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Mating markets and bargaining hands: Mate preferences for attractiveness and resources in two national U.S. studies
Abstract
According to a "mating market" approach, people with desirable traits have a stronger "bargaining hand" and can be more selective when choosing partners. We examined how heterosexual mate preferences varied by gender, age, personal income, education, and appearance satisfaction (Study 1 N= 22,815; Study 2 N= 4790). Men and women differed in the percentage indicating it was "desirable" or "essential" that their potential partner was good-looking (92% vs. 84%; d=.39), had a slender body (80% vs. 58%; d=.53), had a steady income (74% vs. 97%; d= 1.17), and made/will make a lot of money (47% vs. 69%; d=-.49). There were also gender differences in whether it was "very important" or "a must have" their partner made at least as much money as they do (24% vs. 46%; d=.60) and had a successful career (33% vs. 61%; d=.57), but not in whether their partner was physically attractive to them (40% vs. 42%; d=.03). Wealthier men and people with better appearance satisfaction had stronger preferences for good looking and slender partners. Preferences varied within and between genders, and were linked to bargaining hand in the mating market.
... Although both men and women find aspects of physical appearance desirable (Gallup & Frederick, 2010;Salska et al., 2008) and value "good looks" in a romantic partner (Buss, 1989;Fales et al., 2016), women, qualitatively, tend to have different experiences with sexual objectification than men. Women systematically encounter greater sexual harassment and sexual objectification and are more likely to be viewed as sexual conquests with little regard for their thoughts, feelings, or pleasure. ...
... Gay men and heterosexual women likely face more objectification experiences because they are typically attracting men as partners. Men care more than women, on average, about having a long-term partner who is good-looking (Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, & Gladue, 1994;Buss, 1989;Fales et al., 2016). Furthermore, media marketed to gay men often includes objectifying images (Saucier & Caron, 2008). ...
... This is not to imply that men and women face no objectification or judgments of their appearance from women. Some women do engage in some level of objectification (Lindner, Tantleff-Dunn, & Jentsch, 2012;Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005), and women do consider physical attractiveness when choosing a short-term or long-term mate (Bailey et al., 1994;Buss, 1989;Fales et al., 2016). The more extensive objectification exhibited by men, however, likely more dramatically shapes the body image of people objectified by men than by women. ...
We examined how demographic factors (gender, sexual orientation, racial group, age, body mass) were. linked to measures of sociocultural appearance concerns derived from objectification theory and the tripartite influence model (McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Schaefer et al., 2015) among 11,620 adults. Men were less likely than women to report high body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, appearance-related media pressures, and family pressures; did not differ in peer pressures; and reported greater muscle/athletic internalization. Both men and women expressed greater desire for their bodies to look “very lean” than to look “very thin”. Compared to gay men, heterosexual men reported lower body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, peer pressures, and media pressures. Black women reported lower thin-ideal internalization than White, Hispanic, and Asian women, whereas Asian women reported greater family pressures. Being younger and having higher BMIs were associated with greater sociocultural appearance concerns across most measures. The variation in prevalence of sociocultural appearance concerns across these demographic
groups highlights the need for interventions.
... As a result, mating strategies might change over time, but basic mate preferences only decrease in magnitude (Buss, 1989;Li et al., 2002;Conroy-Beam et al., 2019;Walter et al., 2020). Thus, both older women and men value physical attractiveness and social status of the potential partner as less important and prefer indicators of commitment and other traits promoting to engage in a more intimate relationship (Alterovitz and Mendelsohn, 2011;Fales et al., 2016). Moreover, older individuals tend to be less selective and expect less mate value from their partners; perhaps as a trade-off due to the decrease of their mate value (lower levels of health and physical attractiveness) (Li et al., 2002;Fales et al., 2016;Seto, 2017). ...
... Thus, both older women and men value physical attractiveness and social status of the potential partner as less important and prefer indicators of commitment and other traits promoting to engage in a more intimate relationship (Alterovitz and Mendelsohn, 2011;Fales et al., 2016). Moreover, older individuals tend to be less selective and expect less mate value from their partners; perhaps as a trade-off due to the decrease of their mate value (lower levels of health and physical attractiveness) (Li et al., 2002;Fales et al., 2016;Seto, 2017). Accordingly, sugar relationship can be considered an alternative platform for adaptive mating preferences. ...
... Personality traits are keys to advertise and to identify desirable characteristics on the mating market (e.g., Birkás et al., 2018). With age, mating preferences shift from physical traits to more personality-related characteristics (Alterovitz and Mendelsohn, 2011;Fales et al., 2016). Thus, it is plausible to suggest that personality traits and individual attitudes play a central role in relationship choices and might be important factors in forming sugar relationships, but in different ways for younger and older counterparts. ...
Sugar relationships can be considered contemporary forms of transactional sex, that is, offering sexual services for material resources or other benefits. Considering the common age differences in these relationships, sugar relationships might be of relevance for older adults as well on the mating market. As a sequel to Birkás et al. (2020), in the present study, an attitude scale was developed to assess older women’s and men’s acceptance of sugar relationships. We also explored whether the acceptance of sugar relationships was associated with love styles, sociosexual orientation, sexual motivation, and certain socially aversive personality traits. In two online studies with a total number of 836 participants (N = 277 women and 559 men), the results showed that the Acceptance of Sugar Relationships in Older Men and Women Scale (ASR-OMWS) proved to be a reliable and conceptually valid measure of older individuals’ attitude toward sugar relationships. A more accepting attitude toward sugar relationships was found to be associated with more unrestricted sociosexuality, preference to engage in playful love relationships and more self-focused sexual motivation (study 1; N = 481, 167 women and 314 men), and with more pronounced Dark Triad and borderline traits (study 2; N = 355, 110 women and 245 men). Our findings are discussed in an evolutionary framework.
... Further, people in their 30's do not put as strong emphasis on physical attractiveness as people in their 20's; however, men's preferences for physical appearance decreased more steeply than women's as they were growing older (Sprecher et al., 2019; but see Apostolou & Eleftheriou, 2022). On the other hand, women were more interested in social status and preferred men with a stable income, but this preference increased only until their 40s, then it declined (Fales et al., 2016). In terms of age preferences, men showed relatively stable preferences for women younger than themselves throughout their lives (Kenrick & Keefe, 1992;Kenrick et al., 1996), although the tolerated age gap between the partners increases with age in men, but it is relatively stable in women (Schwarz & Hassebrauck, 2012). ...
... We studied nonlinear relationships between age, education, self-perceived mate value, and mate preferences and aversions. While age is a frequently studied and assumed predictor of mate preference changes over the lifespan (Brumbaugh & Wood, 2013;Fales et al., 2016;Sprecher et al., 2019), we found trivial associations with age (explained variances ranged between < 1% and 3%) even when considering curved and sex-moderated associations too. The tiny change in preferences between 18 and 50 years is rather surprising. ...
While there is substantial research on what people want in their romantic and sexual partners, much of this work focuses on WEIRD, youthful samples, fails to consider the role of undesirable characteristics (i.e., things people do not want in partners) at all, or in conjunction with desirable characteristics (i.e., things people do want in partners), and may be overly reliant on psychometric approaches to pivotal variables in mating psychology like mate value and sociosexuality. In a nationally representative (online) sample of 2280 people from Czechia (aged between 18 and 50 years old), we examined linear and quadratic age, education, and self-perceived mate value (desirability) effects on the desired levels in mate choice of eight undesirable and seven desirable characteristics in men and women in relation to ostensible metrics of mate value. Self-perceived mate value alone explained little variance (men 1%, women 2%), while all mate value and mating strategy indicators together explained little variance of mate preferences and aversions (men 3%, women 5%). Desirable characteristics were better explained by mate value than undesirable ones. Our results are in line with evolutionary predictions suggesting that women are more demanding. Also, more qualities to offer correlate with more expectations in a partner.
... Important factors that influence flirtation behavior therefore include sex (Schmitt & Buss, 1996), attractivity or mate value , sociosexuality (Penke & Asendorpf, 2008), and personality traits (Hall, Carter, Cody, & Albright, 2010). In the intrasexual competition to achieve the best possible mate (Fisher & Cox, 2011), there are many challenges that must be met based on available partners and one's own romantic resources (Buss & Shackelford, 2008;Fales et al., 2016). While popular media runs over with flirtation and mate acquisition advice, there is scarce research on efficient flirtation tactics (but see Wade & Feldman, 2016 for an exception). ...
... Extraversion is the Big Five personality trait that is most reliably associated with sexual behavior and shows some overlap with sociosexuality (Nettle, 2005;Schmitt & Shackelford, 2008). Given differences in bargaining power in high mate value individuals (Fales et al., 2016), it is possible that mate value also influences perception of flirting behavior. We will explore the effects of these two latter individual differences. ...
Flirting involves various signals communicated between individuals. To attract potential mates, men and women exhibit flirtatious behavior to get the attention of, and potentially elicit sexual or romantic interest from, a desired partner. In this first large, preregistered study of judgement of the effectiveness of flirtation tactics based on Sexual Strategies Theory, we considered the effects of flirter’s (actor) sex and mating contexts in addition to rater's (participant) sex across two cultures, Norway and the U.S. Culturally relevant covariates such as sociosexuality, extraversion, mate value, age, and religiosity were examined. Participants from Norway (N = 415, 56% women) and the US (N = 577, 69% women) responded to one of four different randomized questionnaires representing a factorial design considering either short-term versus long-term mating context and either female or male sex of actor. We found that sexual availability cues were judged more effective when employed by women in short-term mating contexts. Friendly contact, such as hugs or kissing on the cheek, was not. Cues to generosity and commitment were judged more effective when employed by men in long-term mating contexts. Humor was rated as more effective when used by men and in long-term contexts, and least effective when used by women in short term contexts. However, laughing or giggling at someone's jokes was an effective flirtation tactic for both sexes. Overall, predictions for culturally relevant covariates were not supported, but cultural differences were found in bodily displays, initial contact, and generosity. These findings dovetail neatly with findings from the self-promotion literature, and further support that flirtation is a universal mate signaling strategy.
... Consistent with objectification theory, people attempting to attract male romantic partners (e.g., gay men, heterosexual women) likely face more objectification and greater appearance-related pressures than people attempting to attract female romantic partners (e.g., heterosexual men, lesbian women). Although both men and women value appearance in a long-term partner, men especially prioritize physical attractiveness when selecting long-term partners (Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, & Gladue, 1994;Buss & Schmitt, 1993;Fales et al., 2016). This suggests that people who typically seek male partners will experience more sexualization and concerns about how they appear to potential romantic partners than people who typically seek female partners. ...
... First, people who feel more confident in their appearance likely also feel more comfortable approaching others, enhancing their odds of forming romantic relationships. Second, both men and women value physical attractiveness in a partner (Buss, 1989;Fales et al., 2016;Bailey et al., 1994), and therefore people who are considered more attractive by a wider range of people are more likely to attract romantic partnerships. Third, once in relationships, men and women likely feel fewer appearance-related pressures because they are not actively competing on the mating market for a partner and receive positive feedback on their appearances from their partners, boosting their sexuality-related body image. ...
