ArticleLiterature Review

Exploring the existence and potential underpinnings of dog-human and horse-human attachment bonds

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Abstract

This article reviews evidence for the existence of attachment bonds directed toward humans in dog-human and horse-human dyads. It explores each species' alignment with the four features of a typical attachment bond: separation-related distress, safe haven, secure base and proximity seeking. While dog-human dyads show evidence of each of these, there is limited alignment for horse-human dyads. These differences are discussed in the light of the different selection paths of domestic dogs and horses as well as the different contexts in which the two species interact with humans. The role of emotional intelligence in humans as a potential mediator for human-animal relationships, attachment or otherwise, is also examined. Finally, future studies, which may clarify the interplay between attachment, human-animal relationships and emotional intelligence, are proposed. Such avenues of research may help us explore the concepts of trust and bonding that are often said to occur at the dog-human and horse-human interface.

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... Recent research efforts in animal welfare science have made progress in understanding and addressing some of the issues related to human-animal interactions in farming, including the use of gentler handling methods (Hemsworth et al. 2002(Hemsworth et al. , 2011Ivemeyer et al. 2011;Coleman & Hemsworth 2014;Tallet et al. 2014;Brajon et al. 2015). Research has also identified elements that influence how animals perceive and respond to humans, including species factors (Payne et al. 2016), underlying personality traits of animals, previous interactions with humans, and capacity to distinguish emotional states in humans (Waiblinger et al. 2006;Nawroth et al. 2018). Consistent with aspects of the intersubjectivity approaches (discussed below), animal welfare science has established that certain attitudes, personality traits, behaviours, and aspects of job satisfaction are associated with empathy for animals and with the animals experiencing more positive interactions for the human caregiver (Coleman et al. 2000;Hemsworth et al. 2002Hemsworth et al. , 2011Boivin et al. 2003;Coleman & Hemsworth 2014;Anneberg & Sandøe 2019;Rault et al. 2020;Acharya et al. 2022). ...
... The idea of sharing reality with animals is perhaps most often described through concepts of emotional intelligence and empathy, which both involve the ability to relate to another's experience, based, in part, upon the recognition "of others as minded subjects" (Webb et al. 2023). Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to "the ability of an individual to monitor his or her emotions as well as those of others, and to use this information as a guide for thoughts and actions" (Payne et al. 2016;p 115), while empathy involves the recognition of an other's internal or subjective experiences and can thus shape the quality of the relationship (Muri et al. 2012). For example, Payne et al. (2016) suggest that dog owners scoring highest in self-reported EI are likely to have more positive relationships with their dogs (e.g. ...
... Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to "the ability of an individual to monitor his or her emotions as well as those of others, and to use this information as a guide for thoughts and actions" (Payne et al. 2016;p 115), while empathy involves the recognition of an other's internal or subjective experiences and can thus shape the quality of the relationship (Muri et al. 2012). For example, Payne et al. (2016) suggest that dog owners scoring highest in self-reported EI are likely to have more positive relationships with their dogs (e.g. human-dog dyads presenting behaviour associated with secure attachment bonds as opposed to anxious or avoidant attachment) compared to dog owners with lower EI (Payne et al. 2016). ...
Article
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Animal agriculture employs approximately one-eighth of world’s human population and results in the slaughter of over 160 billion animals annually, representing perhaps the most extensive intertwining of human and animal lives on the planet. In principle, close, intersubjective relationships (involving shared attention and mental states) between humans and the animals in agriculture are possible, though these are infrequently studied and are unlikely to be achieved in farming, given systemic constraints (e.g. housing and management). Much scientific research on human-animal relationships within agriculture has focused upon a fairly restricted range of states (e.g. reducing aversive human-animal interactions within standard systems, toward improving productivity and reducing injuries to workers). Considering human-animal relations along a continuum, we review scholarship supporting the rationale for expanding the range of relationships under consideration in animal welfare research, given the impacts these relationships can have on both animals and stockpersons, increasing consumer demand for humane food products, and the goal of providing animals under our care with good lives. Looking toward traditions that encourage taking the perspective of, and learning from non-humans, we provide entry points to approaches that can enable animal welfare research to expand to investigate a broader range of human-animal relationship states. By showing the potential for close mutually beneficial human-animal relationships, this line of research highlights pathways for understanding and improving the welfare of animals used in agriculture.
... An alternative perspective suggests that appetitive stimulation can act as a reinforcer for coping behaviors, exposure, and collaborative behavior instead of resistance. Simultaneously, it impacts the animal's motivation through rewarding mechanisms that enhance the human-animal bond (Payne et al., 2016). The appetitive stimulation, such as petting, talking, and food, offered as a counterconditioning technique, is based on three fundamental mechanisms that contribute to the human-animal bond: food, physical contact, and emotional intelligence. ...
... The appetitive stimulation, such as petting, talking, and food, offered as a counterconditioning technique, is based on three fundamental mechanisms that contribute to the human-animal bond: food, physical contact, and emotional intelligence. These rewarding mechanisms contribute to a positive affective state in horses (Payne et al., 2016) and also increase the horse's attention toward the This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4863277 ...
... Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4863277 P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d human, making humans more relevant and secure for the horses (Payne et al., 2016;Lansade et al., 2021). We observed behaviors related to increased proximity to the human in a fear-inducing situation, which was independent of the type of bond (familiar or unfamiliar) the handler had with the horse, consistent with the results of Hartmann et al. (2022) and Ijichi et al. (2018). ...
... From this perspective, recent studies converge on the idea that promoting positive interactions with humans can be a way to improve horses' emotionality, social bonds, and well-being [20][21][22][23][24][25]. It is argued that human company may be important to a horse, where physical contact and the benefits of stroking are crucial elements for potentiating human attachment [23][24][25][26]. ...
... Likewise, the frequency and number of interactions can determine how horses deal with situations curated by humans. A review of the literature suggests that human interactions may simply consist of habituation to any contact stimulus (brushing, haltering, etc.) [21,22,25], and the continuous repetition of such stimuli, until they become neutral, has been named handling [26][27][28]. Early handling of young horses is suggested to be a good strategy for improving relationships with humans [28,29] and manageability [30] and reducing emotional reactivity or fearfulness [31][32][33]. ...
... Fecal samples were collected from the ground of the testing settings, put in a plastic bag, stored at 4 • C in a cooler with ice packs, and examined within 48 h of the collection in the laboratory. A modified Wisconsin double-centrifugal sugar flotation technique was used for all fecal egg counts (FECs) as previously described [22], with a minimum detection limit of 1 egg/g. Slides were examined at 10× magnification under a standard light microscope. ...
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Horses are often still exposed to stressful or inadequate conditions and difficult relationships with humans, despite growing concerns about animal welfare. In the present study, we investigated the impact of different approaches of short-term handling sessions on young Lusitanian horses raised on a high-breed farm, specifically on their later adaptability to humans and stressful environments. Thirty-one foals (3 months old ± 15 days), from both sexes, were separated into three groups, one submitted to 3 consecutive days of handling sessions (Int-H), another to one handling session each month for 3 months (Month-H), and one left undisturbed (control). At 8 months old ± 15 days, all foals were evaluated during behavioral tests (restraint in a stock and forced-person test). Evaluations were based on behavioral observations and physiological assessments. The handled foals (Int-H and Month-H) reacted less to being isolated and restrained and better tolerated human contact and veterinary procedures than the control ones. The handled foals displayed less evasive and negative behaviors toward human approach, but also sought less human contact and did not interact, regardless of the handling timeframe. All animals displayed signs of stress when restrained in the stock, with increased neutrophil counts and CHCM levels in the blood, and no differences in metabolic (CK and LDH) and other hematological parameters. The neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in handled foals than in control ones, suggesting low standards of welfare. Our data suggest that early forced handling decreases fearfulness in new environments; however, it does not improve the horses’ relationship with humans, and it decreases welfare.
