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The Use of Sea Turtles in Traditional Medicine in the Cape Verde Archipelago, West Africa

Authors:
Samir Tavares Martins at University of Algarve
Samir Tavares Martins
Fernando Rocha at Technological University of Mexico
Fernando Rocha
Edson Rodrigues
Edson Rodrigues
Edson Rodrigues
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Sónia Araújo Lopes
Sónia Araújo Lopes
Sónia Araújo Lopes
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No. 4 /2015
African Sea Turtle Newsletter
!1
First observation of albino green turtle hatchlings,
Vamizi Island, Mozambique !
First observation of albino green turtle hatchlings,
No. 4 2015
photo: © Joana Trindade
ISSN 2373-1575
African Sea Turtle Newsletter
The Use of Sea Turtles in Traditional Medicine in the Cape Verde Archipelago, !
West Africa!
!Samir Martins1, Fernando Rocha1, Edson Rodrigues1, Sónia Araújo Lopes2, Elena
Abella1, Nuno de Santos Loureiro3 & Adolfo Marco 4!
!1BIOS.CV - Association for the Conservation of the Environment and Sustainable
Development, Sal Rei – Boa Vista Island, Cabo Verde (email#: ilheuraso@gmail.com;
fernandorocha09@live.com; edsonrodrigues87@hotmail.com; decision00@hotmail.com)!
2General Directorate of the Environment, Achada Santo António CP nº332-A, Santiago - Cape
Verde (email: soniaraujocv@gmail.com)!
3Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Algarve University, Campus de Gambelas -
8005-139FARO, Portugal (email: nlourei@ualg.pt)!
4Estación Biológica de Doñana, CSIC, C/ Américo Vespucio s/n, Sevilla 41092, Spain!
(email: amarco@ebd.csic.es)!
Preamble: In modern times none of the uses for the below listed substances are
justified. They simply are not accredited and modern western medicine is more
effective. In order to take any type of medicine, it is highly recommended to get a
prescription from a doctor first; at present sea turtles are not prescribed for the
treatment of illnesses of any sort.!
!
The use of sea turtle meat, eggs and other
derivatives as a food source by humans is an
old tradition in coastal communities around
the world, mainly in developing countries
(López-Jurado 2007; Loureiro and Torrão
2008). Likewise, this enigmatic animal has
been used for its medicinal properties for
centuries, and practices of this kind are still
commonplace in some communities (Alves
2006; Fretey et al. 2007; Alves et al. 2008).
The local knowledge on the supposed medical
properties has passed down from generation
to generation. In the West African region, the
uses of sea turtles and their derivatives in
traditional medicine and witchcraft seem to
have persisted in coastal communities (Fretey
et al. 2007). !
!
The objective of this paper was to compile
information on the variety of sea turtles
products, as well as their associated
properties for curing different diseases, in the
Cape Verde Islands. !
!
The Cape Verde Archipelago, located 500 km
off the coast of Western Africa and composed
of ten islands and several islets (Fig. 1),
harbors one of the largest loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta) nesting populations in the
world, and the only substantial rookery in
West Africa (Marco et al. 2012).!
For over 500 years, many sailors have kept
logbooks in which they have reported on the
use of sea turtles in traditional medicine in the
Cape Verde Islands (Lopéz-Jurado 2007;
Loureiro 2008; Loureiro and Torrão 2008). !
!12
Figure1. Map of the Cape Verde Archipelago
and its location in the West Africa Region. The
islands sampled in this study are underlined.
African Sea Turtle Newsletter
In 1480, Eustache de la Fosse, a French
merchant, reached the island of Santiago and
wrote:!
!“We reached the islands that are off Cape
Verde (Senegal), one inhabited, on which
islands man or leprous creatures are cured
in two years (...); from these turtles the
leper is cured by eating them and
spreading blood and fat on all his meals
(turtle fat) and thus, after two years, they
are completely purged and cured of their
leprosy (…)."!
!
The use of turtle derivatives in the cure of
leprosy in Cape Verde was popular and
apparently effective for a long period of time
(Lopéz-Jurado 2007; Loureiro and Torrão
2008). In 1506 and 1508, Valentim Fernandes
also made reference to sea turtles and lepers:!
!“There is in these islands a great
abundance of turtles, which the lepers cure
in salt. These islands were initially so
healthy that any lepers arriving there were
cured (...).”!
!
Many years later, another reference to sea
turtles appears in Peter Simmond’s 1885 book
on wild animals used for food. The author
writes: !
!“In Portugal, syphilitic patients are often
sent to the Cape Verde islands to be cured
by feeding on turtle flesh.” !