Body image is a critical component of an individual’s sexual experiences. This makes it critical to identify demographic and sociocultural correlates of sexuality-related body image: the subjective feelings, cognitions, and evaluations related to one’s body in the context of sexual experience. We examined how sexuality-related body image differed by gender, sexual orientation, race, age, and BMI. Four items assessing sexuality-related body image were completed by 11,620 U.S. adults: self-perceived sex appeal of their body, nude appearance satisfaction, and the extent to which they believed that body image positively or negatively affected their sexual enjoyment and feelings of sexual acceptability as a partner. Men reported slightly less nude appearance dissatisfaction and fewer negative effects of body image on sexual enjoyment and sexual acceptability than women, but did not differ in reported sex appeal. Poorer sexuality-related body image was reported by people with higher BMIs, not in relationships, who had sex less frequently, among White compared to Black women and men, and among gay compared to heterosexual men. Data also revealed a subgroup of respondents who reported that their body image had a positive impact on their sex lives. The findings highlight a need for interventions addressing sexuality-related body image.
... In adulthood, romantic relationship partners are often the most influential actors on one's attitudes, cognitions, and behaviors (Erikson, 1968;Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001). Physical attraction is important to many people when seeking a relationship partner (Fales et al., 2016), and women who feel more pressure to modify their appearance to attract a partner report greater body dissatisfaction (Reynolds et al., 2023). A study of Norwegian adolescents demonstrated that romantic partners impact one's feelings about the outside world and are primary sources for information about the self -including one's appearance (Holsen et al., 2012). ...
Affectionate touch (e.g. hugging, handholding) is an essential component of many intimate relationships and is a primary contributor to overall relationship satisfaction as well as sexual satisfaction. Affectionate touch is understood to be a form of non-verbal communication in which the giver is expressing positive feelings toward the receiver. Here, we propose that affectionate touch also positively impacts receivers' body satisfaction, because affectionate touch is a positive message communicated toward the receiver's body. In a cross-sectional sample of romantically partnered women (N = 1,156), we assessed the association between affectionate touch frequency and body satisfaction. We also investigated whether affectionate touch is associated with relationship/sexual satisfaction in part because touch helps to improve women's evaluations of their own bodies. Our results showed that body satisfaction was a significant, partial mediator and a valid path through which affectionate touch shapes relationship quality. Receiving affectionate touch could bolster relationship satisfaction and self-perceptions among women. Given the prevalence of body dissatisfaction amongst women, these results suggest that the underexplored associations between affectionate touch and body satisfaction may have significant impacts on a wide array of future empirical and applied research trajectories.
... Physical appearance has been of research interest in the study of intimate relationships, labor market outcomes, and health (Datta Gupta et al. 2016;Fales et al. 2016;Peng et al. 2020). In large-scale surveys, different methods have been used to measure physical appearance. ...
Interviewer ratings of respondents’ physical appearance have been collected in several major social surveys. While researchers have made good use of such ratings data in substantive studies, empirical evidence on their measurement properties is rather limited. This study evaluates two potential threats to the quality of interviewer ratings of physical appearance: interviewer effects and halo effects. Using data from the China Family Panel Studies, we show large interviewer effects on interviewer ratings of respondents’ physical appearance based on cross-classified models. We also provide possible evidence for halo effects based on high correlations between physical appearance ratings and other theoretically distinct constructs, after controlling for interviewer effects. However, we find support for convergent and discriminant validity of physical appearance ratings when both interviewer effects and halo effects are controlled for. Empirical studies using interviewer observation data should take into account interviewer effects and halo effects when possible or at least discuss their potential impact on the substantive findings.
... Researchers have also found that power factors in terms of wealth, level of income, SES, accomplishments, leadership, and social status have a significant impact on the perception of physical attractiveness, particularly when women are judging the attractiveness of men [8,[36][37][38][39][40][41]. ...
A 2015 PAID article, in a study of married couples, revealed that a rating of the physical attractiveness of one’s spouse was a significant predictor of relational satisfaction for both the husband and the wife. This unexpected finding proved to be the springboard for the present research. How is the perception of the attractiveness of one’s romantic partner related to factors other than objective beauty? A sample of 201 heterosexual couples (N = 402) explored which factors impact a rating of perception of physical attractiveness (PPA), including: objective physical attractiveness (OPA), standard demographics (e.g., age, ethnicity), power factors (e.g., wealth, position, accomplishments), physical characteristics (e.g., height, weight, BMI), personal qualities (e.g., self-esteem, emotional stability, agreeableness, social skills), physical health and vitality, and efforts to look good in a public or private setting. We then explored the impact of PPA on the relational satisfaction of the couple. The 2015 results were largely replicated, however, the present study revealed much more. Primary takeaways included: (a) There were substantial gender differences concerning the dynamic of factors that influenced the rating of PPA; (b) there were equally robust gender differences on the impact of the PPA (and other variables) on relational satisfaction; (c) OPA played a surprisingly minor role in the entire dynamic; and (d) structural equation models provided detail on the similarities and differences of dynamics for men and women. Avenues of future research are explored.
... For men, the commitment is grounded in having and retaining a trustworthy young woman who is fertile, which ensures owned lineage and disease prevention, while for women, ensuring the protection and resource allocation for her and the offspring is critical. These characteristics remain a tenet of modern societies, even when controlling for differential power within egalitarian or counterfactual conditions (Buss, 2023;Fales et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2019). ...
... Some people in the mating market have traits that are in high demand, such as physical attractiveness. In the classic 37 culture study by Buss, both men and women ranked 'good looks' as one of the top ten traits they value in a partner (Buss, 1989), and more recent studies suggest that people have been placing increasing importance on physical looks in their mate preferences over the last few decades (Fales et al., 2016;Walter et al., 2020). These preferences create an incentive for men and women to engage in strategies that enhance their physical appearance in the eyes of the opposite or preferred sex. ...
People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending >10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, right-wing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complementary perspectives.
... It is possible that individuals may have a preference for certain physical features and perceive them as attractive because these features carry vital evolutionary information such as health, fertility, and reproductive potential that are directly linked to them (Arnocky et al., 2014;Gallup & Frederick, 2010;Grammer et al., 2003;Rhodes, 2006). Numerous studies have shown that men prioritize high attractiveness appearance in their female partners compared with other factors (Buss, 1989;Chang et al., 2011;Fales et al., 2016;Kamble et al., 2014;Li & Kenrick, 2006;Li et al., 2011). Confer et al. (2010) found that for long-term mating contexts, men prioritized facial cues that conveyed rich reproductive information. ...
Contemporary women frequently employ beautification strategies. The impact of such strategies, such as plastic surgery, on mating popularity in different mate contexts remains unclear. To investigate this issue, the current study conducted two experiments. In Experiment 1, beautification strategies were manipulated using three images of the same female with different conditions (natural, makeup, and plastic surgery). The results indicated that when the beautification strategies were not informed, surgical-enhanced and makeup targets were perceived as significantly more attractive, loyal, and popular among potential mates than natural targets. However, when participants were informed of the beautification strategies, both natural and makeup targets showed a significant increase in perceived loyalty and mating popularity. In contrast, surgically enhanced targets saw a reduction in these dimensions. Experiment 2 aimed to reduce the confounding effect of facial attractiveness by using vignettes. The results indicated that the mating popularity of natural targets was significantly higher than that of makeup or surgically enhanced targets, with surgically enhanced targets being the least popular. Moreover, the results revealed the mediating role of perceived loyalty in the impact of beautification strategies on long-term mating popularity. This study sheds light on the potential stigmatization and negative bias toward beautification strategies in the mating market. Additionally, it provides guidance for women who intend to enhance their mate popularity through plastic surgery.
... Realitanya, terdapat perbedaan karakteristik pandangan antara laki-laki dan perempuan dalam memilih pasangan berdasarkan pendekatan psikologi evolusioner. Penelitian membuktikan laki-laki menekankan ketertarikan fisik dan perempuan menekankan keterampilan mendapatkan sumber daya (Fales et al., 2016;Kamble et al., 2014;Souza et al., 2016;Walter et al., 2020). Adanya perbedaan tersebut disebabkan oleh peran biologis yang berbeda antara laki-laki dan perempuan dalam hal reproduksi (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Friedman & Schustack, 2016). ...
Ketidakcocokan dengan pasangan dalam sebuah perkawinan secara berkepanjangan akan memicu konflik yang dapat menggoyahkan keharmonisan pernikahan. Sebelum menikah, masing-masing calon pasangan seharusnya mengenali kebutuhan dan karakteristik pribadi dan calon pasangannya sehingga individu tersebut dapat menjadi versi terbaik bagi dirinya dan bertanggung jawab penuh atas pemenuhan kebutuhannya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh nilai-nilai keluarga, kelekatan dewasa (adult attachment), dan kecerdasan memilih pasangan (mating intelligence) terhadap preferensi pemilihan pasangan pada dewasa muda. Penelitian dilakukan di Indonesia dengan melibatkan 250 dewasa muda yang dipilih menggunakan teknik voluntary sampling. Penyebaran kuesioner dilakukan secara daring menggunakan Google Forms yang disebarluaskan melalui media sosial terkini. Kemudian, data diolah dengan menggunakan uji deskriptif, uji beda, uji korelasi, dan analisis jalur. Hasil penelitian mengungkapkan bahwa kelekatan aman memediasi antara nilai-nilai keluarga dengan kecerdasan memilih pasangan. Kecerdasan memilih pasangan memediasi antara kelekatan aman dengan preferensi baik hati/dapat dipercaya. Kecerdasan memilih pasangan memediasi antara kelekatan aman dengan preferensi pendidikan/inteligensi. Kecerdasan memilih pasangan berpengaruh terhadap preferensi status/sumber daya. Kelekatan penghindaran berpengaruh terhadap preferensi baik hati/dapat dipercaya dan religiositas/suci. Nilai-nilai keluarga berpengaruh terhadap preferensi baik hati/dapat dipercaya, daya tarik/seksualitas, status/sumber daya, pendidikan/inteligensi, dan religiositas/suci.
... With gender imbalances in educational achievement becoming increasingly clear (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006), many high-status women choose to remain unmarried or single rather than adapting to deficits in the sexual marketplace (see Sect. 3.4), thereby reversing conventional patterns of marital hypergamy ("marrying up") (Fales et al., 2016;Lewis & Oppenheimer, 2000;Lichter et al., 1995Lichter et al., , 2020Qian, 2017). Thus, although women are the choosier sex, if they decide to be partnered, they will choose men with more desirable traits such as good looks, high educational attainment, status, and so on. ...
Objectives
Mass shooters, violent extremists, and terrorists, who are overwhelmingly male, exhibit misogynistic attitudes and a history of violence against women. Over the past few years, incels (“involuntary celibates”) have gathered in online communities to discuss their frustration with sexual/romantic rejection, espouse male supremacist attitudes, and justify violence against women and men who are more popular with women. Despite the link between misogyny and mass violence, and the recent emergence of online misogynistic extremism, theories and empirical research on misogynistic extremism remain scarce. This article fills this gap.
Methods
An integration of literatures pertaining to the basics of sexual selection, evolved male psychology, and aggression suggests there are three major areas that should be considered imperative in understanding the emergence of misogynistic extremism.
