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International Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering & Management (IJIREM) ISSN: 2350-0557,
Volume-2, Issue -5, September 2015
How to Approach the Challenge of Minimizing
Non-Thermal Health Effects of
Microwave Radiation from Electrical Devices
Martin L. Pall, PhD,
Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry and Basic Medical Sciences,
Washington State University
638 NE 41st Ave., Portland, OR 97232, USA
Phone: 503-232-3883
martin_pall@wsu.edu
ABSTRACT
Dozens of reviews and thousands of primary literature
studies have shown the existence of many different
non-thermal health effects of microwave and lower
frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs); however
current safety guidelines and standards only recognize
thermal effects. This leaves both individuals and
companies unprotected, particularly with the very
large increases in microwave frequency exposures that
are occurring over time. It has recently been shown
that many, perhaps even all non-thermal health effects
are produced by activation of voltage-gated calcium
channels (VGCCs) in the plasma membranes of cells,
with EMFs activating these channels, producing large
increases in intracellular calcium levels [Ca2+]i. The
voltage sensor controlling the VGCCs is thought to be
extremely sensitive to activation by weak EMFs.
Diverse health effects are thought to be produced by
downstream effects of increased [Ca2+]i produced by
VGCC activation. It is difficult if not impossible to
currently predict the biological effects of different
EMFs because pulsation patterns, frequencies and
EMF polarization each have strong influences on
biological effects; there are also windows of exposure
producing maximum biological effects within the
exposure window. While decreasing exposures on the
order of 100 to 1000-fold will no doubt be useful, we
also need to have genuine biological measures of
damage to allow optimization of both the type of EMF
exposures as well as intensities. Biological
optimization should be done by studying cells in
culture that have high densities of various types of
VGCCs, measuring such effects as increases in
[Ca2+]i and increases in nitric oxide (NO) production
following EMF exposures. Such cell culture-based
assessment of biological damage should allow
progressive improvement of wireless communication
devices and various other electronic devices by
choosing designs that lower biological responses.
Keywords
Microwave frequency EMFs, calcium signaling, nitric
oxide, peroxynitrite, oxidative stress
1. There Is a Widespread Literature
on Non-Thermal Effects Being
Produced by Low-Intensity
Microwave/RF Exposures
The earliest major report of widespread non-thermal
effects of microwave frequency radiation exposures
was the 1971 Naval Medical Research Institute
(NMRI) Research Report [1] which listed 40 apparent
neuropsychiatric changes produced by non-thermal
microwave frequency exposures, including 5
central/peripheral nervous system (NS) changes, 9
central NS effects, 4 autonomic system effects, 17
psychological disorders, 4 behavioral changes and 2
misc. effects [1,2]. It also listed cardiac effects
including ECG changes and cardiac necrosis as well as
both hypotension and hypertension, and also 8
different endocrine effects. Changes affecting fertility
included tubular degeneration in the testis, decreased
spermatogenesis, altered sex ratio, altered menstrual
activity, altered fetal development and decreased
lactation. Many other non-thermal changes were also
listed for a total of over 100 non-thermal effects. This
NMRI report also provided a supplementary document
listing over 2300 citations documenting these and
other effects of microwave exposures in humans and
in animals, with approximately 2000 of these
documenting apparent non-thermal effects.
Tolgskaya and Gordon [3] published a long and
detailed review of effects of microwave and lower
frequency EMFs on experimental animals, mostly
rodents. They report that non-thermal exposures
impact many tissues, with the nervous system being
the most sensitive organ in the body, based on
histological studies, followed by the heart and the
testis. They also report effects of non-thermal
exposures on liver, kidney, endocrine and many other
organs. The nervous system effects are very extensive
and are discussed in Reference [2,3] and more modern
studies reporting extensive effects of such non-thermal
EMF exposures on the brain are also cited in [2].
There are also many modern studies showing effects
of non-thermal exposures on fertility in animals.
The Raines 1981 National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) report [4] reviewed an
extensive literature based on occupational exposures
to non-thermal microwave EMFs. Based on multiple
studies, Raines [4] reports 19 neuropsychiatric effects
to be associated with occupational
microwave/radiofrequency EMFs, as well as cardiac
effects, endocrine including neuroendocrine effects
and several other effects.
The Bolen 1994 report put out by the Rome
Laboratory of the U.S. Air Force [5], acknowledged
the role of non-thermal effects of microwave EMFs on
humans. This report states in the Conclusion section
that “Experimental evidence has shown that exposure
to low intensity radiation can have a profound effect
on biological processes. The nonthermal effects of
RF/MW radiation exposure are becoming important
measures of biological interaction of EM fields.”