!
The use of sea turtle products and their
derivatives is popular even nowadays;
however, it is not always for the same purpose
as before. On some islands, turtles are highly
sought out almost entirely by immigrants
(MADRRM 2008) seeking to experience
aphrodisiac effects (Loureiro and Torrão 2008;
MADRRM 2008), a reason that has made sea
turtles very lucrative at present, despite the
fact that they are protected by national law
(Loureiro 2008). !
!
During our work with sea turtles from 2011 to
2014, we collected information from all the
main ports and fishing communities on the
islands of Santiago and Fogo, and from all the
artisanal ports and communities on the
islands of São Vicente, São Nicolau, Sal, Boa
Vista and Maio during the sea turtle nesting
season, which begins at the end of May and
extends until October. The study was
conducted by visiting the ports and
interviewing the fishermen who work there. All
questionnaires and interviews were carried
out by marine biologists with previous training
for this study. Illustrations of sea turtles were
used for species identification. More than 50
fishermen were interviewed from each island.!
The following information was compiled from
the interviews:!
!
Carapace and plastron: Only on the island of
Santiago did locals use turtle carapaces and
plastrons. Normally they boil the carapace
and then bathe with the water in which it has
been boiled. They believe that it protects them
against the evil eye. Plastrons are used
against witchcraft and in the treatment of
bronchitis, asthma, heart diseases and
intestinal disorder. The plastron is boiled and
then cooked with “cachupa” (a famous
traditional dish from the Cape Verde islands).
Only loggerhead turtles are used (Fig. 2). !
!
!13
Figure 2. Loggerhead sea turtle plastrons
drying in the sun to be used to make
“cachupa” (a famous traditional dish from
the Cape Verde islands). Photo used with
permission of the maritime police from the
city of Praia.
African Sea Turtle Newsletter
Oil: Turtle oil is a much-sought substance.
Derived from the carapace of leatherbacks
(Dermochelys coriacea), it is exposed to
sunlight for several days, and is then used to
treat rheumatism and for massage for painful
bruises, arthritis, thrombosis, bronchitis,
asthma and intestinal disorders.!
!
Penis: On all islands, everyone we
interviewed reported that the penis is used for
aphrodisiacal purposes. They believe that this
male sexual organ will help boost sexual
drive, and will help intestinal disorders and
hepatitis. After being removed from the turtle,
the penis is dried for several days and is then
introduced into “grogue” (a Cape Verdean
alcoholic beverage obtained from sugarcane,
Fig. 3). The organs that locals use come
almost exclusively from loggerhead turtles.!
!
Gallbladder and liver: The gallbladder and
liver are used to cure hepatitis, swelling and
anemia. The gallbladders are preserved in
bottles and mixed with ”grogue” (Fig. 4).!
Blood: Blood is usually used fresh, straight
after the animal has been killed. People think
that ingesting the fresh blood will increase
longevity, and it is also used in the treatment
of asthma, anemia and thrombosis. !
Meat, eggs, skull, bone and other
derivatives: All of the interior parts of sea
turtles (meat, eggs, organs, and blood) are
used as food on all the islands. In the
southeast region of Santiago, we found that
people cook a soup of turtle organs and meat,
and that this broth is given to children to drink.
They believe that it cleans the intestines and
makes children healthier. Finally, the claws of
male loggerheads are used as charms to be
more attractive to women.!
!
We are aware that this report does not cover
all the islands and local communities in Cape
Verde. However, it can be expanded through
surveys on other islands and into inland areas
where we think there may be different uses
for turtle derivatives in traditional medicine.
During these surveys we made it clear that we
do not want to encourage the use of sea
turtle meat and any derivatives, and that we
are aware of the possible hazards associated
with their consumption (Aguirre et al. 2006).
We also found that many other marine
species are used in traditional medicine, such
as the Cape Verde endemic goose barnacles
(Pollicipes caboverdensis), sea birds and
their eggs, raptor eggs, and shellfish. On the
island of Fogo, residents believe that the
endangered Fea’s Petrel (Pterodroma feae)
cures rheumatism (Hazevoet 1994). We found
!14
Figure 3. Loggerhead penises inside
“grogue” bottles sold in local bars. The paper
in fronts says, “earth medicine, turtle penises,
gives power” – in the local language it is
“remedio de terra, penis de tartaruga, dá
tesão”. (Photo: A. Liria).
Figure 4. The gallbladder of a loggerhead
preserved for use in traditional medicine.
Photo taken in Santiago Island by F. Rocha.