Results
Individual factors (e.g., low status) and social forces, such as a high degree of status inequality, female empowerment, and the ease of coordination through social media, give rise to misogynistic extremism.
Conclusions
The unique interaction between evolved male psychology, the dynamics of the sexual marketplace, and modern technologies can create an ecology in which incel beliefs can thrive and make violence attractive.
... Although women may overestimate the degree of thinness preferred by men (Gray & Frederick, 2012;Grossbard et al., 2011;Gualdi-Russo et al., 2022), many men report desiring relatively slender romantic partners (Chen & Brown, 2005;Legenbauer et al., 2009;Swami et al., 2010). Highly educated and high earning men especially prioritize thinness in prospective partners (Fales et al., 2016). ...
The current investigation examined whether women’s perceptions of the sex ratio (ratio of women to men) in the local population influence their body dissatisfaction and weight loss motivations. A higher ratio of women to men in a given population signifies a relative abundance of same-sex mating competitors, intensifying female intrasexual competition. Five studies (N = 1,776) tested the hypotheses that women’s perceptions of a female-skewed sex ratio would correspond to increased feelings of intrasexual competitiveness and perceptions of unfavorable mating prospects, which would, in turn, be associated with heightened body dissatisfaction and weight loss motivations. Among university and community women (Studies 1and 2), perceptions of a female-skewed sex ratio corresponded to greater intrasexual competitiveness, increased body dissatisfaction, and increased dieting inclinations. Among single women, assessments of a female-skewed sex ratio corresponded to perceptions of unfavorable mating prospects, increased romantic pressure to alter their appearance, and higher body dissatisfaction (Study 3). Studies 4 and 5 experimentally manipulated perceived sex ratio. Women in the female-skewed condition felt less satisfied with their weights and shapes, but only if they believed the manipulation (Study 4). In Study 5, using a within-subjects design, women who evaluated a male-skewed (vs. female-skewed) dating profile array subsequently desired to lose less weight. Findings suggest women’s perceptions of their social environments may contribute to body image and dieting motivations.
... With gender imbalances in educational achievement becoming increasingly clear (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006), many high-status women choose to remain unmarried or single rather than adapting to deficits in the sexual marketplace (see Sect. 3.4), thereby reversing conventional patterns of marital hypergamy ("marrying up") (Fales et al., 2016;Lewis & Oppenheimer, 2000;Lichter et al., 1995Lichter et al., , 2020Qian, 2017). Thus, although women are the choosier sex, if they decide to be partnered, they will choose men with more desirable traits such as good looks, high educational attainment, status, and so on. ...
Mass shooters, violent extremists, and terrorists, who are overwhelmingly male, exhibit misogynistic attitudes and a history of violence against women. Over the past few years, incels (“involuntary celibates”) have gathered in online communities to discuss their frustration with sexual/romantic rejection, espouse male supremacist attitudes, and justify violence against women and men who are more popular with women. Despite the link between misogyny and mass violence, and the recent emergence of online misogynistic extremism, theories and empirical research on misogynistic extremism remain scarce. I posit that the unique interaction between evolved male psychology, the dynamics of the sexual marketplace, and modern technologies create an ecology in which incel beliefs can thrive and make violence attractive. I show how individual factors, particularly low status, and social forces, such as a high degree of status inequality, female empowerment, and the ease of coordination through social media, give rise to misogynistic extremism.
... One might assume that this effect is driven by the fact that queer men date other men. Literature suggests that men value physical attractiveness more highly than women when selecting potential mates (Fales et al., 2015); thus, queer men might feel heightened pressure to be attractive because they are trying to partner with other (appearance-oriented) men. Importantly, however, almost all literature in this space has been conducted exclusively using heterosexual samples. ...
Queer men (i.e., men who are not heterosexual; sexual minority men) are disproportionately affected by negative body image-they experience greater body dissatisfaction are more likely to develop eating disorders than heterosexual men. While existing literature has examined individual-level predictors of negative body image for queer men, less is known about why queer men as a group are disproportionately affected by negative body image. By synthesising existing theoretical frameworks, research, policy, and media reporting, this narrative review moves towards an understanding of systemic-level negative body image for queer men. Through the lens of hegemonic masculinity, we explain how systemic experiences of stigma work to inform unattainable appearance standards for queer men, and how these standards then contribute to pervasive negative body image concerns among this community. Next, we describe how systemic stigma works to exacerbate negative health outcomes for queer men with body image concerns. Finally, we present a synthesized model of the processes outlined in this review, articulate testable predictions for future studies, and describe practical implications that could be widely employed to improve body image for queer men. Our review is the first to propose a comprehensive explanation of systemic negative body image for queer men.
... Research has often placed gay men in a similar position as heterosexual women, idolizing the young, slim and fit, which excludes older gay men as sexually attractive (Suen, 2017). Because men seem to consider attractiveness in a partner to be more important than most women do (Buss, 1989), gay men may be more concerned about their bodies as being sexually attractive enough, hence experiencing lower sexual satisfaction (Fales et al., 2016). However, among the gay men in our study, none expressed much concern about their appearance. ...
Older adults face age-related changes as well as stigma in relation to their bodies and sexuality, challenging their understanding of themselves as sexual, thought to impact both sexual desire, activity and satisfaction. A qualitative study with a semi-structured interview was completed with 32 people, aged 65–85, to investigate how older people construct understanding of their self as sexual in an ageing body. The analysis generated two main themes; “Positions of the ageing body as sexual”, with three subthemes, and “Negotiating change, transitions in identities”, with two sub themes. Results showed variations in participants’ thoughts about their body and how either appearance, agency or body function influenced different aspects of current sexuality and sexual satisfaction, and understandings of self. Statements showed examples of both internalized ageist understandings of the ageing body as sexual, but also rejections or low relevance of ageist attitudes in the understandings of present body image and sexual satisfaction. Results showed differences in how changes were understood and negotiated either through enhancement strategies or through cognitive-emotional, and social regulation. The findings demonstrated paradoxes and contradictions in the understanding and management of the ageing body and sexual satisfaction, where variations were found along but also across the divides of gender, relationship status and quality, sexual orientation, self-esteem and age cohorts. Implications indicate that health care strategies and policies should understand sexual ageing from a developmental perspective to support individual projects of developing affirmative and adjusted identities as sexual in an ageing body.
... Some people in the mating market have traits that are in high demand, such as physical attractiveness. In the classic 37 culture study by Buss, both men and women ranked 'good looks' as one of the top ten traits they value in a partner (Buss, 1989), and more recent studies suggest that people have been placing increasing importance on physical looks in their mate preferences over the last few decades (Fales et al., 2016;Walter et al., 2020). These preferences create an incentive for men and women to engage in strategies that enhance their physical appearance in the eyes of the opposite or preferred sex. ...
People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending >10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, rightwing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complementary perspectives.
... MC literature disproportionately focuses on women, owing in part to the fact that women's partner preferences tend to be less directly observable than men's (Rodeheffer et al., 2016). Although physical attractiveness in a prospective mate is a relevant cue for both men and women, it is typically more salient for men (Fales et al., 2016) as they can approximate a woman's fertility based on her youthfulness or healthy appearance (Eastwick & Finkel, 2008). Women, however, tend to focus on what security or resources a potential partner can provide for them and any offspring, and also value similar cultural worldviews, social and economic stability, and committed long-term investment to family (Buss & Shackelford, 2008). ...
Human mate choice is a complex, nuanced process that incorporates factors including physical attractiveness, race, culture, and social values. Choosing the wrong partner can be a risky and costly affair; hence, mate choosers may copy the choices of others to inform their own decisions about the mate quality of a potential partner. This phenomenon is known as mate copying (MC). Consistent with previous research methods, the current study presented a sample of 461 Australian women with photographic stimuli of target men of one of three races paired with a description of a former female partner evaluating the target man either positively or negatively. Racial similarity between participants and the target man was statistically controlled for. As hypothesised, positive evaluations elicited MC whereas negative evaluations elicited mate avoidance. Racial similarity was also shown to influence measures of desirability and MC propensity. Results were discussed within the context of existing human MC literature, with particular emphasis on exploring how new factors affect the expression of MC intent within the Australian female demographic. Recommendations for further research based on these outcomes were also made.
... Some people in the mating market have traits that are in high demand, such as physical attractiveness. In the classic 37 culture study by Buss, both men and women ranked 'good looks' as one of the top ten traits they value in a partner (Buss, 1989), and more recent studies suggest that people have been placing increasing importance on physical looks in their mate preferences over the last few decades (Fales et al., 2016;Walter et al., 2020). These preferences create an incentive for men and women to engage in strategies that enhance their physical appearance in the eyes of the opposite or preferred sex. ...
People across the world and throughout history have gone to great lengths to enhance their physical appearance. Evolutionary psychologists and ethologists have largely attempted to explain this phenomenon via mating preferences and strategies. Here, we test one of the most popular evolutionary hypotheses for beauty-enhancing behaviors, drawn from mating market and parasite stress perspectives, in a large cross-cultural sample. We also test hypotheses drawn from other influential and non-mutually exclusive theoretical frameworks, from biosocial role theory to a cultural media perspective. Survey data from 93,158 human participants across 93 countries provide evidence that behaviors such as applying makeup or using other cosmetics, hair grooming, clothing style, caring for body hygiene, and exercising or following a specific diet for the specific purpose of improving ones physical attractiveness, are universal. Indeed, 99% of participants reported spending >10 min a day performing beauty-enhancing behaviors. The results largely support evolutionary hypotheses: more time was spent enhancing beauty by women (almost 4 h a day, on average) than by men (3.6 h a day), by the youngest participants (and contrary to predictions, also the oldest), by those with a relatively more severe history of infectious diseases, and by participants currently dating compared to those in established relationships. The strongest predictor of attractiveness-enhancing behaviors was social media usage. Other predictors, in order of effect size, included adhering to traditional gender roles, residing in countries with less gender equality, considering oneself as highly attractive or, conversely, highly unattractive, TV watching time, higher socioeconomic status, right-wing political beliefs, a lower level of education, and personal individualistic attitudes. This study provides novel insight into universal beauty-enhancing behaviors by unifying evolutionary theory with several other complimentary perspectives.
... The following 14 traits (1,3,4,6,8,10,11,12,14,16,20,21,22 and 24) did evidence significative differences between percentage frequency of answers of women who desired and who did not desire children with their current male partners (p<0.1): ...
The present article aims to investigate if there are differences – and which – between partner selection criteria of females in long term relationships that desire and that do not desire children with their current male partners. According to Evolutionary Psychology, these criteria are directly related to the type of parental investment practiced by the partner. The method consisted of virtual data collection of 288 answers to the research questionnaire aimed at cisgender, heterosexual and nulliparous women currently in a relationship, which evaluated the presence or absence of certain traits in their current male partners. Results showed significative differences between partner selection criteria of females that desired and that did not desire children in 14 male traits and no significative differences in the other 13 male traits presented. Traits containing significative differences were, whereas also culturally valued, mostly indicative of parental investment and genetic quality.