... Attachment is often defined as a social connection between two living beings that is characterized as providing feelings of safety [117]. Persistence of attachment may lead to bonding, which implies an ongoing close and interactive relationship between individuals [117,118]. It is thought that attachment and bonding evolved as a means of keeping offspring close to their caregivers for the survival of the offspring [117]. ...
... This communication through a cross-species platform and the language used in horse-human dyads is thought to be primarily nonverbal, conveyed via both physical touch and emotional connection [72]. Horse-human physical contact may serve as a channel for both coordination of motor activities and emotional connection [72] and likely plays a key role in bond formation [118]. Horses naturally groom each other, and this behavior has been shown to be associated with decreased heart rate [122]. ...
... Further research is needed to fully disambiguate horse-human attachment and bonding, and it cannot be assumed that horses develop human-like attachment relationships to people [118]. As reviewed by Payne et. ...
Article
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Equine-assisted services (EASs) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing the desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as by contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein, as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.
... As defined by Bowlby [117], attachment is the social connection created between two living beings and is characterized as a relationship that provides feelings of safety. Persistence of attachment may lead to bonding, which implies an ongoing close and interactive relationship between individuals [117], such as in parent-offspring relationships [118]. It is thought that attachment and bonding evolved as a means of keeping offspring close to their caregivers for the survival of the offspring [117]. ...
... This communication through a cross-species platform and the language used in horse-human dyads is thought to be primarily non-verbal, conveyed via both physical touch and emotional connection [72]. Horse-human physical contact may serve as a channel for both coordination of motor activities and emotional connection [72] and likely plays a key role in bond formation [118]. Horses naturally groom each other and this behavior has been shown to be associated with decreased heart rate [122]. ...
... Further research is needed to fully disambiguate horse-human attachment and bonding and it cannot be assumed that horses develop human-like attachment relationships to people [118]. As reviewed by Payne, et. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Equine-assisted services (EAS) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.
... Furthermore, anecdotal reports maintain that well-handled, and positively reinforced horses, tend to show greater confidence, similar to securely attached humans. Although research suggests dogs have the ability to form attachment bonds with humans (Payne, DeAraugo, Bennett, & McGreevy, 2016), for horses it remains unclear if connections between horses and people equate to the same type of connection as within a human-human or horse-horse attachment relationship (Hartmann et al., 2021;Ijichi, Griffin, Squibb, & Favier, 2018;Lundberg, Hartmann, & Roth, 2020a;Merkies & Franzin, 2021b;Payne et al., 2016). ...
... Furthermore, anecdotal reports maintain that well-handled, and positively reinforced horses, tend to show greater confidence, similar to securely attached humans. Although research suggests dogs have the ability to form attachment bonds with humans (Payne, DeAraugo, Bennett, & McGreevy, 2016), for horses it remains unclear if connections between horses and people equate to the same type of connection as within a human-human or horse-horse attachment relationship (Hartmann et al., 2021;Ijichi, Griffin, Squibb, & Favier, 2018;Lundberg, Hartmann, & Roth, 2020a;Merkies & Franzin, 2021b;Payne et al., 2016). ...
... The working model of other and notions of secure base and safe haven, providing the individual with the basis to explore and leave the proximity of the attachment figure knowing they will be there if needed (Coy, Green, & Behler, 2021;Topál et al., 2005). Correspondingly, originally it was believed attachment and exploration could not both be active at the same time ( (Bowlby J. , 1958) Payne et al., 2016. In terms of exploration, being clingy, needing touch, physical contact, and proximity, suggests not security but rather insecurity of attachment. ...
Article
Attachment Theory suggests interaction with caregivers in childhood impacts relationships and health throughout our lives (Bowlby, 1965, 1969, 1971), leaving many who have experienced insecure attachment with an inability to form healthy relationships or cope with stressors throughout their lifespan (Holmberg, Lomore, Takacs, & Price, 2011). Horses have interacted with humans for over 12,000 years (Hintz, 1995), holding multiple roles in human society, most relying on observation by humans of equine behavior, and formation of a human-equine bond (Hamilton, 2011). More securely attached humans tend to more readily decipher non-verbal cues, positively affecting their felt security and internal working model of Attachment (Bachi, 2013). Interacting with horses, who provide significant non-verbal cues, may provide an opportunity to enhance this process, providing useful feedback and insight. This study aimed to evaluate if a single ground-based encounter with a horse could bring about changes in women participants’ reports of Attachment and Emotion Regulation. It was hypothesized that participants would move towards more secure dimensions of Attachment and Emotion Regulations after the encounter with the horse and that behavioral interactions with the horse would differ for those with differing dimensions of Attachment or Emotion Regulation. This study incorporated a repeated measures mixed methods design, one twenty-eight year old Standardbred mare, “Wicky” Long Wick, interacted with 22 female university students with minimal prior equine experience aged 18-30. Participants completing a demographic and screening questionnaire along with the Experiences in Close Relationships –Revised (ECR)(Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998) and Emotion Regulation Questionnaires (ERQ)(Gross & John, 2003) at baseline, then the ECR and ERQ again both immediately prior to and immediately following encounter with the horse. The encounter was videotaped and included meeting, grooming, leading, and goodbye. Statistical analyses were completed using SPSS including paired t-tests and correlations. Videotape was evaluated, coded, and included in both quantitative and qualitative data analyses. Participants were recruited and participated in the study over the period of one calendar year. A significant decrease in Attachment anxiety was shown after encountering the horse (t(21)=2.915, p=.008 (M .237364, SD= .381941)), and significantly less time was spent between the horse and participant at goodbye than at meeting (t (21)=2.751, p=.021 (M 42.045, SD= 71.67)), particularly for those with insecure dimensions of Attachment (t (15)= 2.814, p=.013 (M= 45.75, SD=65.03)). Participants with insecure dimensions of Attachment showed significant increases in cognitive reappraisal after encountering the horse (t(14)= -3.732, p=.002 (M -.411, SD= .4266)), and the greatest decreases in Attachment Anxiety (t(14)=3.364, p=.005 (M .307, SD= .354)). The findings suggest interaction between horses and people differs along Attachment dimensions and show some support for positive changes in humans for both Attachment and Emotion Regulation dimensions after interaction with a horse.
... Creative researchers have been able to measure the strength and quality of dogs' attachment to their owners (e.g. Payne, 2016;Solomon et al., 2019;Topal, 1998). Christine Harris and Caroline Prouvost (2014) found that when owners ignored their own dogs to play with a realistic-looking stuffed dog, most dogs showed behaviors that even hard-core scientists would have to call jealousy -pushing, nosing, positioning themselves between the stuffed dog and the owner, and even attacking the offending interloper. ...
... Horse trained with positive reinforcement, however, learn more quickly, retain the learned tasks longer, experience less stress, react to humans more positively, and generalize this training across trainers and novel tasks (Sankey, 2010a;2010b). Incorporating positive reinforcement training into your daily regime makes for happier horses, reduces fear responses, and seems to be relevant in the formation of attachment bonds (Payne et al., 2016). ...