African Sea Turtle Newsletter
that in the inland areas of Santiago people
believe that there are spiritual stones in the
nests of ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), and that
possessing these stones will free you of the
evil eye and plague. The rampant use of
some of these species has caused the loss of
many important colonies on some islands and
the disappearance of various species of
raptors, seabirds and sea turtles (Hazevoet
1994; Loureiro and Torrão 2008; Marco et al.
2012). !
!
Increasing our knowledge of the traditional
uses of endangered species like sea turtles in
local communities throughout Cape Verde is
very important for establishing conservation
plans for the sustainable use of sea turtles
that respect the socio-cultural aspects in
these communities.!
!
Acknowledgments: The work was part of
the study supported by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service and the FAO. We also thank
the local people and fishermen for
participating in the survey and Ana Liria for
providing the photos. !
!
Literature Cited!
!
Aguirre, A.A., S.C. Gardner, J.C. Marsh, S.G.
Delgado, C.J. Limpus, and W.J. Nichols.
2006. Hazards associated with the
consumption of sea turtle meat and eggs: a
review for health care workers and the
general public. EcoHealth 3: 141–153.!
!
Alves, R.R.N. 2006. Use of marine turtles in
zootherapy in Northeastern Brazil. Marine
Turtle Newsletter 112: 16–17.
!
Alves, R.R.N., W.L.S.V. Nóbrega and G.G.
Santana. 2008. Reptiles used in traditional
folk medicine: conservation implications.
Biodiversity Conservation 17: 2037–2049.
!
Fretey, J., G.H. Segniagbeto and M.M.
Soumah. 2007. Presence of sea turtles in
traditional pharmacopoeia and beliefs of West
Africa. Marine Turtle Newsletter 116: 23–25.
!
Hazevoet, C. 1994. Status and conservation
of seabirds in the Cape Verde Islands. Birdlife
Conservation Series 1: 279–293.
!
López-Jurado, L.F. 2007. Historical review of
the archipelagos of Macaronesia and the
marine turtles. Pp 53-76. In: L.F. López-
Jurado and A. Liria, (Eds.) Marine Turtles.
Recovery of Extinct Populations. Instituto
Canario de Ciencias Marinas 5. 229 pp.
!
Loureiro, N.S. 2008. Sea turtles in Santiago
island, Cape Verde. Marine Turtle Newsletter
120: 6–8.
!
Loureiro, N.S. and M.M.F. Torrão. 2008.
Homens e tartarugas marinhas. Seis séculos
de história e histórias nas Ilhas de Cabo
Verde. Anais de História de Além-Mar 9: 37–
78.
!
MADRRM - Ministério do Ambiente
Desenvolvimento Rural e Recursos Marinhos.
2008. Plano Nacional para a Conservação
das Tartarugas Marinhas em Cabo Verde. 78
pp.!
!
Marco, A., E. Abella, A. Liria-Loza, S. Martins,
O. López, S. Jiménez-Bordón, C. Oujo, M.
Medina and L.F. López-Jurado. 2012.
Abundance and exploitation of loggerhead
turtles nesting in Boa Vista Island, Cape
Verde: the only substantial rookery in the
Eastern Atlantic. Animal Conservation 15:
351–360.
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"
!
!15
... As a group, sea turtles play a key role in mediating ecosystem health and function (Goatley et al., 2012;Ingels et al., 2020;Lynam et al., 2011;Wabnitz et al., 2010), facilitate nutrient transfer from marine to terrestrial environments (Bouchard and Bjorndal, 2000;Moss, 2017), and have a well-documented history of exploitation for subsistence and livelihood purposes (Frazier, 2003;Senko et al., 2022). In coastal communities, sea turtles have traditionally been seen as a symbol of prosperity and longevity and global populations have suffered heavy declines due to the direct consumption of meat and eggs (Senko et al., 2022), harvesting due to their supposed aphrodisiac and medicinal properties (Barrios-Garrido et al., 2018;Chan and Shepherd, 2002;Fretey, 2007;Loureiro and Torrão, 2008;Martins et al., 2015) and fisheries bycatch and pollution (Wallace et al., 2011). Six of the seven species of sea turtle are listed on the Red List of threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2024). ...