... This pattern of sex-differences has been found in numerous cultures with different degrees of gender inequalities, different mating systems, and religions (Buss, 1989;Wang et al., 2018). Resources are generally measured as present income or other material assets, and numerous studies point toward the importance of having resources to be considered a good long-term partner to women (Kenrick et al., 1990;Townsend and Levy, 1990;Li et al., 2002;Hitsch et al., 2010;Anderson and Klofstad, 2012;Fales et al., 2016). Furthermore, economic resources may influence women's perception of men's attractiveness (Dunn and Searle, 2010;Shuler and McCord, 2010;Dunn and Hill, 2014;Wang et al., 2018). ...
From an evolutionary perspective, phenotypic, social, and environmental factors help to shape the different costs and benefits of pursuing different reproductive strategies (or a mixture of them) from one individual to another. Since men’s reproductive success is mainly constrained to women’s availability, their mating orientations should be partially calibrated by features that women prefer in a potential partner. For long-term relationships, women prefer traits that signal access to resources, protection skills, and the willingness to share them. Using generalized linear models with laboratory data taken from a Chilean population (N = 197), this study aimed to test whether real and potential resources (measured as self-reported socioeconomic status), protection skills (measured as handgrip strength), and the willingness to provide resources and protection (measured as their disposition toward parenthood) are related to mating orientation in men. Our predictions were: (1) socioeconomic status would be positively associated with long-term and short-term mating orientation but for long-term-oriented individuals, this would be enhanced by having a more favorable parenthood disposition and (2) strength would be positively related to long-term mating orientation in men with higher socioeconomic status and a favorable disposition toward parenthood and it would have a positive and direct association with short-term mating orientation. Our results partially supported the first hypothesis, since men with higher socioeconomic status were more long-term oriented, but parenting disposition did not moderate this effect. Contrary to our expectations, socioeconomic status was not related to short-term mating orientation. Strength appeared not to be significant for long-term mating orientation, even interacting with other traits. However, strength by itself was powerfully linked with a short-term mating orientation. Our results suggest that only some individuals that are attractive for long-term relationships are indeed long-term oriented and may reflect the overall conflict of interests between mating strategies among sexes.
... In contrast, popular media features leanness, muscularity, and athleticism as the ideals for men (Burch & Johnsen, 2020;Frederick et al., 2005;Morrison & Halton, 2009). In parallel, many men report preferences for slender dating partners (Fales, Frederick, Garcia, Gildersleeve, Haselton & Fisher, 2016), and many women prefer relatively toned and muscular men Gray & Frederick, 2012;Sell et al., 2017). Consistent with these sociocultural pressures, most women in industrialized cultures want to be thinner (Swami et al., 2010), and increasingly, fit and toned (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015), whereas most young men want to be more muscular (Frederick, Buchanan, et al., 2007). ...
We examined how gender, body mass, race, age, and sexual orientation were linked to appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, and body image-related quality of life among 11,620 adults recruited via Mechanical Turk. Men were less likely than women to report low appearance evaluation, high overweight preoccupation, negative effects of body image on their quality of life, being on a weight-loss diet, and trying to lose weight with crash diets/fasting. Racial differences were generally small, but greater appearance evaluation was reported by Black men versus other groups and Black women versus White women. Across all measures, gay and bisexual men reported poorer body image than heterosexual men, with only small effect sizes observed for sexual orientation differences among women. Body mass, but not age, was strongly associated with body image. The prevalence of poor body image highlights the need for interventions. On the positive side, half of men and women reported high appearance evaluation. Examination of this group could identify factors promoting positive body image.
... Firstly, from the evolutionary perspective, by manipulating the facial features that men have evolved to find attractive, women who wear makeup are artificially augmenting their mate value (Davis & Arnocky, 2020;Nordeide et al., 2013;Wade et al., 2018). This means that the partners of made-up women might take losses due to investing resources in mates with low reproductive value or missing mating opportunities with women with higher reproductive value (Buss, 2015;Davis & Arnocky, 2020;Fales et al., 2016), since the mate value of made-up women may be lower than what they appear to be. These costs are more likely to be incurred under long-term mating situations given that under these situations the fitness (i.e., the ability to propagate one's genes in an environment) of men is more likely to be constrained by the reproductive value of their mates (Buss, 2015;Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Sacco et al., 2009). ...
Makeup usage in women serves as a behavioral tactic of both intersexual attraction and intrasexual competition. However, this tactic may incur costs to men due to the artificially enhanced mate value achieved by makeup usage. Therefore, to avoid these potential costs, men may be sensitive to the makeup cues and lower their preference for women wearing makeup during mate choice, especially for men who are pursuing a long-term relationship. In the present research, we systematically tested this hypothesis by three studies. Specifically, the three studies consistently showed that adult males who were naïve in applying makeup still displayed the ability to perceive the makeup status of female faces after exposure to female faces for sufficient time (at self-paced speed) or for moderately short time (6500 ms), even when the physical attractiveness and the possibilities that the target faces had undergone cosmetic surgery were controlled. Studies further revealed that the more long-term-mating oriented male participants were able to perceive makeup cues even after exposure to female faces for only 50 ms, and they tended to lower their perceived mate value for female targets wearing makeup in long-term mating scenarios even after exposure to female faces for only 6500 ms. Taken together, these results suggest that men are sensitive to the authenticity of the physical characteristics of potential mates and they can alter their tendency of mate choices accordingly, especially for men who are pursuing a long-term relationship.
FULLTEXT: https://rdcu.be/cFZYe
... The benefits of physical attractiveness and others' negative judgments of beauty work People often benefit from being seen as physically attractive (e.g., Langlois et al., 2000). Physically attractive individuals tend to be viewed as more sociable and competent (Dion et al., 1972;Verhulst et al., 2010), have superior mating options (Fales et al., 2016), and gain more work success (Watkins & Johnston, 2000) than those who are less attractive. In light of these benefits, it is not surprising that consumers can put substantial time and money into improving their appearance (Sorvino, 2017). ...
Consumers seek naturalness across many domains, including physical appearance. It seems that the desire for natural beauty would discourage artificial appearance-enhancement consumption, such as cosmetic use. However, across an analysis of the “no-makeup movement” on Twitter and Nielsen cosmetic sales (Study 1a), an image analysis of #nomakeup selfies using machine learning approaches (Study 1b), and three experiments (Studies 2–4), we find that calls to look natural can be associated with increased artificial beauty practices. Drawing from attribution theory, we theorize that calls to look natural maintain the value of attractiveness while adding the consumer concern that others will discount their attractiveness if overt effort is present. Thus, rather than investing less effort, consumers may engage in a self-presentational strategy wherein they construct an appearance of naturalness to signal low effort to others, thereby augmenting their attractiveness. This work contributes to attribution and self-presentation theory and offers practical implications for naturalness consumption.
... The evolutionary origin of putative sex differences in human behavior is among the most disputed [5]. And, among those contested sex differences, perhaps most controversial is the contention held by many evolutionary psychologists that, while men and women may pursue similar mating strategies in many contexts involving heterosexual pair-bonding, males have generally evolved to place more priority than females on physical attractiveness in a mate, whereas females have generally evolved to place more priority than males on securing a mate with the ability to provide resources [6][7][8]. Critics of this approach have suggested that such differences in mating strategies actually reflect differences in societal structures rather than evolutionary adaptations [9]. Given the sometimes sharp disagreements between supporters and opponents of specific aspects of evolutionary psychology [4], we sought to investigate a heretofore unexamined variable that might affect support for this particular set of controversial evolutionary psychology predictions: physical attractiveness. ...
Evolutionary psychology has emerged as a controversial discipline, particularly with regard to its claims concerning the biological basis of sex differences in human mate preferences. Drawing on theories of motivated inference, we hypothesized that those who are most likely to be privileged by specific aspects of the theory would be most likely to support the theory. In particular, we predicted that physical attractiveness would be positively associated with endorsement of predictions of evolutionary psychology concerning mating strategies. Two studies confirmed this hypothesis. In Study 1, participants rated as higher in physical attractiveness were more likely to support specific principles of evolutionary psychology. In Study 2, a manipulation designed to boost self-perceived physical attractiveness increased endorsement of those same principles. Observer-rated physical attractiveness generally predicted individuals’ support of the theoretical principles better than did gender, political orientation, or self-esteem. Results suggest that those most likely to benefit according to certain predictions of evolutionary psychology are also those most likely to be sympathetic toward its relevant principles.
... For example, many men in industrialized cultures place a premium on attaining a slender partner (Fales et al., 2016;Swami et al., 2010), which provides slender women a stronger bargaining hand to secure partners on the mating market. This, in turn, places additional pressure on women to strive for slender bodies to enhance their mating prospects. ...
"In our commentary, we lay out several lines of critique and commentary that we hope will challenge Davis and Arnocky to (1) consider how these points might be integrated into their model and (2) stimulate further research on these topics by scholars applying evolutionary and sociocultural lenses. For some of the critiques and questions we raise, we do not necessarily have clear answers, and we look forward to learning the Davis and Arnocky’ perspective."
Decorating the body as well as (semi-)permanent bodily modifications are a longstanding human practice, together with spending a great amount of time and effort on such body alterations. The present article reviews the mental functions of body-altering behavior. The primary aim is to identify and elucidate the predominant mental function underpinning these body alterations. Following several guidelines for reviews, we synthesized the literature, including several categories of body-altering entities from different eras. We argue that there are two crucial commonalities for individuals engaging in body-altering behavior that comprise the mental functions for doing so: aesthetics and group affiliation (dynamics), including the latter’s subfunctions of supporting individuality, resistance, personal narrative, physical endurance, and sexual motivation. Incorporating the existing literature, we find that aesthetic motivation takes precedence over group affiliation, thereby establishing aesthetics as the primary mental function of body-altering behavior; factors substantiating this conclusion are explored in detail within the article.
One of the most remarkable manifestations of social cohesion in large-scale entities is the belief in a shared, distinct and ancestral past. Human communities around the world take pride in their ancestral roots, commemorate their long history of shared experiences, and celebrate the distinctiveness of their historical trajectory. Why do humans put so much effort into celebrating a long-gone past? Integrating insights from evolutionary psychology, social psychology, evolutionary anthropology, political science, cultural history and political economy, we show that the cultural success of historical myths is driven by a specific adaptive challenge for humans: the need to recruit coalitional support to engage in large scale collective action and prevail in conflicts. By showcasing a long history of cooperation and shared experiences, these myths serve as super-stimuli, activating specific features of social cognition and drawing attention to cues of fitness interdependence. In this account, historical myths can spread within a population without requiring group-level selection, as long as individuals have a vested interest in their propagation and strong psychological motivations to create them. Finally, this framework explains, not only the design-features of historical myths, but also important patterns in their cross-cultural prevalence, inter-individual distribution, and particular content.
Why do people fall in love? Does passion fade with time? What makes for a happy, healthy relationship? This introduction to relationship science follows the lifecycle of a relationship – from attraction and initiation, to the hard work of relationship maintenance, to dissolution and ways to strengthen a relationship. Designed for advanced undergraduates studying psychology, communication or family studies, this textbook presents a fresh, diversity-infused approach to relationship science. It includes real-world examples and critical-thinking questions, callout boxes that challenge students to make connections, and researcher interviews that showcase the many career paths of relationship scientists. Article Spotlights reveal cutting-edge methods, while Diversity and Inclusion boxes celebrate the variety found in human love and connection. Throughout the book, students see the application of theory and come to recognize universal themes in relationships as well as the nuances of many findings. Instructors can access lecture slides, an instructor manual, and test banks.