Article
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In psychology, the question of love has been most extensively explored through Attachment Theory, first proposed by John Bowlby to explain an infant’s tendency to seek proximity and form strong bonds with a caregiver who provided protection, comfort, and support. The attachment system evolved instinctively to increase the infant’s chance of survival (Bowlby 1969; 1988). Although horses may not have quite the same dependency as an infant does for a parent, they do rely on us and arguably might form an attachment bond with their caretakers. Here, I discuss the horse/human attachment question from three aspects: 1). Do we attach to horses? Probably. Research demonstrates that people attach to their companion animals, exhibiting key attachment characteristics such as Proximity Seeking (maintaining closeness), Secure Base (using the attachment figure as a base for exploration), Safe haven (seeking out the attachment figure in times of threat), and Separation anxiety (separation causes distress) (e.g. Kwong &Bartholomew, 2011). 2). Do horses attach to one another – Definitely. Horses have adapted a strong propensity to form lasting social bonds, as their survival in the herd depends upon maintaining group cohesion. Horses choose particular and often life-long friends with whom they allogroom (mutual wither and body scratching), and do so more frequently during stressful conditions and (Keison, 2023). 3). Do horses attach to us? Unlikely. Although horses are skilled at social cognition (knowing who-is-who, and their relative rank and affiliation in one’s social group) both with other horses and with humans, and may rely on us for comfort in times of stress (e.g. (DeAraugo et al., 2014), they probably do not form an enduring bond for one particular human as Bowlby defined an attachment relationship. Using evidence-based information, the article finishes with advice on how to enhance your own horse-to-human connection.
... These features have been identified in human-dog and human-cat relationships (Kurdek, 2009;Rehn & Keeling, 2016;Rockett & Carr, 2014;Zilcha-Mano et al., 2012), whereby humans seek contact and physical closeness with their pets (proximity seeking), turn to their pets for reassurance during stressful situations (secure base), feel more confident in the presence of their pets (safe haven), and experience distress when separated from their pets (separation distress). From the animal's point of view, all four features of attachment relationships have been documented in dogs (Payne et al., 2016), indicating that they do form specific and unique relationships with people. ...
... Additionally, Merkies et al. (2014) found that while horses demonstrated separation distress from humans, any human who rejoined them was sufficient to abate their distress. This supports Payne et al. (2016) review that there is a lack of clear evidence describing an attachment relationship between horses and humans. ...
... However, to learn more about the effect of domestication on human-directed sociability it is necessary to also study the motivation to interact with humans in other domesticated species. Considerable research has been done on human-animal interactions in domestic animals (e.g., farm animals: reviewed in Waiblinger et al., 2006;Zulkifli, 2013;dairy animals: reviewed in Napolitano et al., 2020;dairy cows: Ebinghaus et al., 2018;Schmitz et al., 2020;goats: reviewed in Celozzi et al., 2022;Nawroth, 2017; Costa et al., 2015;cats: reviewed in Vitale Shreve and Udell, 2015; see also Eriksson et al., 2017;Vitale Shreve et al., 2017), but studies directly comparing the human-directed sociability of other domesticated species and dogs (e.g., cats: companion pigs: Gerencsér et al., 2019;Pérez Fraga et al., 2020: horses (comparative review): Payne et al., 2016), as well as their wild counterparts whenever possible (e.g., ferrets: Hernádi et al., 2012), would be useful. This is particularly pertinent in the case of other domestic species that are kept as companion animals, and thus live in similar environments with similar experiences as dogs. ...
... Nonetheless, I will end this section by acknowledging that aai animals, particularly highly social animals such as dogs, may well find multiple benefits form their human interactions, including a positive social experience, enjoyable tactile contact, and activities which they find pleasurable, such as play (Payne et al., 2016;Nagasawa et al., 2015;Rooney et al., 2001) ...
Article
Animal assisted interventions ( AAI s) are practices used for human wellbeing, whereby interactions with non-human animals are used for therapeutic purposes. AAI s can be offered clinically, to those suffering physical or mental illness; those who have a learning disability or neurodevelopmental disorder; people requiring occupational therapy or enrichment in settings such as prisons and nursing homes, and as an adjunct to formal education in classrooms. Whilst some AAI s are low risk, AAI animals can be placed in emotionally challenging situations, or even situations where they may be at physical risk. At present, there is a paucity of literature examining the welfare of AAI animals, and the practice remains unregulated. This paper therefore discusses the potential welfare issues for animals used in ‘animal assisted interventions’, and suggests how those issues could be addressed.
... Several authors have recently proposed examining the emotional dynamics that characterise human-pet bonds through attachment theory (Beck & Madresh, 2008;Brown & Symons, 2016;Green et al., 2018;Lockyer & Oliva, 2020;Payne et al., 2016;Prato-Previde et al., 2022;Rusu et al., 2019;Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011a, 2012. Attachment theory is based on the premise that, like many other mammals, humans have an instinctual repertoire of behaviours at birth that allow them to interact and maintain physical proximity with specific figures, usually parental figures responsible for their protection and survival (Bowlby, 1982). ...
Article
The present meta-analytic review examined the associations and differences between interpersonal and pet attachment bonds, considering the attachment dimensions of anxiety and avoidance. The work complies with the PRISMA guidelines and was pre-registered on PROSPERO. The literature search was conducted by consulting the PubMed, PsycInfo, PsycArticles, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar databases, which yielded 12 studies. The meta-analyses showed a moderate positive association for the anxiety dimension (r = .39) and a weak positive association for the avoidance dimension (r = .16) between interpersonal and pet attachment. The levels for anxiety and avoidance dimensions in pet attachment were also significantly lower than those in interpersonal attachment (p-value <.001). The findings suggest that there would be moderate correspondence between the two attachment bonds for the anxiety dimension, whereas avoidance strategies might not be fully transposed to pet attachment bonds. Compared to interpersonal attachment, pet attachment also seems to be characterised by lower levels of attachment insecurity and this could be a useful element to consider in therapeutic contexts.
... Participants frequently mentioned that maintaining good standards of equine welfare was the primary responsibility of the owner. 1 However, both vets and owners highlighted the impact the horse-human relationship could have on emergency decision-making, including how owners recognised and responded to signs of colic, and whether or not they decided to pursue intensive veterinary treatment (often in conflict with their financial decisions). Though current research around the attachment between horse and owner is still limited, 21,22 this study highlighted how an owner's perceived 'bond' with their horse can impact their critical decision-making. ...
Article
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Background The survival of horses diagnosed with critical colic (requiring referral or euthanasia) relies on rapid and effective decision‐making by the owner and veterinary practitioner. Objectives To explore UK horse owners' and veterinary practitioners' experiences of decision‐making for critical cases of equine colic. Study design Qualitative study using a phenomenological approach. Methods Individual, semi‐structured telephone interviews were conducted with 14 horse owners and 13 veterinary practitioners (vets) who had experienced a critical decision (referral or euthanasia) for a horse with colic. A purposive, convenience sample of participants was recruited. Sessions explored participant's experience of colic, including recognition, help‐seeking behaviour, and challenges. Thematic analysis was performed on collected data. Results Four over‐arching themes were identified; ‘head’, ‘heart’, ‘practicalities’ and ‘impact’. Owners acknowledged responsibility for their horse's welfare but had different perspectives than vets on the importance of finance (‘head’). Both vets and owners described how the horse–human relationship (‘heart’) often led to conflict during decision‐making. The vet–client relationship was influential on decision‐making for both owners and vets; involving other people in decision‐making was described both positively and negatively by participants (‘heart’). ‘Practicalities’, such as lack of preparedness, transport issues and adverse weather conditions, were identified by both owners and vets as barriers. Owners described a ‘rollercoaster’ of emotions after a critical decision, with profound impacts on their mental wellbeing, feelings of guilt, and long‐term changes in behaviour (‘impact’), and a lack of support to manage these feelings. Main limitations Small sample size. Conclusions This study describes stakeholder decision‐making during critical cases of equine colic. Factors that commonly influenced decisions included an owner's previous knowledge and beliefs, social pressures, logistics and the relationship between the owner and vet. The study highlighted long‐term impacts on the owner, including their management and decisions for subsequent horses. These factors should be considered in shared decision‐making.