... The nesting population on Boa Vista represents approximately 60 % of the species' nesting activity in the northeast Atlantic (Marco et al., 2012), and is a significant part of Cabo-Verdean marine cultural heritage (Loureiro and Torrão, 2008). Sea turtles across the archipelago have historically been exploited for seasonal subsistence, traditional health, aphrodisiac purposes and handcrafts (Loureiro and Torrão, 2008;Martins et al., 2015). Although ranked as the eleventh most endangered sea turtle population worldwide (Casale and Marco, 2015;Wallace et al., 2011), nesting abundance across the archipelago has risen dramatically in recent years (Laloë et al., 2019;Marco et al., 2018) following the expansion of conservation efforts across the last three decades, including significant investment in further conservation efforts and wildlife watching activities (Marco et al., 2012;Martins et al., 2021;Patino-Martinez et al., 2021;Taxonera et al., 2022). ...
... Our estimates indicate that the annual consumptive use value of turtles fell to its minimum in 2019, at just over €6,000, although the actual value is likely higher due to multiplier effects of the multiple products derived from meat, eggs, oil, and male penis (Hancock et al., 2017;Loureiro and Torrão, 2008;Martins et al., 2015;Ribeiro et al., 2022). Whilst current consumptive values are not high, they represent an important income source to local communities of Boa Vista as the market value of a sea turtle is higher than the minimum wage in Cabo Verde (€ 117.26/month;Hancock et al., 2017;Martins et al., 2022). ...
Conservation and ecotourism increase natural capital asset value: an economic assessment of sea turtles on Boa Vista Island, Cabo Verde
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2025
  • OCEAN COAST MANAGE
Sea turtles are of significant ecological, sociocultural, and economic importance to coastal communities globally. After historical population declines, many populations have shown a positive response to conservation efforts, and their status as a flagship species for wildlife watching tourism has facilitated the growth of turtle-based ecotourism. If not sustainably managed, turtle-watching tourism can have negative impacts on wildlife, but with best practice can offer direct benefits to the local economy as well as positive contributions to conservation management. Here, we quantify the Total Economic Value (TEV) of the nesting population of the loggerhead Caretta caretta sea turtle on Boa Vista Island, Cabo Verde, for the first time. The nesting abundance of this population has risen dramatically following the implementation of conservation efforts three decades ago, alongside an expansion of turtle-watching tourism which since 2006 has evolved into a significant component of the tourism sector. Our estimates indicate that the annual TEV of the population has risen dramatically between 2008 and 2019 from approximately €300,000 to almost €2 million, driven by an increase in the non-use and non-consumptive value of the population through conservation investment and ecotourism and a decrease in the consumptive value through poaching. Tourist WTP values indicate the potential for further revenue to be generated to contribute to conservation. Our results can inform future policy decisions and natural capital assessments in Cabo Verde that may support the sustainable expansion of turtle watching as a significant component of the developing tourism sector, providing an alternative income source and economic benefits to local communities and further reducing consumptive use of the population.
View
... Some turtle watching occurs in the water, through direct observation from a boat (Howell et al. 2015, Schofield et al. 2015, Papafitsoros et al. 2020, or diving and snorkeling in shallow coastal areas (Landry & Taggart 2010, Papafitsoros et al. 2020, although the majority occurs on nesting beaches. In many developing countries, where turtle rookeries are often found, turtles are still traditionally harvested as a source of food and traditional medicine (Loureiro & Torrão 2008, Humber et al. 2014, Martins et al. 2015. As most species of sea turtle are listed by the IUCN as endangered, and some populations considered under critical risk of extinction (IUCN 2020), observation by tourists may therefore offer an alternative to their exploitation and contribute to their conservation. ...
... Sea turtles are a significant part of Cabo-Verdean marine heritage and have traditionally been exploited economically (Loureiro & Torrão 2008). On all islands of the archipelago, people from coastal communities have traditionally used sea-turtle meat and by-products for seasonal subsistence, traditional health, aphrodisiac purposes and handcrafts (Loureiro & Torrão 2008, Martins et al. 2015. Currently, tourism is one of the main sectors of economic development in Cabo Verde, comprising 20.1% of GDP and generating an average of 36 000 jobs. ...
Risk assessment of wildlife-watching tourism in an important endangered loggerhead turtle rookery
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2021
Wildlife-watching tourism is a non-exploitative activity that can contribute to sustainable economic development of coastal communities. It is important to assess potential impacts and implement best practices to mitigate any effects. We studied this issue on Boa Vista (Cabo Verde), which supports around 60% of nesting activity of one of the most endangered loggerhead turtle rookeries globally. Between 2013 and 2016, authorized turtle watching involved 4942 tourists, generating a mean annual direct income of >289000 USD and the direct creation of >250 jobs. On João Barrosa beach, which supports around 20% of nests and 48% of turtle-watching activity on the island, we tested the influence of turtle watching on nesting behavior, reproduction and nest site fidelity. Nesting females observed by tourists spent significantly less time on nest camouflaging behaviour, although all other phases of nesting were unaffected. There were not statistically significant differences between the renesting frequency of females watched (n = 187) and non-watched (n = 972) by tourists. We found no evidence that the current turtle watching intensity has an effect on turtle reproduction. Turtle poaching remains a severe threat on beaches with no turtle watching, although it has strongly decreased on beaches with tourist visits. We suggest tour guides follow best practice guidelines to minimize disturbance, specifically retreating from the immediate vicinity of a female during nest camouflaging to mitigate the observed impact.
