.4) 2 (1.9) 6 (2.7) Fishers’s test = 0.48
No
115 (96.6) 104 (98.1) 219 (97.3)
More than a quarter of the children had either
dropped out of school or never went to school at
all. Similar findings were reported in a study
carried out in Ibadan in which 25% drop out rate
was recorded among child hawkers [23]. This
poses a serious threat to the achieving basic
primary education for many of these children who
would probably end up growing to become
illiterate adults. The Nigeria Demographic and
Health Survey ( NDHS) 2013 reported that 38%
of women and 21% of men have no education
[24]. These adults may also have had no
opportunity to attend school as a result of
engaging in some money making activities during
school hours in their childhood years.
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
7
Table 5. Reasons for hawking
Reasons
(multiple
responses)
Frequency
Proportion
(%)
To augment
family income
145
64.4
To earn a living: 63 28.0
For school related
expenses
15 6.7
Sent by mistress: 2
0.9
Street hawking also affects the academic
performance of children. About a third of the
hawkers currently in school in the present study
admitted to worse grades since onset of
hawking. This could be as a result of lack of time
to study after school hours. For those who
hawked in the morning before going to school,
Ebigbo opined that most of them were perpetual
late comers and lacked concentration in class as
a result of fatigue and stress [25]. A study on the
effect of street hawking on the academic
performance of students in social studies in
Nassarawa State, Nigeria reported that the social
studies students who engaged in street hawking
performed lower than their counterpart who did
not [26]. Similarly, in a study carried out in Epe,
Lagos among child traders, 70.9% of them
admitted that street trading had a negative effect
on their reading schedule, while 79.2% reported
that it affected their school attendance rate [1].
Ubah and Bulus in their study reported that the
students were sometimes seen in uniform
hawking goods at hours when they ought to be in
school [26]. It is therefore not surprising that
many of them end up dropping out of school and
some of them in the present study could not
communicate in English. Child hawking is one of
the key practices that must be tackled in order to
make progress with childhood education.
Worldwide, a link has been established between
improving access to education and ending child
labour [27].
Low wages have been reported to contribute to
incidents of street trading and child labour as
children attempt to help support their families
[1,8,28]. Key findings of a study carried out in
2010 among 175 child hawkers in Uyo, Nigeria,
were that street hawking was attributed to
unemployment and poverty [10]. Similar findings
were reported in a study in 2014 among 300
hawkers in Aba, Nigeria [11]. A greater number
of the respondents in the present study lived with
their parents whose commonest means of
livelihood was small scale trading, the proceeds
of which may hardly be enough in most cases to
cater for the often large family sizes.
Consequently, about two thirds of the children
said the reason they were hawking was to
augment family income. Majority had 4 or more
siblings, with them being in many instances
either 1
st
or 2
nd
in birth order. They were
therefore expected by their parents to assist in
providing for the younger family members.
Children from larger families and lower socio-
economic class have been found to more likely
engage in street hawking to augment family
income [12]. Similar findings have been reported
in several studies [1,8,9,22,23].
Moreover, close to 30% of the children in the
present study reported hawking in order to earn a
living. This may have been as a result being a
major bread winner of their families as almost a
fifth of them had lost their fathers. A relationship
has also been established between parental loss
and child street hawking [15]. In addition, socio-
culturally, unlike in Western cultures, majority of
the people in African societies view forms of child
labour like street hawking as a natural growth
and development process for maturity of children
to be able to withstand the challenges of earning
a living in adulthood [12]. This explains why the
children are so readily sent out to earn a living.
Children are seen in many traditional African
societies as cheap workforce. This encourages
large family sizes without due consideration to
what it entails to care for them.
Several hazards were reported by the hawkers in
this study, with over a third having hawked for 1
– 2 years. These included robbery of their day’s
cash sales, street fight incidents, physical
harassment by older adults and a few had been
targets of attempted kidnapping. Each of these
hazards could lead to the premature death of
these children. They could also be lured into the
company of criminals while desiring for protection
from harassment of other adults. These children
may end up indulging in anti social habits like
smoking, robbery, cultism and drug abuse. A
similar study in Nnewi, Nigeria reported that 46
(32.7%) of the child hawkers had lost their
earnings to robbers [29], while another study
reported the kidnapping of three children who
were hawking, two of whom were killed and the
third had not yet been found [30].
It is worthy of note that more than half of the
respondents were not happy with the job of
hawking and were willing to quit. A study among
1200 female children engaging in hawking
Johnson and Ihesie; BJESBS, 11(2): 1-9, 2015; Article no.BJESBS.19565
8
across three States in Northern Nigeria revealed
that 70% of child drop outs would quit hawking
and go back to school if government and other
stakeholders were to sponsor their education[30].
Similar findings were reported in a study where
about 72% of the hawkers expressed willingness
to quit the job [9]. It is therefore very clear that if
they had alternative sources of income, there
would be fewer child hawkers on the streets.
4. CONCLUSION
Child labour in the form of hawking is a common
practice in Uyo metropolis. It affects the
education of the children resulting in many drop
outs and poor academic performance. It also
exposes the children to numerous hazards and
social vices. Efforts should be made by
government to implement and enforce the
legislation addressing child labour in the form of
street hawking in Nigeria. Poverty alleviation
programs should also be implemented in order to
create alternative sources of income. Free basic
education and improvement of workers’
remuneration are measures that will likely help in
the reduction of the number of child hawkers on
the streets.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
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© 2015 Johnson and Ihesie; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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