... Understanding horses' habituation and sensitization abilities is crucial for tailoring effective training methods. Positive horse training seeks to enhance learning by diminishing horses' fear of humans, which can be assessed by the quality of horse-human interaction 5,6 Behavioural tests offer a means to evaluate horses' habituation and sensitization abilities. ...
Article
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Knowing the behavioural responses of horses while planning the training processes is crucial in constituting the appropriate training program. The purpose of the study was to examine some behavioural and physiological responses of Arabian horses participating in flat races against the reactivity to human and fear tests. Within the scope of this study, 15 female Arabian horses aged between 2 and 8 years were subjected to reactivity to passive human test, reactivity to active human test, and handling tests from reactivity to human tests and the novel surface test, the static novel object test, and the startling novel object tests from fear tests. Significant relationships (P<0.05) were detected between the agonistic behaviours of horses and maximum heart rate values in the passive human test, active human test, static novel object test, and startling novel object test. Active human test, it was determined that as the agonistic behaviours of horses increased, the distance to approach humans increased (P<0.05). The novel surface test observed that as the horses' agonistic behaviours increased, the number of attempts to cross the surface successfully also increased (P<0.01). In the handling test, increased agonistic behaviours caused the test time to prolong (P<0.01). As a result, it was determined that various processes in training were prolonged in horses with high agonistic behaviours during the tests. It has also been determined that the trainability of horses may differ within the same breed and sex. For this reason, it is recommended to determine behavioural responses and to plan horse training individually. By understanding the trainability of horses, it is possible to achieve maximum efficiency for their benefit.
... Participants frequently mentioned that maintaining good standards of equine welfare was the primary responsibility of the owner. 1 However, both vets and owners highlighted the significant impact the horse-human relationship could have on emergency decision-making, including how owners recognised and responded to signs of colic, and whether or not they decided to pursue intensive veterinary treatment (often in conflict with their financial decisions). Though current research around the attachment between horse and owner is still limited [17][18] , this study highlighted how an owner's perceived 'bond' with their horse could have severe implications on their critical decision-making. ...
Preprint
Background: The survival of horses diagnosed with critical colic relies on rapid and effective decision-making by owner and veterinary practitioner. Objectives: To explore horse owners’ and veterinary practitioners’ experiences of decision-making for critical cases of equine colic. Methods : A phenomenological approach was taken. Individual, semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 14 horse owners and 13 veterinary practitioners (vets) who had experienced a critical decision (referral or euthanasia) for a horse with colic. A purposive, convenience sample of participants was recruited. Sessions explored participant’s experience of colic, including recognition, help-seeking behaviour, and challenges. Thematic analysis was performed on collected data. Results: Four over-arching themes were identified; ‘head’, ‘heart’, ‘practicalities’ and ‘impact’. Owners acknowledged responsibility for their horse’s welfare but had different perspectives to vets on the importance of finance (‘head’). Both vets and owners described how the horse-human relationship (‘heart’) often led to conflict during decision-making. The vet-client relationship was influential on decision-making for both owners and vets; involving other people in decision-making was described both positively and negatively by participants (‘heart’). ‘Practicalities’, such as lack of preparedness, transport issues and adverse weather conditions, were identified by both owners and vets as barriers. Owners described a ‘rollercoaster’ of emotions after a critical decision, with profound impacts on their mental wellbeing, feelings of guilt, and long term changes in behaviour (‘impact’), and a lack of support to manage these feelings. Main Limitations: Small sample size. Conclusions: This study describes stakeholder decision-making during critical cases of equine colic. Factors that commonly influenced decisions included an owner’s previous knowledge and beliefs, social pressures, logistics, and the relationship between owner and vet. The study highlighted long term impacts on the owner, including their management and decisions for subsequent horses. These factors should be considered and included in shared decision-making for critical cases of colic.
... Overall, both secure and ambivalent dogs displayed behaviors that were more affiliative towards the stranger (e.g., approaching more quickly, and more frequently soliciting attention from the stranger) compared to avoidant dogs. Because secure and ambivalent dogs are each classified as such in part due to their proximity-seeking to their caretaker (Payne et al., 2016), and avoidant dogs are classified in part due to their lack of proximity-seeking (Riggio et al., 2021), it is possible that this difference in behavior could carry over to an unfamiliar person. A previous study has shown that in a shelter context, proximity-seeking can be a predictor of adoption success , which may put avoidant dogs at a disadvantage for rehoming efforts. ...
Article
Much of the demand for purebred dogs in the USA is met by commercial breeding kennels (CBKs). In CBKs, adult dogs have been reported to exhibit signs of fear towards strangers. Social fear is a particular welfare concern as it may lead to acute and chronic stress in the kennel, and later, after dogs are retired and rehomed. Studies on pet and shelter dogs have shown that the type of attachment style dogs have with their caretakers is associated with their social behavior towards strangers. Thus, the aims of this study were to characterize the attachment styles of dogs from CBKs to their caretakers, and investigate relationships between the types of attachment styles observed and social fear behaviors in the dogs. Forty-eight adult dogs were tested from three CBKs in Indiana, USA. Twenty (41.67%) dogs were classified as secure, 16 (33.33%) as insecure ambivalent, 9 (18.75%) as insecure avoidant, and 3 (6.25%) as insecure disorganized. Generalized linear mixed-effects models showed that secure and ambivalent dogs approached the stranger more frequently (X2 = 24.636, p < 0.001), and solicited contact more frequently (X2 = 13.092, p = 0.004) than did avoidant dogs. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Tests showed that secure, ambivalent, and avoidant dogs all initially approached the stranger more quickly in the Paired-Effect test (when the caretaker was present) than in the Stranger Arena test (p < 0.05). Secure and ambivalent dogs also spent more time in proximity to (p < 0.001) and solicited more contact from (p < 0.01) the stranger in the Paired-Effect test than in the Stranger Arena test. These results suggest that there is an association between type of attachment style and fear behaviors towards a stranger in this sample of dogs. Understanding connections between attachment style and social fear, and their implications for stress and welfare in dogs from CBKs may help inform breeders’ socialization, social interactions, and related management practices. This in turn may help to reduce dogs’ social fear and enhance their long-term welfare outcomes in the kennel. These insights may also aid rehoming efforts, as breeders could potentially inform new owners about behaviors they might expect from their dogs, which might help avoid mismatches in expectations, and in so doing, help keep dogs in their homes.
... These relationships are shown to be important to dogs, and a fundamental part of their wellbeing [41,42]. Maintaining and nurturing these bonds through positive engagement facilitates bonding and strengthen relationships to ensure the dog feels secure and safe in the human-dog dyad [43]. Dog-dog interactions, in particular play, can be important to a dog to fulfil their social needs [44]; however, there is wide individual variability between the social needs of dogs [45,46] and it was important to reflect this in the score descriptors to ensure that the individual's preferences were taken into account. ...