View
... Yet, harvesting and consumption of loggerheads have persisted and are responsible for the annual take of hundreds of nesting females while research regarding sea turtle trade in the country is scarce (Marco et al. 2012;Hancock et al. 2017). In addition, clandestine consumption of turtle meat, harvesting of female loggerheads on beaches, selling turtle meat locally or between islands, artisanal crafting using turtle shells, medicinal use of turtle organs and employing their penises as an aphrodisiac still occurs (Martins et al. 2015). ...
View
... Yet, harvesting and consumption of loggerheads have persisted and are responsible for the annual take of hundreds of nesting females while research regarding sea turtle trade in the country is scarce (Marco et al. 2012;Hancock et al. 2017). In addition, clandestine consumption of turtle meat, harvesting of female loggerheads on beaches, selling turtle meat locally or between islands, artisanal crafting using turtle shells, medicinal use of turtle organs and employing their penises as an aphrodisiac still occurs (Martins et al. 2015). ...
Exploring a Comprehensive Behavioural Model to Investigate Illegal Sea Turtle Trade in Cabo Verde
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2022
Successful conservation outcomes often depend on changing human behaviours that negatively impact biodiversity, such as unsustainable wildlife harvesting or illegal wildlife trade (IWT). However, inclusive psychology models that examine motivations of those behaviours have been underutilised in IWT contexts. This research examines the drivers of illegal harvesting and consumption of sea turtles on Maio, Cabo Verde (West Africa), by adapting data from interviews (n=20) and questionnaires (n=325) into the Comprehensive Action Determination Model, an environmental psychology theoretical framework. Initial findings suggest local behavioural motivations have changed over time, but key beliefs remained intact. Structural equation modelling showed intention to consume turtles is influenced by positive attitudes towards consumption, but interviews suggest normative personal and social beliefs are becoming relevant to consumptive behaviour mitigation. The same seems true of harvesting, reportedly performed mostly by young men looking to sell turtle by-products. Overall, results indicate the beliefs underlying harvest and consumption behaviours are distinct, such that outreach initiatives must be designed to address each. Results demonstrate how conceptual models developed in underutilised disciplines can be adapted to expand the transdisciplinary tools available to conservation practitioners. Embracing behaviour-focused approaches is crucial to address the intricate cultural and contextual factors of IWT. Abstract in Portuguese: https://bit.ly/3Aj9xuu
View
... The consumption of sea turtle meat likely played an important social role during severe droughts in Cabo Verde in the past, particularly between the 1940s and 1950s during the great hunger and during the war (Merino et al. 2007;Loureiro and Torrão 2008;Martins et al. 2015). Today, turtle meat is not vital for survival and the reasons for turtle meat consumption have changed. ...
Evaluating loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) bycatch in the small-scale fisheries of Cabo Verde
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Full-text available
  • Sep 2022
  • REV FISH BIOL FISHER
The incidental or target capture of sea turtles by small–scale fisheries (SSF) has been receiving increasing attention in recent years due to its high impact. Here, we evaluated the impact of the SSF on sea turtles in Cabo Verde, which hosts the largest rookery of the endangered Eastern Atlantic loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) population. This is the most comprehensive study evaluating the impact of SSF on sea turtles in the Cabo Verde Archipelago involving more than 85% of boats and more than 20% of the fishermen registered in the archipelago. Between the years of 2011 and 2014, 763 artisanal fishermen were interviewed at all the main ports and fishing communities of seven islands. Artisanal fishermen reported a mean annual capture of 1.5 turtles per boat indicating that a minimum of 1675 sea turtles could be landed per year in this fishing sector alone, with 65% in Santiago Island (which host the country’s capital, Praia). Most captures (95.7%) occurred from May to September and coincided with the loggerhead turtle nesting season. These results suggest a severe impact of the SSF on adult loggerheads turtles in Cabo Verde as well as green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) juvenile turtles. To mitigate this impact, measures such as revising the current legislation for fisheries, the supervision and control of landings, especially in the most remote ports of the Archipelago, the regulation of the SSF during the nesting season around the main nesting areas, awareness–raising campaigns, sustainable activities, and alternative sources of income in fishing communities are recommended.
