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Microplastic Pollution in Table Salts from China
Abstract
Microplastics have been found in seas all over the world. We hypothesize that sea salts might contain microplastics because they are directly supplied by seawater. To test our hypothesis, we collected 15 brands of sea salts, lake salts and rock/well salts from supermarkets throughout China. The microplastics content was 550-681 particles/kg in sea salts, 43-364 particles/kg in lake salts and 7-204 particles/kg in rock/well salts. In sea salts, fragments and fibers were the prevalent types of particles compared with pellets and sheets. Microplastics measuring less than 200 μm represented the majority of the particles, accounting for 55% of the total microplastics, and the most common microplastics were polyethylene terephthalate, followed by polyethylene and cellophane in sea salts. The abundance of microplastics in sea salts was significantly higher than that in lake salts and rock salts. This result indicates that sea products, such as sea salts, are contaminated by microplastics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on microplastic pollution in abiotic sea products.
... Schymanski et al. (2020) reported that both food processing and packaging are sources of MPs, which could come into the food possibly due to the release/leakage from food packaging materials, such as tea bags and bottles. Increased concentrations of MPs in oceans lead to contamination of seafood with MPs (Yang et al., 2015). Consuming these contaminated products results in the ingestion of MPs to human (Kuttykattil et al., 2023). ...
... Moreover, atmospheric fallouts, packaging, and contamination through workers are the reasons for MPs presence in salt (Rakib et al., 2021). Additionally, the higher loads of plastic pollution in estuarine and coastal environments have resulted in MPs contamination of sea salt (Yang et al., 2015). ...
... The capturing, cleaning, packaging, freezing, dressing, and canning process could result in the contamination of fish flesh with MPs. Furthermore, the addition of salt to the canned tuna fish could be a source of MPs, as salt is already reported to contain a considerable number of MPs (Rakib et al., 2021;Yang et al., 2015). Therefore, it is very important to monitor the prevalence as well as identifying the sources of MPs in food and drinks to avoid health risks of such contaminants on humans. ...
Extensive production and utilization of plastics have resulted in the subsequent accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the environment, which has become a serious threat to human health globally. Therefore, in this study, 112 drinks and food products were purchased from local markets in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and the abundance of MPs was investigated. The dominant size of MPs was 101–250 μm for tuna fish, noodles, bottled water, and disposable containers, 251–500 μm for honey, tea bags, and sugar, and 501–1000 μm for salt, juice, and soft drink samples. FTIR analysis indicated polypropylene, polyethylene, polycarbonate, and polyvinylchloride as the major polymer contents. The average total number of MPs was highest in tea bags (615.71 particles teabag⁻¹), followed by sugar (281.01 particles kg⁻¹), honey (197.67 particles kg⁻¹), and salt (147.30 particles kg⁻¹). Consumption of tea bags exhibited the highest risks of daily and annual MPs intake (15.06 particles kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 5496.45 particles kg⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively), followed by bottled water (4.77 particles kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 1741.32 particles kg⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively). Overall, this study provides vital baseline data about MPs contamination in Saudi Arabia. These findings could be used to develop strategies to minimize MPs contamination in food and beverages. Therefore, monitoring MPs in commonly consumed dietary products to avoid adverse impacts of MPs on human health is critically important.
... LabSolutions spectral software was used, and a complete material and polymer library was used to determine the 25 closest related materials to the particle. An accuracy score of 0.7 was required to positively identify a material, as described by Yang et al. (2015) and Migwi et al. (2020). The authors Yang et al. (2015) and Migwi et al. (2020) also allowed for the positive identification of polymers with a similarity score >0.6, which was also recorded in this study, but not used for the statistical analysis. ...
... An accuracy score of 0.7 was required to positively identify a material, as described by Yang et al. (2015) and Migwi et al. (2020). The authors Yang et al. (2015) and Migwi et al. (2020) also allowed for the positive identification of polymers with a similarity score >0.6, which was also recorded in this study, but not used for the statistical analysis. ...
Microplastics have been studied in rivers worldwide with far-reaching implications for aquatic ecosystems. What is less understood is how microplastics distribute through rivers, as microplastics do not distribute ubiquitously through a river system. This study described the microplastic profile of the Nyl, Mogalakwena and Limpopo Rivers in South Africa. The study aimed to determine the driving environmental factors of microplastic distribution in a river system over multiple seasons. The study discovered relationships between flow and microplastics in sediment. This relationship allowed microplastics to have significantly (p < 0.05) different distributions over seasons. Seasons with reduced flow had higher mean microplastic abundances in water (1436 ± 4492 particles.m⁻³) and sediment (1710 ± 4951 particles.kg⁻¹dw), which decreased in both water (59 ± 46 particles.m⁻³) and sediment (17 ± 11 particles.kg⁻¹dw) during the high flow season. Although microplastic abundances decreased with increased flow, a more homogenous distribution was detected through the entire system in the high flow period. The results suggest that microplastics could become trapped and increase significantly during reduced flow but become more evenly distributed during high flow seasons. The microplastics had also become bioavailable, being found in benthic macroinvertebrates in the river system at varying concentrations with a mean of 29 ± 33 particles.g⁻¹ww, which could not be related to environmental matrices. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were determined between microplastic polymers found in water compared to sediment in all seasons. The study is the first in this transboundary river system, which impacts multiple African nations and a RAMSAR accredited wetland of international importance.
... The standard criteria for such studies involve four main features: (i) size, (ii) shape, (iii) color, and (iv) thickness Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2025, Vol. 00, No. 0 | 3 (Yang et al., 2015). In this study, the visual examination of microplastic particles was conducted with an optical microscope (Leica S9E, Leica Microsystems, Germany). ...
... In this study, the visual examination of microplastic particles was conducted with an optical microscope (Leica S9E, Leica Microsystems, Germany). This approach is costeffective and does not require advanced equipment (Yang et al., 2015). The visual analysis allowed for the identification of microplastic particles ranging in size from 200 µm to 5 mm. ...
Occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment is well studied, but our knowledge on their distribution in specific locations, such as the sandboxes which are integral parts of popular playgrounds for children, is limited. Pioneering research on the factors affecting the MPs pollution of sandboxes in urban residential areas was conducted within three estates in Kielce, Poland. Sand samples (Σ27) were collected from 9 sandboxes and examined for the presence of MPs, using a simple quality control methodology proposed by the authors. Microplastics were found in each sample and their contents ranged from 60 to 5540 items/kg of sand. Fragments and fibres were the most prevalent types of MPs in the samples. They contributed to almost 95% of all microplastics found. Transparent fibres were the most abundant among fibres (63%), and red particles (57%) among fragments. A strong, positive, and significant correlation (rSpearman=0.90) was found between the number of microplastic items and the location of sandboxes (above sea level). There was no correlation between the population density of the estates (rSpearman = 0.03), the distance of the estates from the centre (rSpearman = 0.02) and the distance of the estates from main roads (rSpearman = 0.43). Considering that sandboxes can be a potential source of MPs for children, and assuming that sand ingestion by children is similar to the estimated daily soil ingestion rate, our results indicate that the number of MPs ingested could be 1106. Inhalation, dermal transport and ingestion of MP particles from sandboxes pose a potential threat to children's health. However, more research is needed to better understand the health risks associated with this source of microplastics.
... (1) These microsize and nanosize particles as emerging environmental contaminants are of utmost concern owing to their ubiquitous presence and threat. Plastic particles have been found in water systems, (2) oceans, (3) soil, (3) food, (4) and organisms. (5) It has been reported that plastic particles can accumulate in the human body through the dietary intake of food, water, and air. ...
... Studies have shown that microplastics are present in large quantities in shellfish, and estimates suggest that seafood consumers can ingest thousands of microplastic particles every year, contributing significantly to human exposure (Danopoulos et al., 2020). The presence of microplastics in shellfish is a matter of physical contamination and a vector of harmful substances (Yang et al., 2015). Microplastics can absorb and concentrate toxic pollutants Environ Monit Assess (2025) 197:364 Page 3 of 13 364 ...
Marine plastic debris, particularly microplastics (MPs), is an urgent and significant threat to the global marine environment. The emergence of MPs in the marine environment and their potential presence in human-consumed seafood necessitates immediate investigation. In light of this, a study was conducted on the occurrence of MPs in shellfish collected from two locations in Makassar Strait with distinct oceanographic conditions. Three commonly consumed shellfish species (Perna viridis, Meretrix meretrix, and Mactra chinensis) were collected by fishermen and examined for microplastic contamination, with a total sample size of 170 individuals. Microplastics were extracted from the soft tissue of the bivalves using the alkaline digestion method. The results revealed a significantly higher number of microplastics ingested by P. viridis and M. chinensis in samples collected from the Sanrobengi Islands (14.64 MPs/individual and 2.29 MPs/individual, respectively), compared to the P. viridis and M. meretrix from Mandalle coastal area (0.70 MPs/individual and 1.00 MPs/individual, respectively). The predominant microplastic form detected was blue microfibres. A prevalence of MP contamination between 58 and 100% and the results of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis indicated that polystyrene was the dominant polymer present, threatening the welfare of the bivalve mollusks and posing potential health risks to seafood consumers. The results emphasize the urgent need for pollution control measures such as reducing plastic waste discharges and improving waste management systems. In addition, a comprehensive study focusing on the long-term ecological and health effects of microplastic pollution is necessary to guide future policy interventions.
... MPs enter the food chain, accumulate at higher trophic levels, and eventually reach to human body (Hwang et al. 2019). MPs may be transferred through the food chain through bioaccumulation or biomagnification, hurting aquatic organisms and marine products which eventually poses health risks for humans (Yang et al. 2015). ...
The increasing population in India is becoming a significant environmental concern as it leads to an intensified plastic waste generation which increasingly contributed to the marine litter. The pervasive presence of Microplastics (MPs) in aquatic ecosystems poses considerable ecological risks to aquatic organisms. The scientific community has focused on MPs and their associated ecological implications for the past few decades. This review evaluates the MPs distribution and its impact on the aquatic environment of India. The main focus is dedicated to the distribution of MPs in water, sediment, and biota and accounts for the polymers found, their abundance, and their likely potential ecological risks. It is concerning to note that MPs have even been detected in edible ichthyofauna, and from remote geographical locations such as Northwest Himalaya emphasizing the gravity of this issue. Most of the MPs studies of biota focus on fish and clams due to their contamination possibilities and their role in the food web. The majority of previous reports centered around MPs in water and sedimentary environments, with very little focus on the related biota. It is reported that polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are the polymers with the highest distributions in aquatic systems in India. An ecological risk assessment was also performed to evaluate MPs toxicity in different environmental matrices. Health risk assessments were performed based on the reported values to estimate the daily intake of MPs in humans of various ages and sex. The prevalence of MPs in aquatic environments is attributed to their peculiar thermal stability, lightweight properties, and ease of storage, which contributes to their potential for long-term persistence. The current review emphasizes the need for consistent reporting units, further research on trophic transfer, and collaborative monitoring efforts to accurately measure the harmful effects of MPs on biota.
... The collected sediment samples were kept in properly labeled glass bottles for microplastic contamination studies. According to Yang et al. (2015), the reef sediments were air-dried in a pre-cleaned laboratory setting to eliminate external microplastic contamination. The density separa-tion method was followed to separate and quantify the sedimentassociated microplastics (Thompson et al., 2004). ...
... Various seafoods, poultry, and marine products, and even humans, would be exposed to plastic particles (Galloway, 2015;Kershaw & Rochman, 2015). There have been several published reports regarding the microplastic presence in everyday edibles such as drinking water, sugar, honey, salt, and beer Liebezeit, 2013 andYang et al., 2015;Kosuth et al., 2017) and mostly in seafood (Smith et al., 2018;Van Cauwenberghe & Janssen, 2014). Human organs, especially the lung and gut, are affected because of microplastics and their fine particles; many times, they enter the cell membranes and are transported into the blood-brain route (Ali et al., 2024a(Ali et al., , 2024bLee et al., 2023). ...