Article
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Behavioural disorders in dogs are common and have severe welfare consequences for dogs. This study aimed to assess the factors that are significant and predictive of behaviour problems in dogs using the animal welfare assessment grid (AWAG) to further understand what factors influence their welfare. 177 AWAG assessments were undertaken across 129 dogs that clinicians deemed to have a behavioural disorder. Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were used to assess the difference in scores between dogs with behaviour disorders and a cohort of healthy dogs (n = 117). This analysis showed that all physical factors besides body condition, all procedural factors besides procedure pain, and all psychological, and environmental factors were significantly different between healthy dogs and dogs with behaviour disorders. Spearman rank correlation coefficient (RS) revealed several significant strong positive correlations including the procedural impact on the dog’s daily routine with aggression towards unfamiliar people and procedure pain, as well as other correlations between the dog’s behaviour during assessment with the frequency at which they encounter fears and anxieties, clinical assessment and procedure pain, and reaction to stressors and social interactions. These findings highlight the interdependent nature of the various influences of welfare. Logistic regression analysis identified that aggression towards the caregiver, fears and anxieties frequency, and choice, control, and predictability were all significant predictors of behaviour disorders. The findings have important implications for veterinary, behaviour, and animal welfare professionals as any changes across these factors may indicate poor welfare linked to emotional disorders in dogs.
... Domestic dogs are considered to be highly social and strong bonds exist between dogs and humans. These relationships are shown to be important to dogs, and a fundamental part of their wellbeing 42,43 Maintaining and nurturing these bonds through positive engagement facilitates bonding and strengthen relationships to ensure the dog feels secure and safe in the human-dog dyad 44 . Dog-dog interactions, in particular play, can be important to a dog to fulfil their social needs 45 ; however, there is wide individual variability between the social needs of dogs 46,47 and it was important to reflect this in the score descriptors to ensure that the individual's preferences were taken into account. ...
Preprint
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Behavioural disorders in dogs are common and have severe welfare consequences for dogs. This study aimed to assess the factors that are significant and predictive of behaviour problems in dogs using the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG) to further understand what factors influence their welfare. 177 AWAG assessments were undertaken across 129 dogs that clinicians deemed to have a behavioural disorder. Wilcoxon-rank sum tests were used to assess the difference in scores between dogs with behaviour disorders and a cohort of healthy dogs (n=117). This analysis showed that all physical factors besides body condition, all procedural factors besides procedure pain, and all psychological, and environmental factors were significantly different between healthy dogs and dogs with behaviour disorders. Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (RS) revealed several significant strong positive correlations including the procedural impact on the dog’s daily routine with aggression towards unfamiliar people and procedure pain, as well as other correlations between the dog’s behaviour during assessment with the frequency at which they encounter fears and anxieties, clinical assessment and procedure pain, and reaction to stressors and social interactions. These findings highlight the interdependent nature of the various influences of welfare. Logistic regression analysis identified that aggression towards the caregiver, fears and anxieties frequency, and choice, control, and predictability were all significant predictors of behaviour disorders. The findings have important implications for veterinary, behaviour, and animal welfare professionals as any changes across these factors may indicate poor welfare linked to emotional disorders in dogs.
... Figure 2 serves as a visual exploration 10 tool, paving the way for informed feature selection and highlighting critical associations 11 that may significantly influence the accuracy of our predictions regarding equine survival 12 based on past medical conditions. 13 3. ML models 14 In this section, we provide a detailed overview of the methodologies employed in 15 our study to predict horse survival based on past medical conditions. This section serves 16 as a critical foundation for understanding the technical intricacies behind our predictive 17 models. ...
Article
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Promoting sustainable equine welfare is pivotal in ensuring the well-being of horses, particularly concerning their survival based on past medical conditions. This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of various machine learning techniques employed to predict the survival prospects of horses using historical medical data. By leveraging a dataset encompassing diverse medical attributes and survival outcomes, this research assesses the efficacy and comparative performance of distinct machine learning algorithms. The study delves into the application of supervised learning models, including but not limited to decision trees, random forests, support vector machines, and neural networks, in predicting equine survival. Evaluative metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score are employed to assess the predictive capabilities and generalizability of each model. Moreover, this research emphasizes the importance of sustainable equine welfare within the broader context of responsible animal care.
... Family dogs often initially use visual information in their communication with humans (Szetei et al., 2003) and to solve basic choice tasks (Polgár et al., 2015). However, in a long process of domestication, dogs may have also become good at dealing with interspecies chemosignalling (Payne et al., 2016;Pettersson et al., 2011). Anecdotal evidence suggests that dogs may learn to anticipate the return of the owner due to the decreasing odor concentration at home (Horowitz, 2016). ...
Article
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Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have excellent olfactory processing capabilities that are utilized widely in human society e.g., working with customs, police, and army; their scent detection is also used in guarding, hunting, mold-sniffing, searching for missing people or animals, and facilitating the life of the disabled. Sniffing and searching for odors is a natural, species-typical behavior and essential for the dog's welfare. While taking advantage of this canine ability widely, we understand its foundations and implications quite poorly. We can improve animal welfare by better understanding their olfactory world. In this review, we outline the olfactory processing of dogs in the nervous system, summarize the current knowledge of scent detection and differentiation; the effect of odors on the dogs’ cognitive and emotional processes and the dog-human bond; and consider the methodological advancements that could be developed further to aid in our understanding of the canine world of odors.
... However, it has been demonstrated that non-human genetic evidence can also contribute to solving crime [1][2][3]. Dogs play a prominent role in non-human forensics, as they are popular companion animals and closely interact with humans [4][5][6]. Thus, they are likely to be involved in forensically relevant interactions, either in an active way as perpetrators, or as 'silent witnesses', by leaving biological material behind, that may serve as a link between victim, crime scene and/or suspect (e. g., [7][8][9]). DNA profiling methods to identify humans [10] have been successfully adapted in the canine forensic field [11][12][13]. ...
Article
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Predicting the outward appearance of dogs via their DNA, also known as Canine DNA Phenotyping, is a young, emerging field of research in forensic genetics. The few previous studies published in this respect were restricted to the consecutive analysis of single DNA markers, a process that is time- and sample-consuming and therefore not a viable option for limited forensic specimens. Here, we report on the development and evaluation of a Massively Parallel Sequencing (MPS) based molecular genetic assay, the LASSIE MPS Panel. This panel aims to predict externally visible as well as skeletal traits, which include coat color, coat pattern, coat structure, tail morphology, skull shape, ear shape, eye color and body size from DNA using 44 genetic markers in a single molecular genetic assay. A biostatistical naïve Bayes classification approach was applied to identify the most informative marker combinations for predicting phenotypes. Overall, the predictive performance was characterized by a very high classification success for some of the trait categories, and high to moderate success for others. The performance of the developed predictive framework was further evaluated using blind samples from three randomly selected dog individuals, whose appearance was well predicted.
... Studies have investigated human-animal bonds in non-zoo animals in a variety of contexts: between humans and their pet dogs (Payne et al., 2016); between shelter staff and shelter dogs (Bergamasco et al., 2010); in agriculture, between farmers, ranchers, and their animals (Hemsworth et al., 1989;Jago et al., 1999;Rushen et al., 1999;Boivin et al., 2000;Hemsworth, 2003;Carlstead, 2009;Hosey & Melfi, 2012); and between laboratory animals and their caregivers (Bayne, 2002;Rennie & Buchanan-Smith, 2006). However, such studies rarely clearly identify the human-animal bond, which makes it challenging to connect the existence of the bond with the potential benefits for animal welfare. ...