View
... Freshwater turtles in muddy environments, medium-size rivers, dams, and ponds are considered as water purifiers as it contributes to the reduction of algal bloom and are indicators of pollution [4,23,28,36]. Soft-shell turtles are a useful source of protein [11,17,37] and used for purifying blood and cure respiratory diseases and intestinal disorders [13,24]. Several factors such as habitat fragmentation, pollution, introduction of exotic species, hunting, and global climate change affect the biodiversity of turtle fauna [5,9,19,21,22]. ...
View
... These applications are supported by the results from pharmacological studies indicating, among others, the high vitamin E content of the fat from the green sea turtle C. mydas [230] and the presence of abundant amounts of phenolic compounds and fatty acids with meaningful antibacterial and antioxidant activities in the fat from the Amazon river turtle P. expansa [232]. Notably, earlier studies [233] had provided indications for the antiinflammatory, antigargalesthetic (anti-itching and anti-urticarian), and analgesic activities of turtle and tortoise oil, and hinted on their potential usefulness in the prophylaxis and/or treatment of cardiovascular diseases and psoriasis. So far, studies on the pharmacological properties of parts of testudines and their potential medicinal applicability are scant. ...
Exploring the global animal biodiversity in the search for new drugs - Reptiles
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2021
Introduction New drug discovery and development programs have historically relied on the identification of novel lead compounds from plant origin. This is understandable when considering that plants have been the main, if not the only sources of therapeutics for managing human diseases for millennia [1]. Only in 1806, a pharmacologically active ingredient (morphine) from a plant (the opium poppy Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae)) was for the first time isolated from a plant [2]. Currently, morphine is used for, among others, the palliation of severe chronic pain in, for instance, terminal cancer patients [2], and serves as a precursor for a large number of opioid medications such as the antitussive codeine and the antidiarreal agent loperamide [2]. The identification of morphine from P. somniferum was soon followed by many others such as, among others, the central nervous system stimulant caffeine from the beans of the coffee plant Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae) in 1819 [3], the antimalarial quinine from the bark of the cinchona tree Cinchona officinalis (Rubiaceae) in 1820 [4], and the analgesic salicin from the bark of the white willow Salix alba (Salicaceae) in 1828 [5]. Since then, many more breakthrough drugs have been developed from plants, including the antineoplastic agents vincristine and paclitaxel from the periwinkle plant Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae) [6] and the Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae) [7], respectively; the phytoestrogen diosgenin from yam species in the genus Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) that serves as precursor for, among others, oral contraceptives and cortisone [8]; and the oral antihyperglycemic biguanide metformin from the French lilac Galega officinalis (Fabaceae) [9]. Other important sources of novel drugs were microorganisms. The fungus Penicillium rubens (Trichocomaceae) and the actinomycete bacterial species Saccharopolyspora erythraea (Pseudonocardiaceae) gave the antibacterial agents penicillin [10] and erythromycin Abstract New drug discovery and development efforts have traditionally relied on ethnopharmacological information and have focused on plants with medicinal properties. In the search for structurally novel and mechanistically unique lead compounds, these progams are increasingly turning to the bioactive molecules provided by the animal biodiversity. This not only involves bioactive constituents from marine and terrestrial invertebrates such as insects and arthropods, but also those from amphibians and other 'higher' vertebrates such as reptiles. The venoms of lizards and snakes are complex mixtures of dozens of pharmacalogically active compounds. So far, these substances have brought us important drugs such as the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors captopril and its derivates for treating hypertension and some types of congestive heart failure, and the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist exenatide for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus. These drugs have been developed from the venom of the Brazilian pit viper Bothrops jararaca (Viperidae) and that of the Gila monster Heloderma suspectum (Helodermatidae), respectively. Subsequently, dozens of potentially therapeutically applicable compounds from lizards' and snakes' venom have been identified, several of which are now under clinical evaluation. Additionally, components of the immune system from these animals, along with those from turtles and crocodilians, have been found to elicit encouraging activity against various diseases. Like the venoms of lizards and snakes, the immune system of the animals has been refined during millions of years of evolution in order to increase their evolutionary success. This paper addresses some of the bioactive compounds from reptiles, and elaborates on the therapeutic potential of some of them as anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs, as well as wound healing-promoting, antileishmanial, antiviral, immunomodulating, antimicrobial, and anticancer compounds.