Clearly Bolen [5] rejects the claim that only thermal
effects occur. So we can see from these four reviews
(1,3-5), that there was already a well accepted
literature on non-thermal effects of microwave
frequency EMFs back in the 1970’s through the mid-
1990’s but it is still the case that U.S. and international
safety guidelines and standards are based solely on
thermal effects.
22 additional scientific published reviews have each
reviewed various types of non-thermal microwave
effects in humans and/or experimental animals in
various contexts [2,6-26], as have 26 studies in a
recently published book [27]. It can be seen from this
that there is a widely held consensus in much of the
scientific community that various non-thermal effects
of microwave EMFs are well documented.
2. Safety Guidelines and Standards
Are Based Only On Thermal Effects
Nevertheless, U.S., ICNIRP and almost all other
safety guidelines/standards for microwave/lower
frequency EMFs have been based solely on thermal
(heating) effects, not on non-thermal effects. These
have, therefore left both the general public and also
companies designing devices emitting electromagnetic
fields unprotected by genuine scientifically-based
standards. It is the central focus of this paper as to
how such companies should respond to this situation.
There have been many scientific statements that have
expressed great concern about the inadequacy of these
safety guidelines/standards because of their failure to
include what in the views of many scientists, are well
established non-thermal effects. For example, Havas
in a 2013 paper [6] lists 14 statements of this type,
written between 2002 and 2012 by various groups of
international scientists, each expressing concern about
non-thermal effects and the inadequacy of safety
guidelines and standards. In addition, recently, there
was a petition from various scientists, arguing that the
World Health Organization should reclassify
microwave EMFs as a Class 1 human carcinogen; 53
scientists signed a petition that the 2014 Canadian
Report (discussed further below) had inadequate
protection standards for human health; and 206
international scientists signed a statement sent to the
United Nations Secretary General and to member
states, stating that international safety guidelines and
standards are inadequate to protect human health.
3. Four Important Factors Which
Make the Biological Activity of EMFs
Unpredictable in Terms of Intensity
and Unpredictable in General
Many have assumed that it is possible to predict the
effects of such EMFs based simply on EMF exposure
intensities but such assumptions are clearly false.
Empirical observations have shown that four types of
factors greatly influence biological responses to
microwave EMFs , with all four reviewed by Belyaev
[28] and 3 of the 4 each reviewed elsewhere [24,25].
1. One of these is that pulsed fields are in most
cases more biologically active than non-
pulsed fields. The literature on comparing
pulsed fields with non-pulsed fields goes
back to the 1960’s [3] and continues right up
to the present [24-26,28,29]. One example
of pulsation effects is from studies of
therapeutic effects of non-thermal
microwave frequency EMFs [26], when they
are of the right type and intensity and
focused on the right tissue. Such therapy
was standardized using pulsed microwave
fields back in the mid-1970s because these
pulse fields were more active, a
standardization that continues to the present
day [26]. There are some 4000 studies of
pulsed microwave therapy which make up
the largest literature on non-thermal
biological effects. Unfortunately we don’t
have enough detailed knowledge of these
pulsation effects to be able to predict how
biologically active EMFs with different
patterns of pulsation will be. With very
complex pulsed fields like those from smart
meters or smart phones, prediction becomes
still more difficult. Panagopoulos et al [29]
have argued that complex pulsation patterns
are consistently more biologically active
than are simpler patterns. There is some
evidence that very low frequency pulsations
(10 Hz or less) may lower biological
responses, which if confirmed may be useful
for lowering biological effects of electronic
devices. Because all wireless
communication devices communicate via
pulsations, pulsation effects may be inherent
factors with such devices.
2. There are non-linearities in dose response
curves and specifically there are specific
intensity windows of exposure which
produce greater biological effects than
exposures of either higher or lower
intensity [24,28,29]. In one experiment, an
effect seen within a window was studied and
it was found that increasing intensity to even
to 150 times higher intensity of exposure
lead to lower biological responses than was
found in the window. Clearly these intensity
windows also create important uncertainties
in trying to predict biological effects of
EMF exposures.
3. It has also been shown that different
frequencies have different biological effects
[28]. While this is a simpler issue, than
either pulsations or the window effects, it
may well add substantial complexity in
combination with each of these other two
factors.