Article
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While the existence of human–animal relationships dates back thousands of years, the effects of these bonds on animal well-being have only recently been examined in detail. The existing literature demonstrates that factors such as familiar human caregivers and persistent, predictable care may, for example, lower an animal’s fear response and improve overall welfare. The goal of the present study was to analyse how a range of variables, including age, sex, animal species, and previous bonds with a pet could influence the development of human–animal bonds between caregivers and animals at six affiliated zoological facilities. The present study is a survey of 201 animal caregivers focusing on their perception of the bonds shared between themselves and an animal with which they work and any experience with bonds they have with a companion animal at home. All respondents, regardless of the existence of a human–animal bond, also indicated their level of agreement with a series of general statements about human–animal relationships and their effects on animal management and welfare. The present study demonstrates that the type of animal species has a significant effect on the development of bonds between animals and their human caregivers, with a greater percentage of bonds developed between people and other mammalian species, and the smaller percentage of bonds between people and fish or reptiles. Personal identifiers, such as age, sex, or the number of years in the profession, did not have any significant correlation to bond development. In addition, having pets was also not a predictor of caregiver–animal bonds, though previous experiences with animal bonds did indicate a tendency to develop a bond. Overall, surveyed caregivers agreed with positive statements about human–animal relationships and their role in promoting better welfare for animals. Understanding the bonds shared by animal caregivers and the animals for which they are responsible is essential to fostering workplaces that consider the importance of the relationship between humans and animals, and the tangible benefits a positively perceived bond can have for both.
... Similar to how Bachi (2013) explains how attachment theory applies to equine-facilitated psychotherapy, our clinical observations support the idea that attachment theory constructs-such as seeking a secure base, proximity seeking, and a safe haven-were evident in our study. As Payne et al. (2016) state, Understanding the mechanisms behind animal-human emotional bonds may lead to the development of strategies to promote functional relationships and perhaps, secure attachment. First and foremost, there is a need for horse-human attachment to be assessed directly.… ...
Article
Alternative approaches to mental health and support programming for military veterans and for officers of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) with occupational stress injuries have recently received attention in the field of post-traumatic stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the experiences of military veterans and actively serving RCMP officers with occupational stress injuries who participated in an exploratory study using an equine-assisted learning program. Using a focus group research design, 20 veterans and five RCMP officers were interviewed about their experiences in a 4-week equine-assisted learning program. A thematic content analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) method, revealed five main themes: (1) appreciation for the value of learning new skills, (2) connection with the horse in terms of the human–animal bond, (3) self-regulation and learning to “speak horse,” (4) sense of accomplishment and competence, and (5) transferable skills to everyday life. The qualitative findings of this study provide support for the use of equine-assisted learning programming with military veterans and RCMP members and demonstrate potential as an alternative therapeutic intervention for occupational stress injuries in these populations.
... Comparatively, reciprocal studies dealing with the benefit for animals of bonding with humans are rarer and focused on mammals. To investigate this bond, the separation-reunion paradigm -derived from human psychology to investigate attachment-related behaviours (Ainsworth and Bell, 1970) -has been used on farm animals and more recently on companion dogs, cats or horses (Topál et al., 2005;Nagasawa et al., 2009;Payne et al., 2016;Rehn et al., 2014;Vitale et al., 2019;Lundberg et al., 2020). In farm animals, the existence of a positive affiliative bond towards humans was recognized as beneficial for animal welfare (Rault et al., 2020). ...
Article
In mammals, human-animal bonding is recognized as a source of positive affect for companion or farm animals. Because this remains unexplored in birds, we investigated captive parrots' perspective of the human-animal relationship. We used a classical separation-reunion paradigm and predicted that variations in parrots' facial displays and behaviours would indicate their appraisal of the relationship. The test was divided into three phases of two minutes each: the bird was placed in an unfamiliar environment with a familiar caregiver (union), then the bird was left alone (separation) and finally, the caregiver returned (reunion). The test was repeated 10 times for each bird and video recorded in order to analyze their behaviour. The data show significantly higher crown and nape feather heights, higher redness of the skin and higher frequency of contact-seeking behaviours during the union and reunion phases than during the separation phase during which they expressed long distance contact calls. We observed the expression of eye pinning during the union and reunion phases in one out of five macaws. We argue that variation in facial displays provides indicators of parrot's positive appraisal of the caretaker presence. Our results broaden the scope for further studies on parrots' expression of their subjective feelings.
... Researchers have suggested that bonding behaviors (e.g., physical touch, positive reinforcement) exhibited between animal and human can aid in forming an attachment (Payne et al., 2015). Bowlby's (1969Bowlby's ( , 1982) work with parent-child attachment relationships has been applied to the development of these relationships between humans and animals (Payne et al., 2015;Payne, DeAraugo, Bennett, & McGreevy, 2016) specifically useful in animal-assisted interventions (AAI) in which the primary focus is to assess the benefits of human-animal interaction (HAI). A current question surrounding attachment concerns what behaviors help form these attachment relationships. ...
Article
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The growing interest in the mechanisms through which human-animal interaction (HAI) benefits humans suggests that new measures are needed to assess human bonding, especially to non-owned animals (i.e., animals that are not the human’s pet). The current study addressed this need by developing and testing a new measure to assess human bonding behavior with non-owned animals, during an animal-assisted intervention that incorporated shelter dogs. An observational measure, a 12-item Bonding with Dog Checklist (BoDC), was created based on prior work on dog bonding and attachment. Participants in the study were incarcerated adolescents residing in two juvenile detention centers (N = 131). An Exploratory Factor Analysis resulted in a final 7-item measure with a single factor structure and good inter-item reliability ( alpha = .864). Raters used the 7-item BoDC to assess bonding of youth with dogs as they trained or walked shelter dogs during a 10-week intervention. Seventeen raters were trained in use of the observational measure and attended weekly supervision meetings. BoDC scores increased over the sessions and the BoDC was moderately correlated with a measure of dog attachment in the first half of the intervention, providing some evidence for construct validity. These results provide preliminary evidence for the BoDC as a reliable and valid measure to assess human bonding to animals that are not their personal companions.
... For example, dog owners gain social support in light of their bond with pet dogs, and may reduce their risk of cardiovascular diseases on account of the increased physical activity arising from exercising with the dogs (Mubanga et al., 2017). The psychological benefits of pet attachment have been validated in different pet types (Martens et al., 2016;Oyama et al., 2017;Payne et al., 2016). Previous studies have shown that men are less attached to pets than women (Winefield et al., 2008), and that owners are more attached to pet dogs than other pet types (Westgarth et al., 2010). ...
Article
Multispecies leisure has recently become an area of attention. Pet-keeping is one of the popular leisure activities today. This study aims to explore the relationship between pet attachment and life satisfaction, with particular focus on the mediating effect of the leisure seriousness and rewards on the relationship mentioned above. A total of 275 responses were collected at a pet exhibition. SEM and SPSS were employed for data analysis. The results revealed that pet attachment is positively related to pet owners’ life satisfaction. The effects of leisure seriousness, personal reward, and social reward were shown to mediate the relationship between pet attachment and life satisfaction. The pet-keeping practices during the COVID-19 pandemic are provided based the serious leisure perspective.