The primary source of the growing concern regarding marine, aquatic, and land pollution is plastic products, the majority of which are made of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds. These combinations include materials like coal and natural gas that are obtained through petrochemical processes. As these two types of plastic-derived products are produced and disposed of, they have a major impact on the ecosystems. According to recent figures, around 400 million tons of plastic and related products derived from plastic are produced annually, and it became double in the last two decades. Plastic pollutants are introduced into ecosystems by a variety of stakeholders at different points in their daily lives, whether intentionally or accidentally. They have become a major source of adverse effects, toxicity development in natural entities, and problems. The aquatic, marine, and land ecosystems are vital to human existence, which emphasizes how difficult it is to stop pollution from it. This review highlights the adverse impacts of plastics, plastic-based products, and micro-nanoplastics on aquatic, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems while addressing advances in biodegradable plastics, recycling innovations, plastic-degrading enzymes, and sustainable solutions to reduce environmental risks.
... Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) was conducted on a Shimadzu IRSpirit FT-IR with a known polymer library using LabSolutions software. The same software was used by Yang et al. (2015) and Joint Research Centre (2014), where the authors considered that particles were plastics when they had a similarity score of 0.7 or higher. Visual identification throughout the study was determined to have an accuracy of 74% according to the FT-IR analysis that was conducted over the entire study. ...
There has been a notable increase in research into microplastics in rivers over the last decade. However, no clear or concise standardized monitoring method exists for the sampling of microplastics in rivers. Many guidelines exist for the sampling and analysis of microplastics from rivers, but researchers continue to use methods and tools that may contaminate samples, such as plankton nets, or collect and filter bulk water samples with differing volumes and numbers of replicates. This can result in the same river system being shown to have notably varying levels of microplastics between sites. The aim of this study was to determine microplastic abundances in water and sediment, together with a critical evaluation of the sampling sites, to ascertain which environmental factors impacted microplastic distribution. This was achieved by applying the rapid habitat assessment method and simultaneously sampling microplastics. The results indicated that factors such as water velocity , physical obstructions to water flow and, most importantly, discharge, can change the context of a site with respect to its microplastic content, which can impact niche-specific organisms. The results were used to develop a new measurement unit, the microplastic discharge unit. The MDU provides a contextualized representation of the microplastics moving through a river, and can be used as an indicator of microplastic pollution at a site and its impact on biota. The results will be used further to produce a guide for the accurate sampling of microplastics in rivers.
... Additionally, research on the bioaccumulation and biomagnification of MPs within food webs is crucial for assessing the potential risks of human exposure through food consumption. Evidence indicates that MPs accumulate in various marine organisms, creating health risks for humans who consume contaminated species [56,148]. Tracking the transfer of MPs from lower trophic levels to apex predators, including humans, will provide essential data on exposure pathways and associated risks. ...
Microplastic (MP) pollution is a critical environmental issue affecting ecosystems globally, with significant implications for wildlife and human health. This systematic review examines MP contamination in animal taxa across Thailand from 2016 to 2024, highlighting the extensive presence of MPs in diverse habitats, particularly in benthic environments, which account for 55% of contamination. Fish, especially from the Cyprinidae family, are the most affected, followed by filter feeders like mussels and shrimp. The review identifies prevalent MP types, including polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyester (PES), with fibers being the dominant shape. The ingestion of MPs poses direct physical threats to wildlife and serves as a vector for harmful chemicals, raising concerns about bioaccumulation and biomagnification within food webs, ultimately impacting human health through seafood consumption. Despite increasing research activity, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding the long-term ecological and health effects of MP pollution. Future research should focus on the physiological impacts of MP ingestion, the dynamics of trophic transfer, and the effectiveness of waste management strategies. Enhanced detection methods and assessments of regional and seasonal variability in MP contamination are essential for a comprehensive understanding of this issue. Addressing MP pollution in Thailand necessitates a multidisciplinary approach that combines scientific inquiry, public awareness, and effective policy implementation. This review underscores the urgent need for targeted mitigation strategies to protect biodiversity and human health from the pervasive impacts of MP contamination.
... Animal consumption [55], contamination during food preparation [56], and/or leaching from food and drink packaging [57] are some of ways that MPs and NPs enter into human diets, according to a research study. Some foods that have MPs and NPs fragments are honey, beer, wine, salt, sugar, fish, chicken, prawns, terrestrial snail and water [58][59][60][61][62][63]. Recent studies have demonstrated that honeybees are capable of collecting MPs from the air, as well as their interactions with plants, soil and water (Figure 2) [64]. ...
Micro- and nano-plastics (MPs and NPs) are generated from the breakdown of
larger plastic materials or through direct release. Their extensive distribution and
persistence have made them a significant global environmental issue. Plastic
particles of smaller size, measuring from several μm to nm, affect diverse
ecosystems, that includes terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments. Their
presence possesses significant consequences for biodiversity, ecosystem balance
and human well-being. This review presents a brief examination of the pathways,
fate and impacts of MPs and NPs in the environment, as well as their incorporation
into the food chain. MPs and NPs serve as the carriers for toxic chemicals and
pathogens, thereby enhancing their potential risks. Consumption of these
substances by various organisms, including plankton and humans, results in
bioaccumulation and biomagnification, which increases significant issues
regarding food safety and security. The long-term effects of MPs and NPs on the
environment and human health are not yet fully understood, indicating a need for
further investigation. This review summarizes the existing knowledge and
highlights the critical necessity for interdisciplinary research and global
collaboration to address the environmental and food chain risks associated with
MPs and NPs, thereby promoting the long-term sustainability of ecological systems
and human health.
... Sustainability 2025, 17, 170 2 of 18 of microplastics has been reported in air, food and drinking water samples [2][3][4][5][6][7][8], and they can affect not only water quality, but also the health of animal species living in the aquatic ecosystems through ingestion or inhalation [5,9]. In the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [10], in particular, SDG 14, which aims to conserve and sustainably use ocean, sea and marine resources, the issue of microplastics is critical. ...
