A SHORT HISTORY OF RESIDENTIAL WATER METERS PART III IMPROVEMENTS OF WATER METERS

Abstract

Water is one of our most important natural resources. We drink it, use it for cooking and cleaning, and depend on it in many aspects of our lives. For this motive she must be protected and managed economically. It should not be surprising, then, that we have a need to measure the amount of water we use. In this paper we present a short history about improvements of residential water meters such as frost protection and wear magnetic drive, plastic parts and component and remote and automatic meter reading.

Full text

A SHORT HISTORY OF RESIDENTIAL WATER METERS
PART III IMPROVEMENTS OF WATER METERS
Installations for Buildings and Ambiental Comfort Conference XXI- edition
Timisoara - ROMANIA 18-20April 2012, pp. 44-52
By, Dr. Phys. Monica Sabina Crainic,
S.C. AEM S.A., Research Department,
26 Calea Buziaşului 300693 Timişoara, Romania Tel: 40-256-222200, Fax: 40-256-490928,
E-mail: sales@aem.ro, or monicasabinacrainic@yahoo.com
Abstract
Water is one of our most important natural resources. We drink it, use it for cooking and cleaning, and depend
on it in many aspects of our lives. For this motive she must be protected and managed economically. It should
not be surprising, then, that we have a need to measure the amount of water we use. In this paper we present a
short history about improvements of residential water meters such as frost protection and wear magnetic drive,
plastic parts and component and remote and automatic meter reading.
Key words: water meters, public utilities, history of technology
Introduction
With water becoming scarcer across, it is vital that more accurate measurement is used
to support management decisions and to assist more efficient water use. For a metering
program to be effective in monitoring water use reading meters correctly is as important as
verifying meter accuracy. For this reason in this paper we briefly present the history of several
improvements to residential water meters for more accurate reading of water consumption.
Frost protection and wear
The early use of meters was largely in the north, where freezing troubles were
frequent. In cold weather, many homeowners drained water pipes at night. The conical-disc
meter was favored at this time, because it could be drained more readily than the flat-disc
type. To prevent frost damage when pipes were not drained, two features were developed.
John Thomson [1] covered a breakable frost bottom to be “blown out by the expansive action
of freezing” and in 1904 covered the use of bolts that would “break, strip or yield resiliently”
[2] under pressure greater than normal but yet within the strength of the casings.
Protection of the reducing gear train wear by enclosing the gears in a grease-filled
chamber came into widespread use following World War I. The grease-filled chamber was
actually a very old device [3]. The oil-enclosed gear train remained standard until the advent
of magnetic drive meters between 1950 and 1960.
Magnetic drive meters

During the early use of water meters, there was a need to eliminate the accumulation
of mud and fogging of the glass in register compartments of meters in pits or curb-box
settings. The ventilation hole in the register compartment, by which the stuffix-box leakage
could escape, also permitted moisture to condense beneath the glass and permitted mud to
enter when meter pits were flooded by surface water. Reading of the meter was then
impossible.
Three methods were tried to overcome this problem [4]. During the 1930s and 1940s
some meters were build with the register glass capable of being lifted to read the dial beneath,
but even more dirt could accumulate in the register compartment with this design. In 1917 and
again in the late 1940s, a design was developed that plased the register in a sealed
compartment, with a small stuffing box on the register drive shaft. The register unit was then
filled with oil. This device helped, but leakage of the oil was difficult to prevent.
In 1912 [5-6] and again in 1929 [7-8], two attempts were made to introduce meters
with magnetically driven, sealed registers patented for the first time in 1888 [9] and that in
1907 [10]. Both meters were discontinued because of the undependable magnets available for
the drives which were not permanent. New magnetic materials that retained a high magnetic
power indefinitely and were inexpensive were developed, which led to a major change in
small-meter design. In the late 1950s, the magnetic drive was developed by several companies
[11-14], most of which used small, four-pole, usually round, ceramic magnets. In 1956, the
first of modern magnetically driven meters was introduced by Rockwell Manufacturing
Company from USA [15-16]. It was an oscillating-piston meter with a permanently sealed
register unit containing both register and was made possible by the newly developed
permanent magnets. A magnet mounted in the drive pin of the oscillating piston traced a
circular path around a well extending downward from register unit. A free follower, another
permanent magnet, rolled around on the inside of the well, pushing a crank that drove the
register unit.
The results has been meters that are more sensitive to low flow and have a longer
service life. Friction load on the measuring unit has been reduced by eliminating the heavy
intermediate gear train and the packing gland or stuffix box and the extensive use of low-
friction, lightweight parts in the register. The sealed register, with its high impact resistant
lens, has reduced both fogging and breakage of the lens and corrosion of the working parts
and allows field replacement of the register without interuption of service.
Plastic parts and components