... Interestingly, there is research in social neuroscience that identifies neural pathways associated with attachment patterns (96) and how dysfunctional attachment patterns impact interpersonal interactions [see (81,97) for more details]. Indeed, while the ability of domestic animals to provide a safe-haven and secure-base for humans is well documented (98)(99)(100), the moderating role of attachment styles of pet owners to the animal is not solely an extension of the general interpersonal attachment patterns that we have identified in humans (101). Additional studies thus appear warranted with regard to specific qualities of the human-animal bond. ...
Article
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The Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions (IMHAI) described herewith provides a conceptual framework for the study of interspecies interactions and aims to model the primary emotional processes involved in human-animal interactions. This model was developed from theoretical inputs from three fundamental disciplines for understanding interspecies interactions: neuroscience, psychology and ethology, with the objective of providing a transdisciplinary approach on which field professionals and researchers can build and collaborate. Seminal works in affective neuroscience offer a common basis between humans and animals and, as such, can be applied to the study of interspecies interactions from a One Health-One Welfare perspective. On the one hand, Jaak Panksepp's research revealed that primary/basic emotions originate in the deep subcortical regions of the brain and are shared by all mammals, including humans. On the other hand, several works in the field of neuroscience show that the basic physiological state is largely determined by the perception of safety. Thus, emotional expression reflects the state of an individual's permanent adaptation to ever-changing environmental demands. Based on this evidence and over 5 years of action research using grounded theory, alternating between research and practice, the IMHAI proposes a systemic approach to the study of primary-process emotional affects during interspecies social interactions, through the processes of emotional transfer, embodied communication and interactive emotional regulation. IMHAI aims to generate new hypotheses and predictions on affective behavior and interspecies communication. Application of such a model should promote risk prevention and the establishment of positive links between humans and animals thereby contributing to their respective wellbeing.
... Several surveys have reported changes to dogs' routines, including decreased time left alone, differences in walking patterns and training and fewer opportunities to socialise with other dogs [16,[36][37][38][39][40][41]. Due to the strong attachment bond of pet dogs and their owners [42], increased contact would initially seem like a positive change, especially if they are usually left alone for extended time periods [43]. However, increased exposure to physical contact and decreased time exercising outside and socialising may exasperate behavioural difficulties in adult dogs or increase the chance of behavioural problems in puppies [44]. ...
Article
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Background The COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have affected the welfare and health of dogs due to surges in adoptions and purchases, changes in the physical and mental health and financial status of dog owners, changes in dogs’ lifestyle and routines and limited access to veterinary care. The aims of this study were to investigate whether COVID-19 restrictions were associated with differences in Labrador retrievers’ lifestyle, routine care, insurance status, illness incidence or veterinary attendance with an illness, who were living in England and enrolled in Dogslife, an owner-based cohort study. Longitudinal questionnaire data from Dogslife that was relevant to the dates between the 23rd of March and the 4th of July 2020, during COVID-19 restrictions in England, were compared to data between the same dates in previous years from 2011 to 2019 using mixed regression models and adjusted chi-squared tests. Results Compared with previous years (March 23rd to July 4th, 2010 to 2019), the COVID-19 restrictions study period (March 23rd to July 4th 2020) was associated with owners reporting increases in their dogs’ exercise and worming and decreases in insurance, titbit-feeding and vaccination. Odds of owners reporting that their dogs had an episode of coughing (0.20, 95% CI: 0.04–0.92) and that they took their dogs to a veterinarian with an episode of any illness (0.58, 95% CI: 0.45–0.76) were lower during the COVID-19 restrictions compared to before. During the restrictions period, owners were less likely to report that they took their dogs to a veterinarian with certain other illnesses, compared to before this period. Conclusions Dogslife provided a unique opportunity to study prospective questionnaire data from owners already enrolled on a longitudinal cohort study. This approach minimised bias associated with recalling events prior to the pandemic and allowed a wider population of dogs to be studied than is available from primary care data. Distinctive insights into owners’ decision making about their dogs’ healthcare were offered. There are clear implications of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions for the lifestyle, care and health of dogs.
... Dogs form deep attachment bonds with their owners [125] and show differential behaviors to humans with different degrees of familiarity [126]. However, the method presented here aims to establish this bond with the human figure and not with a particular human (the trainer), thus facilitating the establishment of future bonding units with the handlers and other humans in the DAI. ...
Article
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Dog-assisted interventions (DAI) are those that include specially trained dogs in human health services. Often, the training methods employed to train animals for DAI are transmitted between trainers, so the latest scientific research on dog learning and cognition is not always taken into account. The present work aims to evaluate the impact that the main theories on the evolution of the dog have had both in promoting different training methods and in the relevance of behavior in the evolution of the skills of actual dogs. Then, an integrative method for the training of dogs is presented. This method takes into account the research on dog learning mechanisms and cognition processes, and effectively promotes the development of desirable behaviors for DAI during the dog’s ontogeny.
... Therefore, this study explored differences and similarities between two species -a dog and a horse -in the context of an AAI. These species were chosen because they are common intervention animals (Fine, 2015) and researchers suggest differences in human-dog versus human-horse interaction and attachment (e.g., Payne, DeAraugo, Bennett, & McGreevy, 2016). ...
Article
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This research introduces the anodyne-agent model as a framework for conceptualizing the animal's role in animal-assisted interventions. The model suggests animals assist interventions aimed at human health and well-being by (a) enhancing positive emotion and decreasing negative emotion, and/or (b) serving as agents in the therapeutic process. An experiment is described to demonstrate the anodyne-agent model. This investigation engaged 45 women and men in a between-groups, posttest-only experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (i.e., a horse, a dog, or a no-animal control condition). Dependent measures included quantity of human-animal interaction measured with the Human-Animal Interaction Scale, positive and negative emotion measured with the Modified Dimensional Emotions Scale, and psychosocial learning measured via participant qualitative report. Results showed positive emotion was higher following sessions with an animal and correlated with quantity of human-animal interaction. Psychosocial learning differed by condition and was also associated with human-animal interaction. Findings illustrate the utility of the anodyne-agent model. Replication with larger, more diverse samples is warranted.
... In other words, entrainment suggests that the functioning of a human's psychophysiology may have an effect on the health of the animal. For example, it has been suggested that the emotional state of humans may have an impact on interactions between humans and horses [18,20], which may have implications for animal welfare [21]. A review of HHIs in various environments where horses are considered in these various roles and what they might reveal about the welfare of the horse is therefore warranted. ...
Article
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Human–horse interactions (HHIs) are diverse and prominent in the equine industry. Stakeholders have an invested interest in making sure that HHIs are humane. Assessment of equine welfare goes beyond physical health and includes assessment of the emotional state of the animal. HHIs can have a permanent effect on human–horse relationships, thereby influencing welfare. Therefore, an understanding of the horse’s affective state during HHIs is necessary. A scoping review was conducted to: (1) map current practices related to the measurement of HHIs; (2) explore the known effects of HHIs on horse behaviour and physiology; and (3) clarify the connection between HHIs and equine welfare. A total of 45 articles were included in this review. Studies that used both physiological and behavioural measures of equine response to human interactions accounted for 42% of the included studies. A further 31% exclusively used physiological measures and 27% used behavioural observation. Current evidence of equine welfare during HHIs is minimal and largely based on the absence of a negative affective state during imposed interactions. Broadening the scope of methods to evaluate a positive affective state and standardization of methodology to assess these states would improve the overall understanding of the horse’s welfare during HHIs.