View
... Freshwater turtles in muddy environments, medium-size rivers, dams, and ponds are considered as water purifiers as it contributes to the reduction of algal bloom and are indicators of pollution [4,23,28,36]. Soft-shell turtles are a useful source of protein [11,17,37] and used for purifying blood and cure respiratory diseases and intestinal disorders [13,24]. Several factors such as habitat fragmentation, pollution, introduction of exotic species, hunting, and global climate change affect the biodiversity of turtle fauna [5,9,19,21,22]. ...
Ecology and Genetic Identification of Freshwater Turtles in Pakistan
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Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Background: The turtle population plays an important role in sustaining the water ecosystem by minimizing pollution from water. The identification and molecular investigation of freshwater fauna is essential for conservation of the species that are near to extinction. The quality of water, type of flora, fauna, and environmental condition are the major factors that directly affect the distribution of freshwater turtles. Two families including eight species of freshwater turtles are found in Pakistan. The Geoemydidae (Geoclemys hamiltonii, Hardella thurjii, Pangshura smithii, and Pangshura tecta) and Trionychidae (Chitra indica, Nilssonia gangetica, Nilssonia hurum, and Lissemys punctata andersoni). Studies on the species diversity and habitat of freshwater turtle have not been focused previously in the region. The present study was the first conducted to estimate the habitat and genetic diversity of freshwater turtles using 12S rRNA (ribosomal RNA) gene in Pakistan. Materials, Methods & Results: A total of 26 samples were collected from various localities using hand net, cast net, gills net, steel hooks, thick chemical wire, using chicken intestine and small fishes. The collected turtle specimens were morpho-taxonomically categorized into two genera, Lissemys punctata andersoni (n=13, 50%) and Nilssonia gangetica (n=13, 50%). The collected species showed an aggressive and active behavior in captivity during summer. Genomic DNA was extracted from collected specimens and used in PCR reaction by using specific primers for the amplification of short fragments of 12S rRNA gene. Analysis of generated sequences confirmed the existence of L. p. andersoni in the region. The generated sequences of L. p. andersoni correspond to Clad A and showed a close resemblance among different spe- cies of the genus Lissemys. Discussion: The climatic change such as temperature and rainfall have great effects on the occurrence of turtles. Habitat degradation occurred due to various factors such as draining wetlands, deforestation, converting clear water rivers to stag- nant multi-purpose reservoirs and mortality on roads when turtles move around to feed. Current study concluded that the freshwater turtles L. p. andersoni and N. gangetica are interested in natural feeds. The analysis of 359 bp of 12S rRNA gene of the genus Lissemys turtles showed relationships of these turtles with cyclanorbines flap shell turtles, which agrees with previous reports. The African taxa are paraphyletic with respect to the Asian Lissemys. The ancestors of the extant genus cyclanorbines spread from North America to Asia. It should be expected that each of the 3 taxa, L. p. andersoni, L. p. punctata and L. scutata represents a distinct genetic lineage. Present molecular investigation concluded that Clad A comprising L. p. punctata, L. scutata, L. cylonensis also include L. p. andersoni species. Clad B also contains one sequence from India, identified as L. p. andersoni. Their classification as conspecific evolutionary lineages are suggested by similar genetic divergences, the observation of mismatches between morphology (spotted vs. unspotted) and mitochondrial haplotypes in clades A and B. The clades A and B provides evidence for gene flow between the spotted subspecies L. p. andersoni and adjacent populations with unspotted flap shell turtles. This study is the first investigation about the habitat and of the endemic turtle species L. p. andersoni and N. gangetica in Pakistan. The genetic identification followed by phylogenetic analysis based on 12S rRNA partial genes revealed a closest similarity with the sequences generated for the same species from the neighboring countries. This study provided information to conduct further molecular studies that are essential to provide significant genetic data about turtle species.
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... Extreme female-biased breeding populations could reduce the likelihood of successful mating (Bell et al. 2004, Abella et al. 2017 and potentially contribute to high rates of infertile eggs at specific rookeries (Booth & Dunstan 2018) or in specific populations (Chan & Liew 1996). Concern has also been expressed about the implications of reduced genetic variation in sea turtle populations due to environmental degradation and habitat loss (González-Garza et al. 2015), and the loss of males due to selective fishing practices (Abella et al. 2017), conservation actions (Mro sovsky & Godfrey 1995), and use in traditional medicines (Martins et al. 2015) for future fertility rates of eggs. ...