Using the Canadian General Social Survey of 2016, a large nationally representative dataset, the present paper examines how satisfaction with one’s physical appearance correlates with the division of household chores, as well as satisfaction with this division. The results show that satisfaction with one’s physical appearance negatively associates with the level of contribution to household chores for female partners. In addition, holding the number of chores constant, satisfaction with one’s physical appearance predicts a greater satisfaction with the division of chores for both genders, with a somewhat larger marginal effect for male partners. Hence, the results provide evidence for the positive influence of physical appearance on intra-household bargaining power. The implications are discussed, and venues for future research are proposed.
A substantial amount of research has demonstrated that good-looking individuals are perceived and treated in a favorable manner; however, relatively little research has examined how attractive people actually behave. There are two predominant theories on attractiveness: the self-fulfilling nature of “what is beautiful is good” from social psychology and the evolutionary perspective of attractiveness, make divergent predictions in this regard. The current research systematically investigated whether physical attractiveness can predict self-interested behavior and, if so, in which direction. Across five studies (N = 1,303), self-perceived attractiveness, either chronically experienced (Studies 1-3) or temporarily heightened (Studies 4 and 5), predicted and increased self-interested behavioral intention and behavior. Increased psychological entitlement acted as a mediator in this process (Studies 1–5). Furthermore, the publicity of the act was a boundary condition for the effect of attractiveness on self-interested behavior (Study 5). We have discussed theoretical and practical implications.
to read the full article: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1fqZo3tz48%7EwO2
Despite substantial literature surrounding how people process and perceive faces, there is very little research investigating how people evaluate their own faces. We examined how gender, body mass, race, age, and sexual orientation were linked to people’s satisfaction with the appearance of their eyes, nose, facial shape, and face overall among 11,620 adults recruited via Mechanical Turk. Most people mostly or definitely agreed they were happy with their facial appearance. There were notable racial differences, with Asian participants tending to report greater dissatisfaction. For example, only 66% of Asian women and 60% of Asian men mostly or definitely agreed that they were happy with the appearance of their eyes, which was lower than other racial groups. BMI and age were not strongly associated with face satisfaction. Sexual minority men were less satisfied than heterosexual men. About one in four gay and bisexual men, compared to only one in seven heterosexual men, reported dissatisfaction with their overall facial appearance. Men and women with poorer face image engaged in more appearance surveillance, more strongly internalized the thin-ideal, and perceived stronger sociocultural pressures from peers, parents, and media. The current study highlights important sociocultural and demographic factors tied to poorer face image.
Previous studies have found that the positive relationship between personal income and fertility for men in the United States is primarily due to childlessness among low-income men. Yet because of the opposite effects of income on fertility for men and women, it is important to examine the effects of income net of spouse's income. An analysis of income from all sources and biological fertility data for husbands and wives from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (2014) shows that for men their own income is positively associated with the number of their biological children, while their spouse's income is negatively associated with total children ever fathered. The reverse is true for women. These results are not because of childlessness among low-income men and high-income women, but also hold true among all those with children. For men and women aged 45-65, who likely have completed fertility, these results hold regardless of whether or not education is controlled. These findings suggest that if status is measured as personal income for men and husband's income for women, the positive relationship between status and fertility persists in a postdemographic transition society.
The current study examined the prevalence and correlates of over 50 sexual practices in a national survey of heterosexual and lesbian women in relationships. Coarsened exact matching was used to create comparable samples of heterosexual (n = 2510) and lesbian (n = 283) women on six demographic factors, including relationship length. Heterosexual and lesbian women were equally likely to be sexually satisfied (66% heterosexual women vs. 68% lesbian women). Compared to heterosexuals, lesbians were more likely to report having sex 0–1 times per month (11% vs. 23%) and were less likely to report having sex greater than once per month (89% vs. 77%). Among women who had been in relationships for longer than 5 years, heterosexual women were less likely than lesbian women to report having sex 0–1 times per month (15%; 42%). This steeper drop in sexual frequency among lesbian women than heterosexual women has pejoratively been labeled lesbian bed death. Rather than accept the label “lesbian bed death” as characterizing these sexual relationships, we turn our attention to what we call lesbian bed intimacies: the myriad ways that lesbian women incorporate behaviors promoting emotional connection, romance, and mood setting, as well as relying on a wide variety of specific sexual acts (e.g., use of sex toys) and sexual communication. Compared to heterosexual women, lesbian women were more likely to usually to always receive oral sex during sex in the past month (28%; 47%) and to use sex toys in the past year (40%; 62%). In their last sexual encounter, lesbian women were more likely to say “I love you” (67%; 80%), have sex longer than 30 min (48%; 72%), and engage in gentle kissing (80%; 92%). These intimacies likely help explain why sexual satisfaction was similar in these groups despite notable differences in sexual frequency.
Background and Aim: The study of couples' relationships helps to clarify the structural frameworks in which these relationships are formed. One of the dimensions of this relationship is the primary marital relationship that couples use when faced with marital problems. Accordingly, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of Halford couple relationship education (CRE) on the spouse preservation behaviors and the primary marital relationship in young couples in Kermanshah. Methods: This was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design and a one-month follow-up in which 30 couples were selected by the convenient sampling method from couples referring to comprehensive urban health service centers in Kermanshah and randomly assigned to the experimental group (15 couples) and the control group (15 couples). After the pre-test, the experimental group received the Halford couple relationship education intervention for six weeks, one session per week, and all subjects were assessed in the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up stages using the Buss et al. (2008) Spouse Preservation Behavior Scale and the Navran (1967) Primary Communication Inventory (PCI). Data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA. Results: The results indicated that Halford relationship education was significantly effective and improved spouse preservation behaviors (F = 5.32, P = 0.029) and primary marital relationship (P = 0.001, F = 85.21) up to the follow-up stage. Conclusion: The results of this study can provide useful information about this type of couple training for counselors and helpers to improve relationships between spouses.
Research cutting across a wide swath of the psychological and behavioral sciences has, following an abundance of evidence, reached the unassailable conclusion that resources are good. While we do not dispute this, we do additionally argue that the value of resources may not be inherently uniform. That is, the value of a resource may depend in part on the nature of the resource as well as the nature of the person accumulating and expending that resource. To that end, we explicate six distinct types of resources (cognitive capital, material capital, social relational capital, social transactional capital, somatic direct capital, and somatic indirect capital) and test across two studies the hypothesized moderative effects of sex and resource type on determinations of resource value, including as related to mate value and perceived stress. Results support the hypothesis that resource value is moderated by sex and resource type, and that the previously established relationships between resource accumulation, mate value, and stress are similarly moderated. Additionally, we find that being “overly wealthy” in some forms of capital may actually prove to be less than valuable. We interpret these results as confirming the hypothesis that resources are not monolithic nor are they uniformly valuable.
Mate preference criteria of reproductive women can be explained by the evolutionary requirements of a possible or actual motherhood. As this situation no longer applies to post-reproductive women, their criteria could be different. However, research on mate preference criteria for older women is scarce, although the topic is certainly of socio-political relevance. Therefore, this work focused on post-reproductive women's preferences concerning the male characteristics of sociability, status, and attractiveness as the literature shows that these three criteria subsume the most important characteristics in human mate choice. In addition to analysing responses to a questionnaire, we assessed partner trait preferences via visual preference measured by eye tracking for the first time. We used the electrooculography technique (EOG) and were able to show that it is indeed a suitable tool for investigating intuitive partner preferences. 68 women over the age of 50 participated in the study. The study resulted in the following findings: The tested post-reproductive women place the same demands on their mates as young women do; at least as far as the traits of sociability, status, and attractiveness are concerned. The criterion of sociability is valued most in mates, followed by status and attractiveness. Life in a relationship is a concept that the tested women desire for physical and social reasons. Financial considerations do not influence mate preferences. Participants desire a partner with personality traits similar to their own. Women of the generation 50+ do not lower their standards for a potential mate. As they regard a romantic partner as non-essential for their happiness, they rather choose to stay single than to make substantial compromises with regard to the demands placed on a desired partner. The ideal mate's desired age is about the same as their own or is regarded irrelevant. This work is the first empirical evaluation of women's preferences for male characteristics that focuses exclusively on the desires of post-reproductive women. As life expectancy increases, post-reproductive relationships gain importance. Therefore, additional research with this group of people is desirable.
Using data from the first Census data set that includes complete measures of male biological fertility for a large-scale probability sample of the U.S. population (the 2014 wave of the Study of Income and Program Participation-N = 55,281), this study shows that high income men are more likely to marry, are less likely to divorce, if divorced are more likely to remarry, and are less likely to be childless than low income men. Men who remarry marry relatively younger women than other men, on average, although this does not vary by personal income. For men who divorce who have children, high income is not associated with an increased probability of having children with new partners. Income is not associated with the probability of marriage for women and is positively associated with the probability of divorce. High income women are less likely to remarry after divorce and more likely to be childless than low income women. For women who divorce who have children, high income is associated with a lower chance of having children with new partners, although the relationship is curvilinear. These results are behavioral evidence that women are more likely than men to prioritize earning capabilities in a long-term mate and suggest that high income men have high value as long-term mates in the U.S.
Social exchange and evolutionary models of mate selection incorporate economic assumptions but have not considered a key distinction between necessities and luxuries. This distinction can clarify an apparent paradox: Status and attractiveness, though emphasized by many researchers, are not typically rated highly by research participants. Three studies supported the hypothesis that women and men first ensure sufficient levels of necessities in potential mates before considering many other characteristics rated as more important in prior surveys. In Studies 1 and 2, participants designed ideal long-term mates, purchasing various characteristics with 3 different budgets. Study 3 used a mate-screening paradigm and showed that people inquire 1st about hypothesized necessities. Physical attractiveness was a necessity to men, status and resources were necessities to women, and kindness and intelligence were necessities to both.
This reprinted article originally appeared in Psychology and Aging, 2009 (Jun), Vol 24(2), 513-517. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-08094-023). Stereotypes of older adults as withdrawn or asexual fail to recognize that romantic relationships in later life are increasingly common. The authors analyzed 600 Internet personal ads from 4 age groups: 20–34, 40–54, 60–74, and 75+ years. Predictions from evolutionary theory held true in later life, when reproduction is no longer a concern. Across the life span, men sought physical attractiveness and offered status-related information more than women; women were more selective than men and sought status more than men. With age, men desired women increasingly younger than themselves, whereas women desired older men until ages 75 and over, when they sought men younger than themselves.
People with traits that are attractive on the mating market are better able to pursue their preferred mating strategy. Men who are relatively tall may be preferred by women because taller height is a cue to dominance, social status, access to resources, and heritable fitness, leading them to have more mating opportunities and sex partners. We examined height, education, age, ethnicity, and body mass index (BMI) as predictors of sexual history among heterosexual men and women (N = 60,058). The linear and curvilinear associations between self-reported height and sex partner number were small for men when controlling for education, BMI, and ethnicity (linear ß = .05; curvilinear ß= -.03). The mean and median number of sex partners for men of different heights were: very short (9.4; 5), short (11.0; 7), average (11.7; 7), tall (12.0; 7), very tall (12.1; 7), and extremely tall (12.3; 7). Men who were "overweight" reported a higher mean and median number of sex partners than men with other body masses. The results for men suggested limited variation in reported sex partner number across most of the height continuum, but that very short men report fewer partners than other men.