4. Perhaps most importantly, artificial EMFs
are polarized and can be linearly or
circularly polarized. However most
naturally occurring EMFs are non-polarized
or only weakly polarized. Polarized fields
can produce much stronger forces on
charged groups, which, as discussed below,
are likely to have central roles in producing
non-thermal biological effects [28,29]. One
of the other effects discussed by Belyaev
[28] is that circularly polarized fields can be
either right handed or left handed and that
the handedness of specific fields have
extremely large effects on the biological
responses, such that fields that are identical
in intensity and frequency and differ only in
their handedness of circular polarization can
have almost completely different biological
effects.
All of these things – the effects of pulsations, of
window effects, of frequencies and of linear and
circular polarization argue compellingly that we
cannot predict biological effects based simply on the
intensity of EMFs and certainly not on heating effects
of EMFs. An attractive approach to measuring
biological effects empirically is discussed below.
4. How Do Non-Thermal EMF
Exposures Produce Biological Effects?
The above discussed studies, clearly show that there
has been a consensus in the scientific literature from
the early 1970s up to the present time on the existence
of widespread non-thermal EMF health effects but it
has been unclear what mechanism(s) generated these
health effects. There were various suggestions about
how these might be generated but no confirmation that
those suggested mechanisms were correct. The author
stumbled onto the mechanism in 2012 and published
on it in mid-2013. This 2013 paper [30] was honored
by being placed on the Global Medical Discovery web
site as one of the most important medical papers of
2013. At this writing, it has been cited 42 times
according to the Google Scholar database, with 18 of
those citations during the first half of 2015. So clearly
it is having a substantial and rapidly increasing impact
on the scientific literature. I have given 26
professional talks, in part or in whole on EMF effects
in 10 different countries over the last 2 1/4 years. So
it is clear that there has been a tremendous amount of
interest in this.
What the 2013 study showed [30], was that in 24
different studies (and there are now 2 more that can
now be added [2]), effects of low-intensity EMFs,
both microwave frequency and lower frequency EMFs
could be blocked by calcium channel blockers, drugs
that block what are called voltage-gated calcium
channels (VGCCs). There were a total of 5 different
types of calcium channel blocker drugs used in these
studies, with each type acting on a different site on the
VGCCs and each thought to be highly specific for
blocking VGCCs. What these studies tell us is that
these EMFs act to produce non-thermal effects by
activating the VGCCs. Where several effects were
studied, when one of them was blocked or greatly
lowered, each other effect studied was also blocked or
greatly lowered. This tells us that the role of VGCC
activation is quite wide – many effects go through that
mechanism, possibly even all non-thermal effects in
mammals. There are a number of other types of
evidence confirming this mechanism of action of
microwave frequency EMFs [2,24,30]. It is now
apparent [24] that these EMFs act directly on the
voltage sensor of the VGCCs, the part of the VGCC
protein that detects electrical changes and can open the
channel in response to electrical changes.
The voltage sensor (and this is shown on pp. 102-104
in [24]) is predicted, because of its structure and its
location in the plasma membrane of the cell, to be
extraordinarily sensitive to activation by these EMFs,
about 7.2 million times more sensitive than are single
charged groups elsewhere in the cell. What this means
is that arguments that EMFs produced by particular
devices are too weak to produce biological effects
[31], are immediately highly suspect because the
actual target, the voltage sensor of the VGCCs is
extremely sensitive to these EMFs.
How, then can the stimulation of the VGCC
mechanism lead to health impacts? When the VGCCs
are activated, they open up a channel and leads to
large increases in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and it
is the excessive intracellular calcium that leads to most
if not all of the biological effects. Calcium signaling
is very important to the cell, with some effects of it
being produced through increases in nitric oxide (NO)
as seen in Fig. 1 and Ref 2.
!
VGCCs
[Ca2+]i
NO
protein
kinase G
Microwave/
Low Freq.
EMFs
cGMP
Therapy
Superoxide
OO(-)
ONOO(-)
Peroxy-
nitrite
+/-CO2
Free
radicals
Oxidative
nitrosative
stress
Pathophysiological
effects
!
Figure 1. EMFs Act via Downstream Effects of
VGCC Activation to Produce Pathophysiological
and Therapeutic Effects. Taken from Ref. [24] with
permission.
There are non-thermal therapeutic effects produced by
these EMFs where they are at the appropriate level
and where they are focused on the proper tissue; Such
therapeutic effects are produced by the NO signaling
pathway across the top of the Figure. However NO
can also react with superoxide (which is also elevated
by excessive Ca2+]i) to form peroxynitrite, ONOO(-),
a potent oxidant. Peroxynitrite can break down to
produce reactive free radicals and cause oxidative
stress, with all of these acting to produce
pathophysiological (that is disease causing) effects
(Fig.1). Excess calcium signaling by elevated [Ca2+]i
can also contribute to pathophysiological effects.