Several of major meter manufacturers started experimenting with the use of plastic
materials in water meters around 1960 [17-18]. Engineered plastics were first used as a
replacement for internal parts such as measuring chambers and then expanded to other parts
such as the register. By 1970, most of the manufacturers had converted to plastics for certain
parts in their water meters. By the mid 1970s a number of utilities were using meters with
plastic main cases.
Remote and automatic reading
Since the first public water systems were created in the 1800’s, it was important for
utilities to measure their customers’ usage. In most cases, water meters were installed in
basements or pits to prevent freezing; unfortunately their location made them difficult to read
In the colder countries, the protection of water meters from freezing has created
reading problems. Where meters are installed in basements, the number of readings that a
reader can make per day is relatively small. If meters are installed in pits in these areas, the pit
covers may become covered by snow. These problems, plus the search for greater efficiency
by the water utilities, have created great interest in the remote and automatic reading of
meters.
Three types (see table 1) of remote reading have been developed [4]:
1 Visual reading at a convenient outdoor location where the meter reader enters the reading
manually in the record book.
2 A convenient outdoor reading location whereby the reader can enter the reading semi-
automatically. This type of reading ties in with automatic data processing at the utility office
3 Reading of the meter by telephone or radio frequency (RF) to gather the information
automatically.
Table 1 Type of remote and automatic reading of water meters
YEAR
MECHANISMS

Manual Read Meter1
1950
Visual Read Remotes2
1970
Scan Read Remotes3
1980
Telephone Fixed Network Reading4
1 Meter reader reads register dials and records reading in ledger book. Billing clerk computes usage from
previous reading, then calculates and issues bill.
2 Meter register in basement connected by wire to outside register, which is read by meter reader without
entering the building. Readings recorded in ledger.
3 Meter register in basement connected by wire to outside coupler. Meter reader attaches battery operated
handheld reader to coupler to obtain visual reading of register dial. Reading recorded in ledger. Later
improvements allowed reading to be collected and processed electronically. Electronic meter book developed to
manually enter readings from visual read remotes and manual read meters to automate reading processing and
billing.

1980
Radio Frequency Mobile Reading5
1990
Radio Frequency Fixed Network Reading6
2000
Two-Way Communication7
The first known remote-reading device for a water meter was an electrically operated
unit patented in 1917 by Edwin H. Ford and Albert C Neff [19]. In 1957, the first of the
modern remote readers patented in 1964 by Michael J. Dunn [20] was introduced for quantity
sales. It consisted of an electric pulse generator driven by the meter with the pulse actuating a
solenoid operated counter at the remote location.
In 1959 [4] a meter with a battery powered readout was introduced. When it was
inserted into a plug socket at the remote location, the wiring to the meter was energized. The
position of the hands on the meter dial was transmitted electrically to dials on the readout
instrument carried by the meter reader.
Several sophisticated devices for digital encoding of readings such as magnetic reed
switches, Weigand sensors, etc are now offered that provide data entry to computers. The
development of these devices has been recent and too complex for detailed description in this
brief review.
All water meters that are to be read electronically must have some means of
communicating the meter reading to an electronic automatic meter reading (AMR) device.
This device may be (1) mounted outside the structure where its display can be visually read
by an on-site meter-reader, (2) mounted outside the structure where its “touch-pad” can be
electronically read by an on-site meter-reader, (3) mounted at the meter and include a short-
range radio for communication with a walking or driving meter reader, or (4) mounted at the
meter and incorporate a long-range radio for communication with a fixed-network AMR
system that transfers the data directly to the utility office [21].
There are two types of reading automation technologies: mobile read systems8 and
fixed network systems9. This technology was invented in 1972, by Theodore George “Ted”
4 Meter register is wired to interface device that was connected to phone line. Utility could either phone the
meter to get its reading or the interface device was programmed to call the utility on set schedule to provide
meter reading. Reading information electronically processed for billing
5 Meter register is wired to radio frequency transmitter. Handheld or mobile collector used to obtain meter
reading. Readings downloaded from collector into billing software for electronic processing of bills
6 Meter register is wired to radio frequency transmitter. Transmitter sends reading to stationary collector.
Collector sends readings from meters to utility by cell phone or other communication methods. Readings
uploaded into billing software for electronic processing of bills
7 In addition to the meter sending its reading to the utility, fixed network collectors and meter transmitters
upgraded so that the utility can send signals to the collector and meter to reprogram reading frequency, or obtain
additional meter reading. Other devices being added to communication network to identify leaks in service lines,
obtain temperature and pressure information or shut off service