Drawing on 25,185 responses collected via an online news website, our findings extend and update Fischer and Oliker’s (1983) classic study on gender and life cycle differences in friendship. We found no substantial gender differences in number of friends people can count on to celebrate birthdays, discuss intimate matters like one’s sex life, or depend upon when experiencing trouble late at night (ds = .04–.20); however, number of friendships varied substantially according to marital status, age, and parental status. Residential population size was not associated with number of friendships. We also found that virtually all respondents reported having at least one close friend. Satisfaction with friends was a better predictor of life satisfaction than was number of friends.
Friends play important roles throughout our lives by providing expressive, instrumental, and companionate support. We examined sexual orientation, gender, and age differences in the number of friends people can rely on for expressive, instrumental, and companionate support. Additionally, we examined the extent to which people relied on same-gender versus cross-gender friends for these types of support. Participants (N = 25,185) completed a survey via a popular news website. Sexual orientation differences in number of same-gender and cross-gender friends were generally small or non-existent, and satisfaction with friends was equally important to overall life satisfaction for all groups. However, the extent to which people's friendship patterns demonstrated gender-based homophily varied by sexual orientation, gender, and age. Young adult gay and bisexual men, and to some extent bisexual women and older bisexual men, did not conform to gendered expectations that people affiliate primarily with their own gender.
One hypothesis derived from evolutionary perspectives is that men are more upset than women by sexual infidelity and women are more upset than men by emotional infidelity. The proposed explanation is that men, in contrast to women, face the risk of unwittingly investing in genetically unrelated offspring. Most studies, however, have relied on small college or community samples of heterosexual participants. We examined upset over sexual versus emotional jealousy among 63,894 gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual participants. Participants imagined which would upset them more: their partners having sex with someone else (but not falling in love with them) or their partners falling in love with someone else (but not having sex with them). Consistent with this evolutionary perspective, heterosexual men were more likely than heterosexual women to be upset by sexual infidelity (54 vs. 35 %) and less likely than heterosexual women to be upset by emotional infidelity (46 vs. 65 %). This gender difference emerged across age groups, income levels, history of being cheated on, history of being unfaithful, relationship type, and length. The gender difference, however, was limited to heterosexual participants. Bisexual men and women did not differ significantly from each other in upset over sexual infidelity (30 vs. 27 %), regardless of whether they were currently dating a man (35 vs. 29 %) or woman (28 vs. 20 %). Gay men and lesbian women also did not differ (32 vs. 34 %). The findings present strong evidence that a gender difference exists in a broad sample of U.S. adults, but only among heterosexuals.
Introduction
Despite recent advances in understanding orgasm variation, little is known about ways in which sexual orientation is associated with men's and women's orgasm occurrence.
Aim
To assess orgasm occurrence during sexual activity across sexual orientation categories.
Methods
Data were collected by Internet questionnaire from 6,151 men and women (ages 21–65+ years) as part of a nationally representative sample of single individuals in the United States. Analyses were restricted to a subsample of 2,850 singles (1,497 men, 1,353 women) who had experienced sexual activity in the past 12 months.
Main Outcome Measures
Participants reported their sex/gender, self-identified sexual orientation (heterosexual, gay/lesbian, bisexual), and what percentage of the time they experience orgasm when having sex with a familiar partner.
Results
Mean occurrence rate for experiencing orgasm during sexual activity with a familiar partner was 62.9% among single women and 85.1% among single men, which was significantly different (F1,2848 =370.6, P <0.001, η2 =0.12). For men, mean occurrence rate of orgasm did not vary by sexual orientation: heterosexual men 85.5%, gay men 84.7%, bisexual men 77.6% (F2,1494 =2.67, P =0.07, η2 =0.004). For women, however, mean occurrence rate of orgasm varied significantly by sexual orientation: heterosexual women 61.6%, lesbian women 74.7%, bisexual women 58.0% (F2,1350 =10.95, P <0.001, η2 =0.02). Lesbian women had a significantly higher probability of orgasm than did either heterosexual or bisexual women (P <0.05).
Conclusions
Findings from this large dataset of U.S. singles suggest that women, regardless of sexual orientation, have less predictable, more varied orgasm experiences than do men and that for women, but not men, the likelihood of orgasm varies with sexual orientation. These findings demonstrate the need for further investigations into the comparative sexual experiences and sexual health outcomes of sexual minorities.
Theory and research on partnered parents suggests trade-offs between parenting and sexuality, with those trade-offs most pronounced among mothers of young children. However, little research has focused on how a growing demographic of single parents negotiates dating and sexual activity. The current study drew upon a 2012 nationally representative sample of 5,481 single Americans 21 years of age and older, of whom 4.3% were parents of a child age five or younger. Dependent variables were sexual thoughts, frequency of sexual activity, number of sexual partners in the past year, dates during the previous three months, and whether one was actively seeking a relationship partner. Covariates included parental age, sex/gender, sexual orientation, education, and income. Using the entire sample of singles, we found no main effects of number (0, 1, 2+) of children aged five years and younger or number of children aged two years and younger on dating and sexual behavior variables. Next, using analyses restricted to single parents (n = 2,121), we found that single parents with a child aged five years or younger, adjusting for covariates, reported greater frequency of sexual activity and first dates but no differences in other outcomes compared with single parents of older children.
AbstractA growing body of evidence shows that human mating preferences, like those of other animal species, can vary geographically. For example, women living in areas with a high cost of living have been shown to seek potential mates that can provide resources (e.g., large salaries). In this study, we present data from a large (N = 2944) nationally representative (United States) sample of Internet dating profiles. The profiles allowed daters’ to report their own income and the minimum income they desired in a dating partner, and we analyzed these data at the level of zip code. Our analysis shows that women engage in more resource seeking than men. We also find a positive relationship between cost of living in the dater's zip code and resource seeking among both men and women. Importantly, however, this relationship disappears if one's own income is accounted for in the analysis; that is, individuals of both sexes seek mates with an income similar to their own, regardless of local resource pressures. Our data highlight the importance of considering individual characteristics when measuring the effects of environmental factors on behavior.
Mating decisions are influenced by conspecifics' mate choices in many species including humans. Recent research has shown that women are more attracted to men with attractive putative partners than those with less attractive partners. We integrate these findings with traditional accounts of social signaling and test five hypotheses derived from it. In our study, 64 men and 75 women were paired with attractive and unattractive opposite-sex putative partners and asked whether they would prefer to give surveys to peers or to older adults. Consistent with predictions, both men and women wanted to show off (flaunt) attractive partners by administering surveys to peers and both men and women wanted to hide (conceal) unattractive partners from peers by administering surveys to older adults. These decisions were mediated by how participants expected others to evaluate their status and desirability when they administered the surveys, consistent with partners serving a social signaling function in humans.
A large body of research has examined sex differences in mate preferences, but very little of such work has been conducted in small-scale societies. Study 1 explored women's and men's mate preferences within a modern hunter-horticulturalist population in Amazonian Ecuador. In contrast to patterns documented in much of the existing literature, women and men from three Shuar villages were nearly identical in their stated preferences for physical attractiveness and resource-related traits, and physical attractiveness was ranked at the bottom among 19 traits. Study 2 examined the relationship between unmarried Shuar participants' assessments of the personal characteristics of known peers and their assessments of those peers as desirable long-term partners. When assessed using this method, physical attractiveness appeared to weigh much more heavily into Shuar evaluations of partner desirability, and a sex difference emerged in the preference for resource-related traits. Overall, there were substantial differences between individuals' stated preferences and their preferences as revealed in peer ratings. Across both measurement techniques, however, Shuar women and men were very similar in their preferences for physical attractiveness. These results raise questions about the universality of sex differences in mate preferences documented in the existing literature.
The prevalence of breast augmentation and breast lift surgery suggests that many women are dissatisfied with their breasts. This study analyzed women's and men's views about breast size and shape among 52,227 heterosexual adults, ages 18–65, who responded to an online survey. Although most women (70%) were dissatisfied with the size or shape of their breasts, most men (56%) were satisfied with their partner's breasts. Younger and thinner women worried that their breasts were too small; older and heavier women were more concerned with breast droopiness. Women who were dissatisfied with their breasts were more likely to report lower body satisfaction and to express concern about wearing a bathing suit in public. Further, dissatisfied women were also less willing to undress in front of their partner and were more likely to conceal their breasts from their partner during sex. These findings suggest that dissatisfaction with breasts is widespread among adult women.
We articulate an evolutionary perspective on cultural variation, centering on the con- cept of evoked culture. We then demonstrate how the framework of evoked culture has been used to predict and explain cultural variation and report new tests of hypotheses about cultural variation in mate preferences. These tests demonstrate the predictive power of ecological variables such as parasite prevalence that are implicated by evo- lutionary psychological theories. New empirical tests provided little support for the predictions advanced by competing social role theories (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1999), with some findings running opposite to those predicted by such theories. We propose that a well-articulated evolutionary perspective on cultural variation may be particu- larly useful because it can specify how variation in cultural practice itself may emerge. We conclude that discussions of cultural variation should move beyond false dichotomies of social versus biological and suggest that evolutionary psychology pro-
We studied mate selection strategies as revealed in heterosexual personal advertisements published in a Brazilian newspaper, analyzing both the ads' content, with respect to the attributes that men and women offered and sought, and predictors of the number of responses that each ad received. Demands made for a prospective partner changed as a function of the age of the advertiser in predictable sex-differentiated ways: women became less demanding as they aged, whereas men became more demanding. The number of responses received by men and women as a function of age followed a similarly sex-differentiated pattern, with older women receiving fewer responses than younger women, and older men receiving more responses than younger men. In general, results of the present study provided support for our predictions. People who used personal advertisements, a relatively recent unconventional way for selecting mates, expressed conventional preferences, suggestive of evolved psychological mechanisms.
Everywhere the issue has been examined, people make discriminations about others’ physical attractiveness. Can human standards of physical attractiveness be understood through the lens of evolutionary biology? In the past decade, this question has guided much theoretical and empirical work. In this paper, we (a) outline the basic adaptationist approach that has guided the bulk of this work, (b) describe evolutionary models of signaling that have been applied to understand human physical attractiveness, and (c) discuss and evaluate specific lines of empirical research attempting to address the selective history of human standards of physical attractiveness. We also discuss ways evolutionary scientists have attempted to understand variability in standards of attractiveness across cultures as well as the ways current literature speaks to body modification in modern Western cultures. Though much work has been done, many fundamental questions remain unanswered.