A number of repeatedly reported effects of effects of
microwave EMF exposures can be generated by these
mechanisms, as shown in Ref. [24].
Table 1. Apparent Mechanisms of Action for
Microwave Exposures Producing Diverse
Biological Effects (See Fig. 1)
Reported
Biologic
Response
Apparent Mechanism(s)
Oxidative stress
Peroxynitrite & consequent free
radical formation
Single strand
breaks in cellular
DNA
Free radical attack on DNA
Double strand
breaks in cellular
DNA
Same as above
Cancer
Single and double strand breaks,
8-nitroguanine and other pro-
mutagenic changes in cellular
DNA; produced by elevated NO,
peroxynitrite
Breakdown of
blood-brain
barrier
Peroxynitrite activation of matrix
metalloproteinases (MMPs)
leading to proteolysis of tight
junction proteins
Male and female
infertility
Induction of double strand DNA
breaks; Other oxidative stress
mechanisms; [Ca2+]i
mitochondrial effects causing
apoptosis; in males, breakdown
of blood-testis barrier
Therapeutic
effects
Increases in [Ca2+]i and NO/NO
signaling
Depression;
diverse
neuropsychiatric
symptoms
VGCC activation of
neurotransmitter release; other
effects?; possible role of excess
epinephrine/norepinephrine
Melatonin
depletion; sleep
disruption
VGCCs, elevated [Ca2+]i
leading to disruption of circadian
rhythm entrainment as well as
melatonin synthesis; elevated
[Ca2+]i may also lead to
elevated night time levels of
norepinephrine
Cataract
formation
VGCC activation and [Ca2+]i
elevation; calcium signaling and
also peroxynitrite/oxidative
stress
Tachycardia,
arrhythmia,
sometimes
leading to sudden
cardiac death
Very high VGCC activities
found in cardiac (sinoatrial node)
pacemaker cells; excessive
VGCC activity and [Ca2+]i
levels produces these electrical
changes in the heart
Taken from ref [24] with permission.
A large number of these repeatedly reported effects of
such EMF exposures can be caused by various
downstream effects of VGCC activation as shown in
Fig. 1. This suggests that both Fig. 1 and also Table 1
may explain many of the effects produced by non-
thermal exposures to microwave frequency EMFs.
These apparent mechanisms of action provide further
support that most if not all effects of microwave and
lower frequency EMFs are likely to be produced via
downstream effects of VGCC activation.
In contrast to this, when the author examined the
evidence supporting a strictly thermal mode of action
of these microwave frequency EMFs in the 2014
Canadian Report [32], that evidence was found to be
deeply flawed [24].
5. Biologically-Based EMF Safety
Standards – Why Industry Needs to
Look at These and How They May Be
Useful
Hardell and Sage [34], the Scientific Panel on
Electromagnetic Health Risks [17] and the author [24]
have called for biologically-based EMF safety
standards, standards that are based on genuine
biologically relevant responses to low-level
microwave and other EMFs. The best approach to
doing so, in the author’s view, as discussed earlier
[24] involves looking at biological responses of
VGCC-containing cells in culture (using methods
outlined below). The initial focus here is on how such
responses should be useful in quantifying biological
effects of electronic devices that produce EMFs.
The goal here is both to use such cell culture studies to
quantify biological effects of various EMFs, with
regard to effects of frequency, intensity, pulsation
pattern and polarization. A wide variety of electronic
devices can be tested, so as to improve designs by
lowering biological effects. These would include
various types of broadcasting devices including
antennae, all types of wireless communication devices
and also many other electronic devices that
inadvertently broadcast EMFs and/or dirty electricity.
Smaller devices such as cell phones, cordless phones,
cordless phone bases, smart meters, Wi-Fi fields and
computers/tablets generating Wi-Fi signals but also
many other devices. Panagopoulos et al [25] have
recently argued that complex pulsation patterns such
as produced by smart phones and smart meters
produce higher biological activity. A wide variety of
factors should be investigated for improved safety,
including improved antenna design, use of frequencies
producing lowered biological effects, use of shielding
materials and changes in polarization and pulsation
patterns. Improved sensitivity of receivers can allow
lowered intensities to be used.