Microplastics are plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm, emitted at the source or resulting from the degradation of larger objects. Today, their global distribution is one of the major environmental problems recognized by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, polluting aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and requiring avant-garde solutions. Solid–liquid filtration is widely used in both industrial and biological systems, where some aquatic species are examined using very specialized filter-feeding apparatus, and when applied to industrial processes, microparticles can be separated from the water while minimizing maintenance costs, as they require less backwashing or additional energy consumption. The REMOURE project uses the Mediterranean species Mobula mobular (Bonnaterre, 1788) as a reference for the testing and optimization of low-cost microplastic filters applied to wastewater. For this purpose, a hydrodynamic test rig was designed and constructed by considering the hydraulic feeding conditions of the marine species, with a scale factor of 6. This paper presents the design conditions and the evaluation of the test results for the combination of three different variables: (1) flap disposition (two different models were considered); (2) inclination with respect to the flow direction; and (3) flow velocity. The models were printed in polyamide and videos were recorded to evaluate the behaviour of dye injection through the lobes. The videos were processed, and the results were statistically treated and used to calibrate a CFD model to optimize the filter design to be studied in a prototype wastewater treatment plant.
... The MNPs present in animals exposed to them, such as fish, oysters, and shellfish (Garrido Gamarro et al. 2020;Teng et al. 2019), can endanger humans when consumed. Some food products found with elevated MNPs include common salt, honey, sugar, and beer (Yang et al. 2015;Liebezeit 2013, 2014). The leaching of plastics in food packaging containers used to pack food and soft drinks that are consumed will have MNPs readily waiting to invade human bodies (Narwal et al. 2024;Fadare et al. 2020;Oßmann et al. 2018). ...
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are byproducts of plastics created to benefit humanity, but improper disposal and inadequate recycling have turned them into a global menace that we can no longer conceal. As they interact with all living organisms, including humans, their mechanism of interaction and their perilous impact must be meticulously investigated. To uncover the secrets of MNPs, there must be model systems that exist to interlink the two major scenarios: they must represent the environmental impact and be relevant to humans. Therefore, zebrafish and Drosophila are perfect to describe these two cases, as they are well studied and relatable to humans. In this review, 39% zebrafish studies reported higher mortality and hatching rates at greater MNP concentrations, severe oxidative stress as seen by raised malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and reduced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. About 50% of studies showed severe neurotoxic behavior with drop of locomotor activity, suggesting neurotoxicity. MNPs have a significant impact on fertility rate of Drosophila . More than half of the studies revealed genotoxicity in Drosophila as observed by wing spot assays and modified genomic expressions associated with stress and detoxification processes. These findings emphasize the potential of MNPs to bioaccumulate, impair physiological systems, and cause oxidative and neurobehavioral damage. This study underscores the importance for thorough risk evaluations of MNPs and their environmental and health consequences.
... [ DOI: 10.61186/jehe.11.4.472 ] [ Downloaded from jehe.abzums.ac.ir on 2024-[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30] ...
... Spectra with a match of < 60% were rejected. When returning a spectral match of > 60%, an additional visual examination of spectra was performed manually, leading to final acceptance or rejection 9,33,34 . FTIR spectra of typical particles are presented in Fig. 2k-t. ...
Sea ice is regarded as a temporal sink and carrier of microplastics (MPs). Nevertheless, knowledge and understanding of MPs in sea ice remain sparse. This study investigated the abundance, composition, size (> 30 μm), and shape of MPs in four sea-ice cores retrieved at the southern end of the Sea of Okhotsk. Nine microplastic (MP) types, mostly with fragmentary shapes, were detected among ice-core sections. Most fragmentary MPs were smaller than 120 μm, but all fiber MPs were in the largest size class (> 210 μm). MP concentrations were 0–60 particles/L, with an average of 21 particles/L. Higher occurrences of MPs observed in the lower ice layers are attributable to heavier MP contamination in the southern part of the sea and/or relocation of MPs in the ice matrix. No significant correlation was found between the distributions of MP and inorganic particle (sediment) abundances, implying difference in their kinetics of suspension freezing. Taken together, these findings suggest important implications for elucidating the nature and distribution of MPs in sea ice.
Plastic production soared to 400 million tons globally in 2022, resulting in an extensive and inadequately managed influx of plastic waste into the environment. A substantial portion of plastic waste transforms into microplastics (MPs), measuring less than 5 mm, through processes like photodegradation and mechanical wear. These MPs, originating from textiles, tires, cosmetics, and manufacturing, contribute significantly to terrestrial and aquatic pollution. While marine environments have been extensively studied, recent attention has shifted to terrestrial systems, revealing MP contamination 4–23 times higher in soils than in oceans. The soil ecosystem, crucial for sustaining human life, faces contamination risks impacting agriculture and food security. The chapter uniquely explores the comprehensive impact of MPson agriculture, crops, and the food production process, emphasizing the distinct challenges posed by MPsin agricultural soils. In agricultural environments, MPs influence crop production efficiency, plant and animal health, and subsequently, human consumers. The dimensions of MP particles facilitate their transfer across eco-environments, causing disturbances in soil characteristics, plant roots, nutrient absorption, seedling size, gene expression, and accumulation in tissues. Furthermore, MPs pose a serious risk in aquatic environments, affecting organisms through ingestion and entanglement, with implications for seafood safety and human health. The chapter stands out for its emphasis on MPs' journey from terrestrial and aquatic environments to the final consumer product, connecting the dots in the food production chain. In conclusion, addressing the global microplastic problem necessitates a multifaceted approach, including enhanced waste management, sustainable agricultural practices, and regulatory measures to safeguard both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and ensure food safety.
Microplastics (MPs) are produced from various primary and secondary sources and pose multifaceted environmental problems. They are of non-biodegradable nature and may stay in aquatic environments for a long time period. The present review has covered novel aspects pertaining to MPs that were not covered in earlier studies. It has been observed that several methods are being employed for samples collection, extraction and identification of MPs and polymer types using various equipment, chemicals and instrumental techniques. Aquatic species mistakenly ingest MPs, considering them prey and through food-chain, and then suffer from various metabolic disorders. The consumption of seafood and fish may consequently cause health implications in humans. Certain plasticizers are added during manufacturing to provide colour, durability, flexibility, and strength to plastics, but they leach out during usage, storage, and transport, as well as after entering the bodies of aquatic species and human beings. The leached chemicals (bisphenol-A, triclosan, phthalates, etc.) act as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which effect on homeostasis; thereby causing neurotoxicity, cytotoxicity, reproductive problems, adverse behaviour and autism. Negative influence of MPs on carbon sequestration potential of water bodies is also observed, however more studies are required to understand it with a detail mechanism under natural conditions. The wastewater treatment plants are found to remove a large amount of MPs, but in turn, also act as significant sources of their release in sludge and effluents. Further, it is covered that how advanced oxidation processes, thermal- and photo-oxidation, fungi, algae and microbes degrade the plastics and increase their numbers in the surrounding environment. The management strategy comprising recovery of energy and other valuable by-products from plastic wastes, recycling and regulatory framework; are also described in detail. The future perspectives can be of paramount importance to control MPs generation and their abundance in the aquatic and other types of environments. The studies in future need to focus on advanced filtration techniques, advanced oxidation processes, energy recovery from plastic wastes and influences of MPs on carbon sequestration in aquatic environment and human health.