Regret and anticipated regret enhance decision quality by helping people avoid making and repeating mistakes. Some of people's most intense regrets concern sexual decisions. We hypothesized evolved sex differences in women's and men's experiences of sexual regret. Because of women's higher obligatory costs of reproduction throughout evolutionary history, we hypothesized that sexual actions, particularly those involving casual sex, would be regretted more intensely by women than by men. In contrast, because missed sexual opportunities historically carried higher reproductive fitness costs for men than for women, we hypothesized that poorly chosen sexual inactions would be regretted more by men than by women. Across three studies (Ns = 200, 395, and 24,230), we tested these hypotheses using free responses, written scenarios, detailed checklists, and Internet sampling to achieve participant diversity, including diversity in sexual orientation. Across all data sources, results supported predicted psychological sex differences and these differences were localized in casual sex contexts. These findings are consistent with the notion that the psychology of sexual regret was shaped by recurrent sex differences in selection pressures operating over deep time.
The media equate a man's penis size with his power and masculinity. Views about penis size were assessed in an Internet survey of 52,031 heterosexual men and women. Most men (66%) rated their penis as average, 22% as large, and 12% as small. Self-reported penis size was correlated positively with height and negatively with body fat level. Whereas 85% of women were satisfied with their partner's penis size, only 55% of men were satisfied with their penis size, 45% wanted to be larger, and 0.2% wanted to be smaller. Satisfaction did not vary across age groups from 18 to 65. Men reporting a larger-than-average penis rated their appearance most favorably, suggesting a possible confidence effect of perceived large penis size. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The current research tests the hypothesis that women have an evolved mate value calibration adaptation that functions to raise or lower their standards in a long-term mate according to their own mate value. A woman's physical attractiveness is a cardinal component of women's mate value. We correlated observer-assessed physical attractiveness (face, body, and overall) with expressed preferences for four clusters of mate characteristics (N = 214): (1) hypothesized good-gene indicators (e.g., masculinity, sexiness); (2) hypothesized good investment indicators (e.g., potential income); (3) good parenting indicators (e.g., desire for home and children), and (4) good partner indicators (e.g., being a loving partner). Results supported the hypothesis that high mate value women, as indexed by observer-judged physical attractiveness, expressed elevated standards for all four clusters of mate characteristics. Discussion focuses on potential design features of the hypothesized mate-value calibration adaptation, and suggests an important modification of the trade-off model of women's mating. A minority of women--notably those low in mate value who are able to escape male mate guarding and the manifold costs of an exposed infidelity--will pursue a mixed mating strategy, obtaining investment from one man and good genes from an extra-pair copulation partner (as the trade-off model predicts). Since the vast majority of women secure genes and direct benefits from the same man, however, most women will attempt to secure the best
combination of all desired qualities from the same man. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Growing evidence shows that features we find attractive in members of the opposite sex signal important underlying dimensions of health and reproductive viability. It has been discovered that men with attractive faces have higher quality sperm, women with attractive bodies are more fertile, men and women with attractive voices lose their virginity sooner, men who spend more money than they earn have more sex partners, and lap dancers make more tips when they are in the fertile phase of their menstrual cycle. This paper highlights recent evidence showing that the way we perceive other people has been shaped by our evolutionary history. An evolutionary approach provides a powerful tool for understanding the consistency and diversity of mating preferences and behaviors across individuals and cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.
We investigated body image in St. Kitts, a Caribbean island where tourism, international media, and relatively high levels of body fat are common. Participants were men and women recruited from St. Kitts (n = 39) and, for comparison, U.S. samples from universities (n = 618) and the Internet (n = 438). Participants were shown computer generated images varying in apparent body fat level and muscularity or breast size and they indicated their body type preferences and attitudes. Overall, there were only modest differences in body type preferences between St. Kitts and the Internet sample, with the St. Kitts participants being somewhat more likely to value heavier women. Notably, however, men and women from St. Kitts were more likely to idealize smaller breasts than participants in the U.S. samples. Attitudes regarding muscularity were generally similar across samples. This study provides one of the few investigations of body preferences in the Caribbean.
This study examined whether objectification theory is useful for understanding gender, body mass, and ethnic differences in
body satisfaction among 2,206 US undergraduates who completed a body image survey. Women reported lower body satisfaction
than men (d = .37) and this was true across the majority of the BMI continuum. Very slender men, however, were less satisfied than very
slender women who approached the female thin-ideal. Differences in body satisfaction among White, Asian, and Hispanic participants
were small to moderate (ds = .18 to .45). Consistent with the prediction that self-objectification has particularly negative effects on women who deviate
from the slender White ideal, the association between body dissatisfaction and appearance surveillance was strongest for heavier
and minority women.
We estimate mate preferences using a novel data set from an online dating service. The data set contains detailed information
on user attributes and the decision to contact a potential mate after viewing his or her profile. This decision provides the
basis for our preference estimation approach. A potential problem arises if the site users strategically shade their true
preferences. We provide a simple test and a bias correction method for strategic behavior. The main findings are (i) There
is no evidence for strategic behavior. (ii) Men and women have a strong preference for similarity along many (but not all)
attributes. (iii) In particular, the site users display strong same-race preferences. Race preferences do not differ across
users with different age, income, or education levels in the case of women, and differ only slightly in the case of men. For
men, but not for women, the revealed same-race preferences correspond to the same-race preference stated in the users’ profile.
(iv) There are gender differences in mate preferences; in particular, women have a stronger preference than men for income
over physical attributes.
KeywordsMate preferences-Dating-Marriage
JEL ClassificationC78-J12
In this mini-review, we consider an evolutionary biocultural perspective on human aging and sexuality. An evolutionary approach to senescence highlights the energetic trade-offs between fertility and mortality. By comparing humans to other primates, we situate human senescence as an evolutionary process, with shifts in postreproductive sexual behavior in this light. Age-related declines in sexual behavior are typical for humans but also highly contingent on the sociocultural context within which aging individuals express their sexuality. We briefly review some of the most comprehensive studies of aging and sexual behavior, both from the USA and cross-culturally. We frame these patterns with respect to the long-term relationships within which human sexual behavior typically occurs. Because sexuality is typically expressed within pair-bonds, sexual behavior sometimes declines in both members of a couple with age, but also exhibits sex-specific effects that have their roots in evolved sex differences.
Open-ended questions were used to investigate mate selection criteria among male and female medical students (n = 40). Striking sex differences emerged in this sample's preferences concerning spouses' relative earning power and occupational status, partners' physical attractiveness, and the marital division of labor. The results supported the hypotheses: Increasing socioeconomic status (SES) of women does not eliminate and may not even reduce traditional sex differences in mate selection criteria and marital goals. Increasing the SES of women tends to increase their socioeconomic standards for mates, thereby reducing their pool of acceptable partners; increasing men's SES tends to enlarge their pool of available acceptable partners. Based on these interviews and pertinent literature, closed-ended questions were developed and administered to female (n = 212) and male (n = 170) undergraduates. Highly significant sex differences emerged in this sample; these sex differences mirrored those found among the medical students. The methodological implications of these results are discussed.
This study reports results from the first International Body Project (IBP-I), which surveyed 7,434 individuals in 10 major world regions about body weight ideals and body dissatisfaction. Participants completed the female Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale (CDFRS) and self-reported their exposure to Western and local media. Results indicated there were significant cross-regional differences in the ideal female figure and body dissatisfaction, but effect sizes were small across highsocioeconomic-status (SES) sites. Within cultures, heavier bodies were preferred in low-SES sites compared to high-SES sites in Malaysia and South Africa (ds = 1.94-2.49) but not in Austria. Participant age, body mass index (BMI), and Western media
exposure predicted body weight ideals. BMI and Western media exposure predicted body dissatisfaction among women. Our results show that body dissatisfaction and desire for thinness is commonplace in high-SES settings across world regions, highlighting the need for international attention to this problem.
In many non-Western societies, moderate to high levels of body fat in women have long been equated with health, physical attractiveness, social status, and fertility. In recent times, however, many Western cultures have emphasized the idea that slender women are most attractive. This emphasis on thinness has led to increased levels of body dissatisfaction and dieting in Western cultures and in cultures that have imported Western media and ideals. The current study examines the body ideals in two cultures that have recently undergone increased contact with Western nations: Ghana and the Ukraine. Body dissatisfaction and perceptions of the attractive female body were studied in U.S. and Ukrainian undergraduates and villagers in Ghana using the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (Thompson & Gray, 1995). Compared to the other cultures, in the U.S., slender bodies were more highly valued and women reported a larger discrepancy between their current and ideal bodies. Men and women in Ghana showed the least preference for slender bodies. Men in the U.S. reported that the most attractive body was thinner than the average female body, whereas men from Ghana reported that the most attractive body was heavier than the average female body. In general, preferences recorded in the Ukrainian sample fell between the results for the U.S. and Ghanaian samples. These findings suggest that despite the increased contact with Western cultures, there may be aspects of Ghanaian and Ukrainian culture that promote greater body satisfaction.
Stereotypes of older adults as withdrawn or asexual fail to recognize that romantic relationships in later life are increasingly common. The authors analyzed 600 Internet personal ads from 4 age groups: 20-34, 40-54, 60-74, and 75+ years. Predictions from evolutionary theory held true in later life, when reproduction is no longer a concern. Across the life span, men sought physical attractiveness and offered status-related information more than women; women were more selective than men and sought status more than men. With age, men desired women increasingly younger than themselves, whereas women desired older men until ages 75 and over, when they sought men younger than themselves.
Does the prevalence and degree of body dissatisfaction differ among heterosexual and homosexual men and women? Some theorists have suggested that, compared to their heterosexual peers, gay men are at greater risk for body dissatisfaction and lesbians at lower risk. Past studies examining this issue have generally relied on small samples recruited from gay or lesbian groups. Further, these studies have sometimes produced conflicting results, particularly for comparisons of lesbian and heterosexual women. In the present research, we compared body satisfaction and comfort with one's body during sexual activity among lesbian women, gay men, heterosexual women, and heterosexual men through two large online studies (Ns = 2,512 and 54,865). Compared to all other groups, heterosexual men reported more positive evaluations of their appearance, less preoccupation with their weight, more positive effects of their body image on their quality of life and the quality of their sex life, more comfort wearing a swimsuit in public, and greater willingness to reveal aspects of their body to their partner during sexual activity. Few significant differences were found among gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual women. Many gay men (42%) reported that their feelings about their body had negative effects on the quality of their sex life, as did some lesbian women (27%), heterosexual women (30%), and heterosexual men (22%). Overall, the findings supported the hypothesis that gay men are at greater risk than heterosexual men for experiencing body dissatisfaction. There was little evidence that lesbian women experience greater body satisfaction than heterosexual women.
Male (n = 170) and female (n = 212) college students viewed photographs, which had been prerated for physical attractiveness, of three opposite-sex individuals. These photographs were paired with three levels of occupational status and income. Subjects indicated their willingness to engage in relationships of varying levels of sexual intimacy and marital potential with the portrayed individuals. Analyses of variance, correlations, and trend analyses supported the hypotheses. Compared to men, women are more likely to prefer or insist that sexual intercourse occur in relationships that involve affection and marital potential, and women place more emphasis than men do on partners' SES in such relationships. Consequently, men's SES and their willingness and ability to invest affection and resources in relationships may often outweigh the effects of their physical attractiveness in women's actual selection of partners. These results and the literature reviewed are more consistent with parental investment theory than with the view that these sex differences are solely the result of differential access to resources and differential socialization.