In dirty electricity, transients produced by various
devices, produce transients in electrical power wiring
such that the wiring acts as an antenna, producing in
turn, human exposure to EMFs. All digital technology
has the potential to produce such dirty electricity, but
digital technology involving high current flows may
be the major challenge, such as broadcasting antennas,
digital power supplies and inverters. It may be
important to investigate the use of filters to lower such
transients in electrical wiring. It is not uncommon for
electronic devices to purposefully introduce signals
onto electrical power wiring, such that the wiring is
used as a communication conduit. Clearly such
purposeful use of power wiring needs to be
investigated for biological effects. Filters and other
technologies should be investigated to see if these
lower biological responses. Even static magnetic
fields can activate VGCCs [30], possibly because
rapid movement of the VGCCs due to movement of
plasma membranes in which they are located. The
effects, therefore of many types of EMFs can be
assessed biologically through testing of such
biological responses.
How then should cells in culture be used to monitor
biological effects of various EMFs? Studies would
use cell lines with such high VGCC levels, such as
neuroblastoma cell lines, glioblastoma/glioma hybrid
cell lines or perhaps cell lines derived from endocrine
cells with relatively high VGCC levels. Among these
cell lines should be the neuroblastoma cell lines
previously studied by Dutta et al (discussed in [24])
and shown to produce changes in calcium fluxes in
response to very low level EMF exposures. PC12
cells, a commonly used chromaffin cell line may also
be useful. In addition, it may useful to use cardiac
pacemaker cells which have very high activities of
VGCCs and can be derived from stem cells [24].
Because the growth conditions of cells may influence
their responsiveness, such conditions must be
standardized. Standardization should include growth
of cells in a Faraday cage such as to prevent, to the
extent possible, previous exposures to EMFs.
Two approaches should be used to measure responses
of such cells to EMF exposure: Cells in culture could
be monitored for nitric oxide (NO) production using
an NO electrode in the gas phase over the culture,
using methods similar to those used by Pilla [33]. NO
synthesis is stimulated by [Ca2+]i elevation because
there are two NO synthase enzymes that are each
calcium-dependent and therefore increase in activity
with increasing [Ca2+]i. Continuous measurements
from an NO electrode can be recorded and easily
quantified, allowing accumulation of very large
amounts of data in very short time periods in response
to various EMFs. Therefore, issues such as
reproducibility should be quickly resolved.
Another approach to such studies involves using
calcium-sensitive fluorescent probes that concentrate
into the cytoplasm of cells, allowing assessments of
[Ca]i levels with a fluorescence microscope or of
multiple cells using a fluorometer. Alternatively,
transgenic cell lines containing green fluorescent
protein (GFP) can be used, where GFP functions as
the calcium-sensitive fluorescent probe. This may
allow one of obtain information of different types than
described in the previous paragraph. One can get
information on heterogeneity of responses at the
cellular level and also how raised [Ca]i levels may
propagate over time from one part of the cell to
another. However a limitation to this approach may
occur if the fields generated by the microscope perturb
the [Ca2+]i levels and cannot be well shielded using a
small Faraday cage that does not cage exposures that
are to be studied. So these two approaches are distinct
from one another and whether they will complement
each other as they develop is uncertain. It is my view
that both of these should be investigated if only to
explore their strong points and weak points, but that
the NO electrode approach may be a very good place
to start because it has already been used to assess EMF
effects [33] and because it allows easy quantification.
These two types of approaches should allow
comparison of different wireless communications
devices for their relative biological effects, possibly
permitting easy improvements in design. There is
some evidence that some pulsation patterns may lower
biological effects and this type of effect might be
studied as well.
From the standpoint of industry and engineering of
electronic devices, the four factors we discussed
above, that each influence biological responses each
need to be considered: the roles of pulsations, window
effects, frequency and polarization. Each of these can
be viewed as a challenge, but also as an opportunity.
The opportunities come because by manipulating these
factors, it may well be possible to develop devices
with much lower biological effects than are produced
by current devices. A smart company that gets the
information early and uses it effectively may well
have a marketing advantage over its competitors.
6. Conclusions
Non-thermal effects of EMF exposures have been
extensively documented for over 40 years. However
only recently has the mechanism of action of such
non-thermal effects been demonstrated. These act via
EMF activation of VGCCs, producing increases in
intracellular calcium [Ca2+]i. This allows the
development of techniques using cells in culture with
high densities of multiple types of VGCCs, to assess
different devices that emit microwave frequency
EMFs by measuring either increases in [Ca2+]i or
increases in nitric oxide (NO) produced as a
consequence of increased [Ca2+]i. It is the author’s
view that smart companies should use these cell
culture techniques to greatly improve the safety of
such devices.
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