Paraskevakos. While Mr. Paraskevakos was worked with Boeing in Huntsville, Alabama,
developed a sensor monitoring system which used digital transmission for security, fire and
medical alarm systems as well as meter reading capabilities for all utilities. AMR technology
was a spin off of the automatic telephone line identification system, now known as Caller
ID10.
In 1974, Mr. Paraskevakos was awarded a U.S. patent for this technology.[22] In
1977, he launched Metretek, Inc.[23], which developed and produced the first fully
automated, commercially available remote meter reading and load management system. Since
this system was developed pre-Internet, Metretek utilized the IBM series 1 mini-computer.
For this approach, Mr. Paraskevakos and Metretek were awarded multiple patents.[24]
Regardless of which type of automated system a utility uses, both deliver great
benefits, chief among them increased reading efficiency and accuracy, the ability to obtain
actual readings, and reduced worker injuries and damage to customers’ property. For
customers, it’s less invasive. The radio system of meter reading is the most current, enabling
readers to get quick accurate readings without interrupting business or residential life.
Another dual benefit is that automated reading converts data into useful action that
reduces operating costs and improves service. Data collected from automated systems are
actual readings with accuracy in the 99.5-99.9%, which reduces the need for billing
adjustments and prevents utilities from needing to estimate invoices.
Advanced metering systems can provide benefits for utilities, retail providers and
customers. Benefits will be recognized by the utilities with increased efficiencies, outage
detection, tamper notification and reduced labor cost as a result of automating reads,
connections and disconnects. Retail providers will be able to offer new innovative products in
8 Through the mobile read system, meter readers collect readings by driving past the account, whose meter is
transmitting the reading every eight to 14 seconds. Reading signals are typically transmitted over a distance of
300-400 m. Depending upon factors such as housing density and driving speeds, mobile read systems typically
can collect between 4,500 and 7,000 reads per day. For comparison, a meter reader walking a route reads
between 75 and 450 reads per day, depending on the location of the meter. Utilities tend to collect mobile read
data based on its reading and billing cycle, which is four to 12 reads per year
9 A fixed network system relies on the installation of a dedicated communications network throughout the
utility’s service territory, which automatically brings the meter reading back to the utility. Fixed network systems
collect hourly meter readings regardless of the billing cycle, amounting to 8,760 reads per year per account.
Though hourly meter readings are collected, the utilities’ billing department uses only four to 12 readings for
billing invoices. The additional reading information helps utilities find leaks, determine final bills for customers
moving out of properties, monitor for usage when water restrictions are in force, and identify water theft
10 Caller ID (caller identification,CID), also called calling line identification (CLID) or calling number
identification (CNID) or Calling Line Identification Presentation (CLIP), is a telephone service, available in
analog and digital phone systems applications for example, that transmits a caller's number to the called party's
telephone equipment during the ringing signal, or when the call is being set up but before the call is answered.
Where available, caller ID can also provide a name associated with the calling telephone number. The
information made available to the called party may be displayed on a telephone's display or on a separately
attached device.

addition to customizing packages for their customers. In addition, with the meter data being
readily available, more flexible billing cycles would be available to their customers instead of
following the standard utility read cycles. With timely usage information available to the
customer, benefits will be seen through opportunities to manage their energy consumption
and change from one REP to another with actual meter data. Because of these benefits, many
utilities are moving towards implementing some types of AMR solutions.
Some benefits of smart metering for the utility are: accurate meter reading, no more
estimates, improved billing, true costs applied, improved security and tamper detection for
equipment, less financial burden correcting mistakes, transparency of “cost to read” metering,
the benefits of smart metering for the customer, improved billing and tacking of usage.
The disadvantages of advanced remote or automatic metering are{25]: loss of privacy
- details of use reveal information about user activities, greater potential for monitoring by
other/unauthorized third parties, reduced reliability (more complicated meters, more potential
for interference by third parties), increased security risks from network or remote access,
meter readers losing their jobs.
General conclusions
Although mechanical water meters provide adequate performance and low cost, the
limitations arising from the principles of the mechanical meter can be considerable. The major
problem with this meter is that accuracy is not maintained with age.
Moving parts can also cause jamming or clogging when water contains particles, lime
scale or sands. Some solids such as lime scale may deposit on the inside of the flow chamber
of the mechanical water meter which may cause over-registration at high flow rates and
under-registration at low flow rates.
These limitations of mechanical water meters translate into an increased cost of
ownership and lost revenue for the utility, which can be equivalent to many times the original
cost of the meter over a long period. By appropriating solid-state and non mechanical water
meters with electronic registering, (see part II of this paper) it is possible to overcome the
limitations of a mechanical water meter because the non-mechanical meter has no moving
parts to cause jamming, clogging or wearing
Non-mechanical or electronic water meters and new technologies available today offer
compelling financial and ecological benefits such as:

 they compliment automatic metering infrastructure (AMI) deployments but offer
many benefits independent of AMI and
 utilities should explore and understand the potential of these meter technologies
Also solid state technologies and electronic water meters offer a win-win for utilities,
consumers, and the environment. They can [26]
 reduce apparent losses from meters allowing utilities to bill for more of the water
actually delivered
 they can help eliminate the smallest leaks
 they deliver more information than ever before
References
[1] John Thomson „Disk water meter” US Patent No 520197 from 22 May. 1884
[2] John Thomson „Disk water meter” US Patent No 771337 from 4 Oct. 1904
[3] Walter S. Pollard „Water Meter” US Patent No.862584 from 6 Aug. 1907
[4] *** “History of Water Measurement and Development of Water Meters” in Manual of
Water Supply Practices M6 American Water Works Association 1999
[5] LewisH Nash „Water meter” US Patent No 1024741 from 30 Apr. 1912
[6] LewisH Nash „Water meter” US Patent No 1033619 from 23 July 1912
[7] Edwin H Ford „ Magnetic meter motor” US Patent No 1724272 from 14 Mar 1929
[8] Edwin H Ford „ Magnetic meter ” US Patent No 1724873 from 13 Aug 1929
[9] Lewis H Nash „Fluid meters” US Patents No 280332 from 26 June 1888
[10] Wilhelm Gottlob Voltz „Water Meter” US Patent No. 864579 from 27 Aug. 1907
[11] Frank W. E. Wisse „Magnetic drive” US Patent No. 2354563 from 25 July 1944
[12] Arlis L Loger „ Magnetic meter drive” US Patent No. 2399856 from 7 May 1946
[13] James C Brewer „Fluid rate flow indicator” US Patent No. 2529481 from 14 Nov. 1950
[14] Alan B Lindley „ Water meter” US Patent No. 2566220 from 28 Aug. 1951
[15] Alexander R. Wittaker „Fluid meter” US Patent No 2410852 from 12 Nov. 1946
[16] Patrick J Rockford and Robert Z. Hague „ Meter” US Patents No. 2735408 from 21 Feb.
1956
[17] James H Judge, Mathew H. Hetzel, Archie E Weingard „Plastic water meter” US Patent
No. 3094040 from 18 June 1963
[18] Grover H. Smith, Richard D. Wans „Water meter register casings”US Patent No.
3068696 from 18 Dec. 1962

[19] Albert C. Neff, Edwin H. Ford „ Electrical attachment for reading meters” US Patent No.
1244634 from 30 Oct. 1917
[20] Michael J. Dunn, „ Rotary drive electrical counting impulse generator” US Patent No.
3118075 from 14 Jan. 1964
[21] Larry Sears “Water Meter Technology Understanding the Meter-to-AMR Interface”
DistribuTECH 2005
[22] Theodoros G. Paraskevakos, “Sensor monitoring devices” United States Patent No.
3842208 from 15 Oct. 1974
[23] Theodoros G. Paraskevakos “Apparatus and method for remote sensor monitoring,
metering and control” United States Patent No. 4241237 from 23 Dec. 1980.
[24] Theodoros G. Paraskevakos “Apparatus and method for remote sensor monitoring,
metering and control” United States Patent No. 4455453 from 19 Jun. 1984
[25] Ariel Bleicher, “Privacy on the smart grid” IEEE Spectrum, October 2010
[26] Arthur Burns, “Advancements in residential water metering technology” Eighth Annual
Water Conservation Showcase” PG&E Pacific Energy Center, San Francisco USA March
22nd, 2011