Social psychologists have devoted considerable theoretical and empirical attention to studying gender differences in traits desired in a mate. Most of the studies on mate preferences, however, have been conducted with small, nonrepresentative samples. In this study, we analyzed data collected from single adults in a national probability sample, the National Survey of Families and Households. Respondents were asked to consider 12 possible assets or liabilities in a marriage partner and to indicate their willingness to marry someone possessing each of these traits. These data extended previous research by comparing men's and women's mate preferences in a heterogeneous sample of the national population and by comparing gender differences in different sociodemographic groups. The gender differences found in this study were consistent with those secured in previous research (e.g., youth and physical attractiveness were found to be more important for men than for women; earning potential was found to be less important for men than for women) and were quite consistent across age groups and races. However, the various sociodemographic groups differed slightly in the magnitude of gender differences for some of the mate preferences.
Despite general perceptions of committed romantic relationships as the most satisfying context with which to engage in sexual activity, acceptance of casual sexual contexts has increased in recent years. Yet little research has examined sexual and emotional satisfaction outside of the committed relationship context. Further, most satisfaction research has focused exclusively on heterosexual samples. The present study aimed to investigate sexual and emotional satisfaction derived from seven sexual relationship contexts and note similarities or differences based on gender and sexual orientation. Data were drawn from an online survey of 6,955 sexually diverse participants. Sexual satisfaction was stronger than emotional satisfaction within casual sex contexts (one night stand, first date, sex with a friend, and hookups) than within more committed contexts (married, living together, committed unmarried relationship). Men found all contexts except for sex in a committed unmarried relationship significantly more sexually and emotionally satisfying than women. Emotional and sexual satisfaction were significantly different across sexual orientation groups in casual sexual relationship contexts but not in more committed relationship contexts. Gay men reported gaining the most sexual and emotional satisfaction out of casual sex contexts, with lesbian women reporting the least out of casual sexual contexts. Overall, this research found that a wide variety of relationship contexts, including casual sexual contexts, can be a source of both sexual and emotional satisfaction.
The finding that women are attracted to men older than themselves whereas men are attracted to relatively younger women has been explained by social psychologists in terms of economic exchange rooted in traditional sex-role norms. An alternative evolutionary model suggests that males and females follow different reproductive strategies, and predicts a more complex relationship between gender and age preferences. In particular, males' preference for relatively Younger females should be minimal during early mating years, but should become more pronounced as the male gets older. Young females are expected to prefer somewhat older males during their early years and to change less as they age. We briefly review relevant theory and present results of six studies testing this prediction. Study 1 finds support for this gender-differentiated prediction in age preferences expressed in personal advertisements. Study 2 supports the prediction with marriage statistics from two U.S. cities. Study 3 examines the cross-generational robustness of the phenomenon, and finds the same pattern in marriage statistics from 1923. Study 4 replicates Study 1 using matrimonial advertisements from two European countries, and from India. Study 5 finds a consistent pattern in marriages recorded from 1913 through 1939 on a small island in the Philippines. Study 6 reveals the same pattern in singles advertisements placed by financially successful American women and men. We consider the limitations of previous normative and evolutionary explanations of age preferences and discuss the advantages of expanding previous models to include the life history perspective.
A great deal of research on interpersonal attraction implicitly assumes that stated ideal partner preferences guide the mate selection, and therefore relationship formation, process. Nevertheless, recent research has yielded contradictory results. Whereas some research has failed to demonstrate that ideal partner preferences influence attraction to actual potential romantic partners, other studies have provided empirical evidence for the predictive validity of ideal partner preferences following interactions with potential romantic partners. A new meta‐analysis on the predictive validity of ideal partner preferences concluded that people may not preferentially pursue potential partners that more closely match their stated preferences. This conclusion has significant implications for several empirical literatures that have relied on self‐reported ideal partner preferences to test hypotheses. We demonstrate, however, that the majority of the research on the predictive validity of ideal partner preferences, and thus research included in this meta‐analysis, focuses on interpersonal attraction or later relationship processes and not on individuals transitioning into actual new relationships. We suggest that research that directly focuses on the transition into actual relationships is needed before firm conclusions can be made regarding the predictive validity of ideal partner preferences in the formation of new relationships.
News reporting on research studies may influence attitudes about health risk, support for public health policies, or attitudes towards people labeled as unhealthy or at risk for disease. Across five experiments (N = 2123) we examined how different news framings of obesity research influence these attitudes. We exposed participants to either a control condition, a news report on a study portraying obesity as a public health crisis, a news report on a study suggesting that obesity may not be as much of a problem as previously thought, or an article discussing weight-based discrimination. Compared to controls, exposure to the public health crisis article did not increase perception of obesity-related health risks but did significantly increase the expression of antifat prejudice in four out of seven comparisons. Across studies, compared to controls, participants who read an article about weight-based discrimination were less likely to agree that overweight constitutes a public health crisis or to support various obesity policies. Effects of exposure to an article questioning the health risks associated with overweight and obesity were mixed. These findings suggest that news reports on the "obesity epidemic" - and, by extension, on public health crises commonly blamed on personal behavior - may unintentionally activate prejudice.
Few things come more naturally to us than sex—or so it would seem. Yet to a chimpanzee, the sexual practices and customs we take for granted would appear odd indeed. He or she might wonder why we bother with inconveniences like clothes, why we prefer to make love on a bed, and why we fuss so needlessly over privacy. Evolution and Human Sexual Behavior invites us into the thought-experiment of imagining human sex from the vantage point of our primate cousins, in order to underscore the role of evolution in shaping all that happens, biologically and behaviorally, when romantic passions are aroused.
Peter Gray and Justin Garcia provide an interdisciplinary synthesis that draws on the latest discoveries in evolutionary theory, genetics, neuroscience, comparative primate research, and cross-cultural sexuality studies. They are our guides through an exploration of the patterns and variations that exist in human sexuality, in chapters covering topics ranging from the evolution of sex differences and reproductive physiology to the origins of sexual play, monogamous unions, and the facts and fictions surrounding orgasm.
Intended for generally curious readers of all stripes, this up-to-date, one-volume survey of the evolutionary science of human sexual behavior explains why sexuality has remained a core fascination of human beings throughout time and across cultures.
We examine 2,400 personal ads from male advertisers collected from the Internet, focusing on age preference by race and sexual orientation. We look at whether advertisers display any age preference in personal ads and whether the preference varies by race and sexual orientation. We find that gay men are more likely than straight men to state an age preference. Also, the preference for younger partners intensifies among older advertisers regardless of race and sexual orientation. Youth is still a treasured commodity in date selection for men. However, some men, especially gay men, prefer more mature partners. At least 20 percent of gay Asian men in all three age groups prefer older partners. Further research is recommended to explore this exception among gay Asian men.
In most animals, members of one sex compete more intensely for mates than members of the other sex, and show a greater development of secondary sexual traits. The relative intensity of mating competition in the two sexes depends on the operational sex ratio (OSR) (the ratio of males that are ready to mate to females that are ready to mate) at the site and time when mating occurs. The extent and direction of biases in the OSR is closely related to the potential rates of reproduction that individual males and females can achieve, although the distribution of the two sexes in space and time, sex differences in development time or life expectancy, and biases in the sex ratio at birth or hatching can also be important. The potential rates of reproduction in the two sexes are, in turn, affected by the proportion of time and energy expended by male and female parents on their progeny, though other factors may constrain reproductive rate in one or both sexes. We outline a simple model of the factors affecting the OSR, where relative parental expenditure by the two sexes and the adult sex ratio are fixed, and a more complex model where the adult sex ratio varies in relation to the reproductive activity of the two sexes. This framework for relating sex differences in mating competition to the OSR, potential reproductive rates, and parental expenditure differs from Trivers's concept of the relation between parental investment and mating competition in three ways: first, it identifies the OSR as the immediate factor determining which sex competes most intensely for mates; second, it recognizes that factors other than the future fitness costs of rearing offspring can affect the potential reproductive rate of the two sexes; third, it suggests an empirical measure (potential reproductive rate) that can be estimated in natural populations and used to predict the distribution of mating competition.
The present study examined desired minimum and maximum ages for mates across five different levels of relationship involvement (marriage, serious relationship, falling in love, casual sex, and sexual fantasies) comparing individuals of 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 years old. Consistent with previous findings, women preferred partners of their own age, regardless of their own age and regardless of the level of relationship involvement. Men, on the other hand, regardless of their own age, desired mates for short-term mating and for sexual fantasies who were in their reproductive years. However, with regard to long-term mates, men preferred mates who, although younger than them, were sometimes above the age of maximum fertility. Explanations for these findings are discussed.
Human pair bonding is often attributed to the importance of male provisioning. However, this has been called into question in recent years. Among tropical hunter –gatherers like the Hadza of Tanzania, the foods that men acquire contribute less to the diet than women's foods, are acquired with less regularity, and are shared more widely outside the household. This forces us to ask what benefits forager women gain from being married. Here, I present data suggesting that Hadza women benefit from a husband's provisioning when they have young nurslings. During this critical period, women have lower foraging returns and return rates, while their husbands have higher returns. These higher returns are not due to more meat, but to less widely shared foods, like honey. Even if women are subsidizing husbands much of the time, provisioning by husbands during this critical period of lactation could be enough to favor pair bonding.
The present study investigated mate preferences for five different levels of relationship involvement—marriage, serious relationship, falling in love, casual sex, and sexual fantasies–among individuals of 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 years of age. Consistent with an evolutionary perspective, men preferred mates who were higher in physical attractiveness than themselves, whereas women preferred mates who were higher in income, education, self–confidence, intelligence, dominance, and social position than themselves. The lower the level of relationship involvement, the lower were the preferred levels of education, physical attractiveness, and, particularly for males, preferred intelligence in comparison to oneself. For sexual fantasies, men and women preferred mates who were higher in physical attractiveness than those they preferred for real partners. There were few age differences in mate preferences, although older individuals set higher standards for a potential mate’s education.
Past research has demonstrated clear gender differences in reported mate selection criteria. Compared to women, men place more importance on physical attractiveness and women place more importance than men do on the earning capacity of a potential mate. These gender differences have been explained using both sociobiological propositions and differences in the relative economic power of men and women. The present study tested the structural powerlessness hypothesis as an explanation for women's greater emphasis on the earning capacity of a potential spouse. Samples of college students (N = 997) and community members (N = 282) were asked to report expected personal income and to rate the importance of listed characteristics in a potential mate. Consistent with past research, men placed more emphasis on the item Good Looks, whereas women placed more importance on the item Good Financial Prospect. Contrary to the structural powerless model, women's expected income was positively related to ratings of the importance of a potential mate's earning capacity in the college sample and was unrelated to women's ratings of the item Good Financial Prospect in the community sample. Findings are discussed in terms of both evolutionary psychology and gender differences in access to financial resources.
The literature on human mate preferences is vast but most data come from studies on college students in complex societies, who represent a thin slice of cultural variation in an evolutionarily novel environment. Here, I present data on the mate preferences of men and women in a society of hunter-gatherers, the Hadza of Tanzania. Hadza men value fertility in a mate more than women do, and women value intelligence more than men do. Women place great importance on men's foraging, and both sexes rate character as important. Unlike college students, Hadza men place considerable importance on women being hard-working, and Hadza women cite looks about as often as men do. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)