The textile industry faces challenges caused by microplastic fibre (MPF) pollution. Urgent measures and interventions are needed to mitigate the release of MPFs throughout the textile lifecycle. Obstacles arise when implementing action plans that impede stakeholders from taking the appropriate steps. Standardised test methodologies to support the control of release are still in their infancy for application in the broader industry. The contribution of domestic and industrial wastewater to microfibre pollution is ambiguous, so considering natural fibres alongside synthetic alternatives has amplified the complexity. Instead of awaiting perfect solutions, the industry should prioritise implementing effective mitigation strategies without delay, including raising public awareness, fostering collaboration, integrating policies, improving wastewater treatment infrastructure, and supporting technological advancement. Selected sustainability initiatives that align with this agenda are utilised to generate insights and expedite actions.
Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a significant environmental and public health concern due to their widespread distribution and persistence in ecosystems. Human exposure to MPs occurs through multiple pathways, including ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, raising concerns about their potential toxicological impacts. Experimental studies have demonstrated that MPs can induce oxidative stress, inflammation, DNA damage, and cytotoxicity in cells, organoids, and animal models, suggesting their potential to disrupt physiological processes and contribute to adverse health outcomes. However, the precise mechanisms underlying MP-induced toxicity in humans remain poorly understood, and evidence from epidemiological studies is still limited. Current mitigation strategies, including regulatory measures, technological advancements in waste management, and public awareness initiatives, aim to reduce MP pollution and minimize human exposure. Despite these efforts, critical knowledge gaps persist regarding the long-term health effects, bioaccumulation, and biotransformation of MPs in the human body. Further research is essential to fill these gaps, enhance the understanding of MP toxicity, and develop more effective strategies for mitigating human health risks associated with microplastic exposure.
Microplastic pollution has emerged as a global environmental issue, raising concerns about its widespread presence and potential ecological consequences in aquatic environments. The presence of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic environments has gained increasing attention due to their persistence, abundance, and potential to accumulate in various habitats, from coastal regions to freshwater systems and even deep-sea sediments. This chapter provides a concise overview of the sources, ecotoxicology, and analytical techniques for sampling, extraction, and identification of MPs in aquatic environments. There is a wide range of sources for MPs found in aquatic environments, which can be categorized as either point and non-point sources or primary and secondary sources. Furthermore, the various analytical methods used for sampling (selective, bulk, and volume-reduced techniques), extracting (such as density separation, filtration, sieving and digestion techniques), and identifying (such as microscopy, spectroscopy, and chromatography techniques) MPs in water bodies were discussed. Although much has been learned about MPs in aquatic environments, there are still gaps in knowledge and opportunities for future research. This chapter also underscores the significance of these findings for management and policy, which can guide decision-making and reduce the adverse effects of MPs on humans and the natural environment.
Son yıllarda gıda ambalajlamada petrol bazlı plastik kullanımının ham madde kaynağının bulunabilirliği, düşük maliyet, iyi yalıtım, zayıf elektrik/ısı iletkenlik ve korozyon direnci, hafiflik, yüksek mukavemet ve çok yönlü üretilebilirlik gibi çeşitli faktörler nedeniyle arttığı görülmektedir. 2022 yılında toplam plastik üretimi 400.3 milyon metrik ton olarak gerçekleşirken, plastik atık üretimi 300 milyon metrik ton seviyesine ulaşmıştır ve plastik atıkların sadece %14'ünün geri dönüştürüldüğü rapor edilmiştir. Bu üretim verilerinin arasında gıda ambalajları fosil yakıtlardan elde edilen plastiklerin %50'sini oluşturmaktadır. Plastik ambalajlar gıda endüstrisinde uzun süredir kullanılmasına rağmen kararlılıkları, dayanıklılıkları ve biyobozunur olmamaları sebebiyle çevreye zarar vermektedir. Plastik üretiminde genellikle ham madde olarak ham petrol, gaz ve kömür gibi fosil yakıtlar kullanılmaktadır. Fosil yakıtlar, çevre kirliliği ve toksik sera gazlarının (metan ve etilen) başlıca kaynaklarıdır. Günümüzde plastik üretiminden kaynaklanan bu yakıtların dünya genelinde yüksek bir oranda tüketilmesi, ciddi olumsuz sonuçlar doğurmaktadır. İklim ve mevsim düzenindeki değişiklikler, buzulların geri çekilmesi ve yükselen deniz seviyeleri dahil olmak üzere olumsuz sonuçlar meydana getirmektedir. Ayrıca parçalara ayrıldıklarında mikroplastiklere ve nanoplastiklere dönüşmekte, bunlar da nihayetinde besin zincirine girerek, insanlar ve çevredeki diğer canlılar için sağlık sorunları oluşturmaktadır. Mikroplastikler ve nanoplastikler, plastik kaynaklı kirleticiler arasında son yıllarda en fazla dikkati çeken konu olmuştur. Mikro ve nanoplastik formlarındaki plastikler, boyutlarının çok küçük olması (mikroplastik (
Plastics are the most frequently used materials in people’s daily life, and the primary and secondary microplastics generated from them may harm the health of adults. This paper focuses on the summary of the existence of microplastics in many objects most closely related to people in daily life, the toxicological influences it causes in cultured human normal cells and organoids, and the prospects for future research directions. Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) are found in almost all of our everyday products, such as food, drink, and daily necessities, etc. It can enter the digestive tract, respiratory system, and body fluids of the human body, and at lower or equal environment concentrations exhibits obvious cytotoxicity and genotoxicity toward cells and organoids, probably becoming a kind of toxin affecting human health. In addition, due to MNPs can be transferred from the placenta to the embryo, long-term growth-tracking studies of newborns should be done vitally. Besides, due to their wide usability in daily products and the ability to penetrate cytomembranes, the toxicological effects of polyethylene and polypropylene nanoplastic particles equal to or lower than environmental (normal exposure to human body) concentrations are recommended to be studied on human health in the future. Finally, for those individuals who carry MNPs, long-term health evaluation must be performed.