Assessing the evidence of ‘infertile’ sea turtle eggs
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2020
There is increasing concern about feminization of sea turtle populations resulting from female-biased production of hatchlings due to climate change and selective loss of males from other anthropogenic drivers. Extreme female-biased breeding populations would reduce the likelihood of successful mating and potentially result in high rates of infertile eggs. Infertile eggs are those in which none of the events between sperm penetration of the ovum and syngamy have occurred. Distinguishing between fertile and infertile eggs is challenging, especially in field conditions, and researchers often have relied on physical evidence gathered from unhatched eggs at the end of the incubation period, which likely have experienced tissue decomposition. We argue that infertility in sea turtle eggs can be demonstrated only by the absence of holes caused by sperm penetration of the inner perivitelline membrane; sperm bound between the inner and outer perivitelline membranes; nuclei in the blastodisc; embryonic tissue or membranes in egg contents; and/or the characteristic white spot on the egg exterior. Unhatched eggs can be examined at the end of the incubation period, but we recommend that studies specifically investigating infertility examine at least 20 oviposited eggs each from clutches laid by at least 20 different turtles at the peak of the nesting season.
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Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: conservation implications
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2008
The present work provides an overview of the global use of reptiles in traditional folk medicine and the implications for conservation. The results demonstrate that at least 165 reptile species belonging to 104 genera and 30 families are used in traditional folk medicine around the world. Some species are used as sources of drugs for modern medical science. Of the reptiles recorded, 53% are included on lists of endangered species, demonstrating the importance of understanding such medicinal uses in the context of reptile conservation as well as the need for considering socio-cultural factors when establishing management plans directed towards the sustainable use of these reptiles.
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Abundance and exploitation of loggerhead turtles nesting in Boa Vista island, Cape Verde: The only substantial rookery in the eastern Atlantic
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2012
The main nesting area for loggerhead turtles in the eastern Atlantic is in the Cape Verde Islands, largely restricted to the island of Boa Vista. Extensive monitoring demonstrated a globally significant population for the species despite a sustained high level of anthropogenic take of nesting females for local consumption. Through an extensive stratified monitoring program across the island in the seasons 2007–2009, we estimated a total of 13 955, 12 028 and 19 950 clutches in the 3 years, respectively. These values indicate that the mean number of nesting females averaged 3700. Considering that a female breed, on average, every 2.4 years, we estimate that the overall number of adult females in the population during these three seasons was 8900. These levels are much higher than those suggested in previous studies which were more constrained in spatial coverage. Our findings indicate that Cape Verde hosts the third largest nesting aggregation for this species in the world after the south-eastern US and Oman, with some sites having a particularly high density of nests, facilitating targeted monitoring and conservation. Consumption of sea turtle meat is a traditional practice in Cape Verde that continues despite national sea turtle protection laws. We estimated that 36, 18 and 5% of nesting females were harvested in the 3 years of the study, respectively. Increasing beach protection and monitoring, ongoing educational programs and cooperative projects with local communities are urgently needed to further safeguard the only major loggerhead nesting aggregation in the eastern Atlantic.
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Hazards Associated with the Consumption of Sea Turtle Meat and Eggs: A Review for Health Care Workers and the General Public
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2006
Sea turtle products (e.g., meat, adipose tissue, organs, blood, eggs) are common food items for many communities worldwide, despite national regulations in some countries prohibiting such consumption. However, there may be hazards associated with this consumption due to the presence of bacteria, parasites, biotoxins, and environmental contaminants. Reported health effects of consuming sea turtles infected with zoonotic pathogens include diarrhea, vomiting, and extreme dehydration, which occasionally have resulted in hospitalization and death. Levels of heavy metals and organochlorine compounds measured in sea turtle edible tissues exceed international food safety standards and could result in toxic effects including neurotoxicity, kidney disease, liver cancer, and developmental effects in fetuses and children. The health data presented in this review provide information to health care providers and the public concerning the potential hazards associated with sea turtle consumption. Based on past mortality statistics from turtle poisonings, nursing mothers and children should be particularly discouraged from consuming all sea turtle products. We recommend that individuals choose seafood items lower in the food chain that may have a lower contaminant load. Dissemination of this information via a public health campaign may simultaneously improve public health and enhance sea turtle conservation by reducing human consumption of these threatened and endangered species.
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Homens e tartarugas marinhas
  • Jan 2008
  • 37-78
  • N S Loureiro
  • M M F Torrão
! Loureiro, N.S. and M.M.F. Torrão. 2008. Homens e tartarugas marinhas. Seis séculos de história e histórias nas Ilhas de Cabo Verde. Anais de História de Além-Mar 9: 3778.