Bioindicators are useful for assessing pollution levels, bioavailability, and the ecological effects of pollutants. Several bioindicators have been proposed for monitoring microplastics (MPs) in the marine environment. There is no known bioindicator for MPs in freshwater. This was the first study to discover and quantify microplastic contamination in the golden apple snail Pomacea caaliculata and its surroundings in Nakhon Pathom Province, central Thailand's urban lowlands. The average MP concentration in snail of small, medium, and large sizes was 4.47 ± 3.37 items/individual, 3.40 ± 1.71 items/individual, and 9.21 ± 8.97 items/individual. Additionally, the snail egg mass had an average MP abundance of 3.03 ± 1.51 items/mass. The regression analysis revealed a significant variation in MP abundance between snail size and egg mass (p < 0.01). MPs in water and sediment had average concentrations of 5.0 ± 1.89 items/L and 140.67 ± 9.29 items/kg. Fibers accounted for 56–83% of particles in all snail sizes, while fragments made up 58% of the egg mass. Snail samples had microplastics ranging in size from <100 to >500 µm, with the most common size being <100 to 250 µm. The egg mass typically ranged in size from <100 to 250 µm. Blue and transparent particles made up more than 74% of all particles and were more prevalent than other colors. The most prevalent polymer was polyethylene terephthalate (PET), followed by polyvinyl acetate (PVAc), cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene (PE). Because microplastic contamination in the snail reflected the fluctuation of microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems, we established the snail as a bioindicator of microplastic pollution in freshwater systems, particularly sediments.
The Western Himalayan mountains, with several riverine systems, are considered one
of the most fragile environments in the world. Among them is Beas, a primary river that
provides essential ecosystem benefits to thousands of indigenous people in North
India. One of the major pollutants, microplastics (MPs), are ubiquitous contaminants,
yet their occurrence in the Beas and ecological risk factors remain largely unexplored.
Due to extensive tourism and urban-related burdens, the usage and release of
enormous amounts of plastics and MPs into the Beas are apparent. Here, we
investigated the extent of MPs pollution and subsequent environmental risks in water
and sediments from Beas along a stretch of 300 km. Our results showed that MPs
were abundant and widely distributed, with the abundance range (mean ± SE) being
46–222 (112.27 ± 12.43) items/L in water and 36–896 (319.47 ± 49.25) items/kg in
sediment samples. We found significant differences in MPs’ abundance in water but
not sediments among the five sampling sites. There was a significant positive
correlation between population size and the abundance of MPs, with the highest
abundance in populated Kullu and the lowest loads at the remote Dhundi Glacier.
Fibers and film were common morphotypes; most items measured <1 mm. Of the
eleven polymers identified, the majority were polyethylene. The pollution load index
ranged up to 4.99 (low-risk category); however, the polymer hazard index exceeded
1,000 (highest-risk category), and the potential ecological risk index was 13,761
(extreme-risk category) at selected sites. This study fills a crucial knowledge gap and
raises concerns about the possible impact on human health, as many riparian
residents depend on Beas as their primary source of potable water. Our findings may
assist governmental agencies in formulating comprehensive eco-friendly policies and
advancing environmentally sustainable strategies in vulnerable locales adjoining the
Beas waterway.
Estuarine Microplastics (MPs) are limited to know globally. By filtering subsurface water through 330 μm nets, MPs in Jiaojiang, Oujiang Estuaries were quantified, as well as that in Minjiang Estuary responding to Typhoon Soulik. Polymer matrix was analyzed by Raman spectroscopy. MP (<5 mm) comprised more than 90% of total number plastics. The highest MPs density was found in Minjiang, following Jiaojiang and Oujiang. Fibers and granules were the primary shapes, with no pellets found. Colored MPs were the majority. The concentrations of suspended microplastics determine their bioavailability to low trophic organisms, and then possibly promoting the transfer of microplastic to higher trophic levels. Polypropylene and polyethylene were the prevalent types of MPs analyzed. Economic structures in urban estuaries influenced on MPs contamination levels. Typhoon didn't influence the suspended MP densities significantly. Our results provide basic information for better understanding suspended microplastics within urban estuaries and for managerial actions.
Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.
Marine debris, mostly consisting of plastic, is a global problem, negatively impacting wildlife, tourism and shipping. However, despite the durability of plastic, and the exponential increase in its production, monitoring data show limited evidence of concomitant increasing concentrations in marine habitats. There appears to be a considerable proportion of the manufactured plastic that is unaccounted for in surveys tracking the fate of environmental plastics. Even the discovery of widespread accumulation of microscopic fragments (microplastics) in oceanic gyres and shallow water sediments is unable to explain the missing fraction. Here, we show that deep-sea sediments are a likely sink for microplastics. Microplastic, in the form of fibres, was up to four orders of magnitude more abundant (per unit volume) in deep-sea sediments from the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean than in contaminated sea-surface waters. Our results show evidence for a large and hitherto unknown repository of microplastics. The dominance of microfibres points to a previously underreported and unsampled plastic fraction. Given the vastness of the deep sea and the prevalence of microplastics at all sites we investigated, the deep-sea floor appears to provide an answer to the question-where is all the plastic?
Plastic debris in the marine environment is more than just an unsightly problem. Images of beach litter and large floating debris may first come to mind, but much recent concern about plastic pollution has focused on microplastic particles too small to be easily detected by eye (see the figure). Microplastics are likely the most numerically abundant items of plastic debris in the ocean today, and quantities will inevitably increase, in part because large, single plastic items ultimately degrade into millions of microplastic pieces. Microplastics are of environmental concern because their size (millimeters or smaller) renders them accessible to a wide range of organisms at least as small as zooplankton, with potential for physical and toxicological harm.
Levels of microplastics (MPs) in China are completely unknown. This study characterizes suspended MPs quantitatively and qualitatively for the Yangtze Estuary and East China Sea. MPs were extracted via a floatation method. MPs were counted and categorized according to shape and size under a stereomicroscope. The MP densities were 4137.3 ± 2461.5 and 0.167 ± 0.138 n/m3, respectively, in the estuarine and the sea samples. Plastic abundances varied significantly in the estuary. Higher densities in three sea trawls confirmed that rivers were the important sources of MP to the marine environment. Plastic particles (>5 mm) were observed with a maximum size of 12.46 mm, but MPs (0.5–5 mm) constituted more than 90% by number of items. The most frequent geometries were fibres, followed by granules and films. Plastic spherules occurred sparsely. Transparent and coloured plastics comprised the majority of the particles. This study provides clues in understanding the fate and potential sources of MPs.
Significance
High concentrations of floating plastic debris have been reported in remote areas of the ocean, increasing concern about the accumulation of plastic litter on the ocean surface. Since the introduction of plastic materials in the 1950s, the global production of plastic has increased rapidly and will continue in the coming decades. However, the abundance and the distribution of plastic debris in the open ocean are still unknown, despite evidence of affects on organisms ranging from small invertebrates to whales. In this work, we synthetize data collected across the world to provide a global map and a first-order approximation of the magnitude of the plastic pollution in surface waters of the open ocean.
When sea ice forms it scavenges and concentrates particulates from the water column, which then become trapped until the ice melts. In recent years, melting has led to record lows in Arctic sea ice extent, the most recent in September 2012. Global climate models, such as that of Gregory et al. [2002], suggest that the decline in Arctic sea ice volume (3.4% per decade), will actually exceed the decline in sea ice extent, something that Laxon et al. [2013] have shown supported by satellite data. The extent to which melting ice could release anthropogenic particulates back to the open ocean has not yet been examined. Here we show that Arctic sea ice from remote locations contains concentrations of microplastics at least two orders of magnitude greater than those that have been previously reported in highly contaminated surface waters, such as those of the Pacific Gyre. Our findings indicate that microplastics have accumulated far from population centers and that polar sea ice represents a major historic global sink of man-made particulates. The potential for substantial quantities of legacy microplastic contamination to be released to the ocean as the ice melts therefore needs to be evaluated, as do the physical and toxicological effects of plastics on marine life.
This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, volume-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: density separation, filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degradation stage, and color as criteria). Chemical and physical characteristics (e.g., specific density) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chemical composition of microplastics is by infrared spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance estimates are "items per m(2)" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m(3)" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance estimates. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
High concentrations of plastic debris have been observed in the oceans. Much of the recent concern has focussed on microplastics in the marine environment. Recent studies of the size distribution of the plastic debris suggested that continued fragmenting of microplastics into nano-sized particles may occur. In this review we assess the current literature on the occurrence of environmentally released micro- and nanoplastics in the human food production chain and their potential health impact. The currently used analytical techniques introduce a great bias in the knowledge, since they are only able to detect plastic particles well above the nano-range. We discuss the potential use of the very sensitive analytical techniques that have been developed for the detection and quantification of engineered nanoparticles. We recognize three possible toxic effects of plastic particles: firstly due to the plastic particles themselves, secondly to the release of persistent organic pollutant adsorbed to the plastics, and thirdly to the leaching of additives of the plastics. The limited data on microplastics in foods do not predict adverse effect of these pollutants or additives. Potential toxic effects of microplastic particles will be confined to the gut. The potential human toxicity of nanoplastics is poorly studied. Based on our experiences in nanotoxicology we prioritized future research questions.
Plastic debris is one of the most significant organic pollutants in the aquatic environment. Due to properties such as buoyancy and extreme durability, synthetic polymers are present in rivers, lakes and oceans and accumulate in sediments all over the world. However, freshwater sediments have attracted less attention than the investigation of sediments in marine ecosystems. For this reason, river shore sediments of the rivers Rhine and Main in the Rhine-Main area in Germany were analyzed. The sample locations comprised shore sediment of a large European river (Rhine) and a river characterized by industrial influence (Main) in areas with varying population sizes as well as sites in proximity to nature reserves. All sediments analyzed contained microplastic particles (<5mm) with mass fractions of up to 1 g kg-1 or 4000 particles kg-1 respectively. Analysis of the plastics by infrared spectroscopy showed a high abundance of polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene, which covered over 75% of all polymer types identified in the sediment. Short distance transport of plastic particles from the tributary to the main stream could be confirmed by the identification of pellets, which were separated from shore sediment samples of both rivers. This systematic study shows the emerging pollution of inland river sediments with microplastics and, as a consequence thereof, underlines the importance of rivers as transport vectors of microplastics into the ocean.
Marine debris is listed among the major perceived threats to biodiversity, and is cause for particular concern due to its abundance, durability and persistence in the marine environment. An extensive literature search reviewed the current state of knowledge on the effects of marine debris on marine organisms. 340 original publications reported encounters between organisms and marine debris and 693 species. Plastic debris accounted for 92% of encounters between debris and individuals. Numerous direct and indirect consequences were recorded, with the potential for sublethal effects of ingestion an area of considerable uncertainty and concern. Comparison to the IUCN Red List highlighted that at least 17% of species affected by entanglement and ingestion were listed as threatened or near threatened. Hence where marine debris combines with other anthropogenic stressors it may affect populations, trophic interactions and assemblages.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Plastic debris in the marine environment is widely documented, but the quantity of plastic entering the ocean from waste generated on land is unknown. By linking worldwide data on solid waste, population density, and economic status, we estimated the mass of land-based plastic waste entering the ocean. We calculate that 275 million metric tons (MT) of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 to 12.7 million MT entering the ocean. Population size and the quality of waste management systems largely determine which countries contribute the greatest mass of uncaptured waste available to become plastic marine debris. Without waste management infrastructure improvements, the cumulative quantity of plastic waste available to enter the ocean from land is predicted to increase by an order of magnitude by 2025.
Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Once believed to degrade into simple compounds, increasing evidence suggests plastics entering the environment are mechanically, photochemically and/or biologically degraded to the extent that they become imperceptible to the naked eye yet are not significantly reduced in total mass. Thus, more and smaller plastics particles, termed microplastics, reside in the environment and are now a contaminant category of concern. The current study tested the hypotheses that microplastics concentration would be higher in proximity to urban sources, and vary temporally in response to weather phenomena such as storm events. Triplicate surface water samples were collected approximately monthly between July and December 2011 from four estuarine tributaries within the Chesapeake Bay, USA using a manta net to capture appropriately sized microplastics (operationally defined as 0.3‒5.0 mm). Selected sites have watersheds with broadly divergent land use characteristics (e.g., proportion urban/suburban, agricultural and/or forested) and wide ranging population densities. Microplastics were found in all but one of 60 samples with concentrations ranging over three orders of magnitude (<1.0 to > 560 g/km(2)). Concentrations demonstrated statistically significant positive correlations with population density and proportion of urban/suburban development within watersheds. Greatest microplastics concentrations also occurred at three of four sites shortly after major rain events.
Determining the exact abundance of microplastics on the sea surface can be susceptible to the sampling method used. The sea surface microlayer (SML) can accumulate light plastic particles, but this has not yet been sampled. The abundance of microplastics in the SML was evaluated off the southern coast of Korea. The SML sampling method was then compared with bulk surface water filtering, a hand-net (50 μm mesh), and a Manta trawl net (330 μm). The mean abundances were in the order of SML water > hand-net > bulk water > Manta trawl net. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) identified that alkyds and poly(acrylate:styrene) accounted for 81% and 11%, respectively, of the total polymer content of the SML samples. These polymers originated from paints and the fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) matrix used on ships. Synthetic polymers from ship coatings should be considered to be a source of microplastics. Selecting a suitable sampling method is crucial for evaluating microplastic pollution.
The spatial distribution of small potential microplastics (SPM) (<1 mm) in beach sediments was studied on a 500 m stretch of the North Sea island of Norderney. Their correlation with visible plastic debris (VPD) (>1 mm) was also examined. Small microparticles were extracted from 36 one kg sediment samples and analysed by visual microscopic inspection and partly by thermal desorption pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The smallest particle size that could be analysed with this method was estimated to be 100 μm. The mean number of SPM at the three sampling sites (n = 12) was 1.7, 1.3 and 2.3 particles per kg dry sediment, respectively. SPM were identified as polypropylene, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene and polyamide. The organic plastic additives found were benzophenone, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, dimethyl phthalate, diethylhexyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, phenol and 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol. Particles were distributed rather homogenously and the occurrence of SPM did not correlate with that of VPD.
Neuston samples were collected at 21 stations during an ∼700 nautical mile (∼1300 km) expedition in July 2012 in the Laurentian Great Lakes of the United States using a 333 μm mesh manta trawl and analyzed for plastic debris. Although the average abundance was approximately 43,000 microplastic particles/km2, station 20, downstream from two major cities, contained over 466,000 particles/km2, greater than all other stations combined. SEM analysis determined nearly 20% of particles less than 1 mm, which were initially identified as microplastic by visual observation, were aluminum silicate from coal ash. Many microplastic particles were multi-colored spheres, which were compared to, and are suspected to be, microbeads from consumer products containing microplastic particles of similar size, shape, texture and composition. The presence of microplastics and coal ash in these surface samples, which were most abundant where lake currents converge, are likely from nearby urban effluent and coal burning power plants.
A total of 19 honey samples, mostly from Germany but also from France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, were analysed for non-pollen particulates. Only coloured fibres and fragments were quantified. Transparent fibres, considered to be cellulosic because they could be stained with fuchsin, were not quantified. Coloured material was found in all the samples investigated. Fibre counts ranged from 40/kg to 660/kg of honey, with a mean value of 166 ± 147/kg of honey, whereas fragments were considerably less abundant (0-38/kg of honey; mean 9 ± 9/kg of honey). Sources are tentatively identified as environmental, that is particles having been transported by the bees into the hive, or having been introduced during honey processing or both. In addition, five commercial sugars were analysed. In all the refined samples, transparent and coloured fibres (mean 217 ± 123/kg of sugar) and fragments (32 ± 7/kg of sugar) were found. Unrefined cane sugar had 560 fibres and 540 fragments per kilogram of honey. In addition, in both honey and sugar samples, granular non-pollen material was observed.
Marine debris, especially plastic debris, is widely recognized as global environmental problem. There has been substantial research on the impacts of plastic marine debris, such as entanglement and ingestion. These impacts are largely due to the physical presence of plastic debris. In recent years there has been an increasing focus on the impacts of toxic chemicals as they relate to plastic debris. Some plastic debris acts as a source of toxic chemicals: substances that were added to the plastic during manufacturing leach from plastic debris. Plastic debris also acts as a sink for toxic chemicals. Plastic sorbs persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (PBTs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, from the water or sediment. These PBTs may desorb when the plastic is ingested by any of a variety of marine species. This broad look at the current research suggests that while there is significant uncertainty and complexity in the kinetics and thermodynamics of the interaction, plastic debris appears to act as a vector transferring PBTs from the water to the food web, increasing risk throughout the marine food web, including humans. Because of the extremely long lifetime of plastic and PBTs in the ocean, prevention strategies are vital to minimizing these risks.
Gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF MS) has been applied to characterize the organic pollution pattern of marine salt samples collected in saltworks from the Spanish Mediterranean coast. After dissolving the samples in water, a solid-phase extraction was applied reaching with a 250-preconcentration factor. The screening methodology allowed the detection of sample components without any kind of pre-selection of target pollutants. The identity of components detected was established by accurate mass measurements and comparison of experimental full-acquisition spectra with theoretical MS libraries. Several organic pollutants were identified in the samples, like plasticizers - potentially toxic to humans - and fragrances -included within the group of pharmaceuticals and personal care products-, among others. Our results indicate that these contaminants can be found in the marine salt after the crystallization process. GC-TOF MS is a powerful technique for wide-scope screening of (semi)volatile, low-polar organic contaminants, able to investigate the presence of a large number of compounds. Searching of contaminants is not restricted to a target list of compounds. Therefore, unexpected contaminants can be discovered in an efficient way, with better sensitivity and selectivity than other conventional analytical techniques, and making use of the powerful qualitative information provided by full-spectrum acquisition at accurate mass.
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