... In this study, the equine professionals focused one hundred percent on gently guiding the participants to ensure that their behaviors did not cause any safety issues and to encourage a positive experience. According to Payne et al. [39], attachment between horses and humans has received little attention in the literature. However, in the last few years, more interest in this topic has surfaced [40]. ...
Article
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Assisted living is a fast-growing living option for seniors who require residence-based activities for maintaining mental and physical health. Guided equine interactions may benefit seniors, so an on-site equine program was started at Hacienda at the River senior living community. For research purposes, twenty-four residents and associates, aged fifty-five or over, consented to physiological measurements before, during and after four guided sessions of stroking one of three horses for 10 min over 4–6 weeks. Heart rate variability (HRV) was measured simultaneously in humans and horses during interactions. We hypothesized that human heart rate (HR) and HRV would increase during stroking and HRV power would shift toward the very low frequency (VLF) range common in horses, indicative of healthy function. During stroking, human HR increased (p < 0.05) but HRV (SDRR) and %VLF of HRV power did not change. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP), an exploratory measure, significantly increased after stroking, consistent with arousal. Two horses showed no significant changes in HR or HRV, but one relaxed. Sixteen horse–human pairs demonstrated synchronized HRV peak frequencies during sessions, suggestive of social connection. Participants used more positive than negative words describing their experience during exit interviews (p < 0.05). These data show that horses animate seniors without causing emotional stress and provide opportunities for social bonding.
... Finally, separation from the attachment figure is distressing and it has been reported that the absence of the owner can trigger behaviours indicative of separation anxiety in dogs and cats (Payne et al., 2015;Schwartz, 2003;Topál et al., 1998). Payne et al. (2016) explored the literature to find indications of horse-human attachment but no clear evidence was found. ...
Thesis
Throughout most of our common history, companion animals have played an important role in the lives of humans. As humans and animals evolved, so did the human-animal relationship. Different theoretical frameworks have been used to explain the potential beneficial effects of the emotional aspect of the human-animal relationship that we know as the Human-Animal Bond. This thesis examines these benefits in two novel scenarios, focusing on people (and animals) having to deal with challenging circumstances. Both studies explore the HAB in specific situations and reflect on the meaning of that bond for the humans and animals involved.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a horse therapy training program on some psychological indicators and sensory-motor function in aggressive children. The present study was a comparative, applied research. Participants consisted of twenty aggressive children aged 4 to 6 years selected by purposive sampling method. They were randomly divided into experimental group (n=10) and control group (n=10). The research instruments included Connor's neuropsychological test, Aggression Questionnaire in preschool children, and Spence children's anxiety scale for parents. The protocol was performed twice per week (two-hour sessions) for sixteen weeks.. After the intervention, the experimental and control groups were compared using analysis of covariance. Findings showed that a course of equine therapy training program has an effect on psychological indicators and sensory-motor function of aggressive children (P <0.01). The use of equine therapy protocol is effective in improving the treatment process of aggression and associated psychological factors such as attention deficit and anxiety (P> 0.05). Based on this finding, the level of attention also shows improvement after the treatment period. It seems that equine therapy can improve attention and reduce aggression in children. Therefore, it is recommended that psychotherapists use these exercises along with other pediatric interventions to improve attention and reduce aggression.
Article
Knowing the behavioural responses of horses while planning the training processes is crucial in constituting the appropriate training program. For this purpose, behavioural tests are used. 2-8 years old, fifteen female Arabian horses participated in the study. Reactivity to Human and Fear Tests were applied within the scope of Behavioural Tests. Significant relationships (p
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The UK homeless population is increasing. Companion animal ownership amongst homeless people is not uncommon, but the positive and negative consequences of this association for both humans and animals are unknown. We conducted semi-structured interviews with homeless dog owners covering how their dog impacted them, and how they met the dog’s welfare needs. Twenty-one homeless dog owners were recruited via a dog welfare charity that works with homeless people and their dogs. The interviews were transcribed and analysed thematically. Dogs were reported to provide similar benefits to dogs owned in households, but additionally owner believed they helped facilitate routine, assisted them through mental health issues and provided continuous emotional support. Owners noted difficulties accessing long- and short-term accommodation, and services, such as shops, due to their dog, and generally only entrusted other individuals to look after their dog in urgent cases. All the dogs were reported to receive veterinary care as needed, were treated against parasites, and fed adequately. The main concern expressed by owners was providing somewhere adequately warm and large for their dog to sleep, but we suggest access to a safe place to avoid frightening stimuli may also be important. During the interviews owners used the dog to facilitate discussion about themselves, allowing many to open-up about the difficulties of their past, and potential future. Our findings can be used to help direct how homeless charities can best help dog owners in the future.
Chapter
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The relationship between horses and human is unique over the course of the story. The first researchers focused on the horse-human bond as a friendship and believed that it improved the welfare of horses. Today, the role of horses is different from that of history. However, the overall perception is that the horse-human connection requires significant interpretation and explanation. The most important aspect of communicating with the horse is that it is silent. To achieve that, the well-being of horses must develop a good physiological and psychological awareness. To this end, the advancement of sensors and wearable technology creates a facility for measuring and exploring the natural environment. Among the amazing advancements in this area are smartphones, flat screens, high-speed cameras, analog software, GPS tracking, and Bluetooth. You can proceed the way the horse-human link functions, plays, and communicates faster. However, new technologies for horses' well-being can have a positive and negative impact on the sport, their health, and the relationship between horses and humans. In this chapter, we will attempt to explain the emphasis put on the importance of the horse-human bond and interaction for animal beings. Furthermore, we will review the roles of new technologies in the physiological and psychological situations of the horse, and studies of horse-human connection belong to recent research. In this way, we will have put a vision on the side of animals on the horse and the human connection and interaction.
Chapter
The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) plays a unique role in human society, functioning primarily as a social companion in millions of households worldwide. Considering this special relationship, researchers have examined the various ways in which dogs interact with humans and how these interactions may facilitate or even stem from an underlying attachment between dogs and humans. As a result, many different measures have been developed to evaluate how various factors influence dog-human attachment and interactions. Current advancements in the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in dogs have also allowed researchers to explore relationships between neural and behavioral responses, demonstrating additional evidence for dog-human attachment. In this chapter, we discuss different measures that have been used to evaluate various aspects of the dog-human bond and how fMRI can provide new insights in this area of research. Specifically, multimodal approaches combining behavioral and cognitive measures with fMRI provide the most comprehensive method of evaluating dog-human attachment. Additional considerations, such as utilizing neural models of human attachment as a reference for canine models and specific study designs that could be used to measure the neural attachment network in dogs, are also discussed to help inform future research on the dog-human bond.KeywordsDog fMRIDog-human attachmentDomestic dogSocial cognition
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Research investigating health benefits from household human–animal bonds has focused mostly on bonds with companion dogs, cats, and horses. Wellbeing benefits associated with other companion animal species such as birds, fish, and reptiles are described and anecdotally reported, but there is little empirical literature supporting this. The literature suggests that health benefits of companion animals are predicated on human perceptions of the animal rather than the animal’s species. Therefore, relationships with non-conventional companion animals of diverse species may benefit the health of their human guardians as do dogs, cats, and horses. This narrative review summarizes the current literature exploring perceived health benefits gained from non-conventional companion animals. Searches were conducted for published literature and grey literature up to October 2022 across PsycINFO and PubMed databases, and Newsbank media database for commercial media publications. Nineteen studies and 10 media articles were included in the review. Gaps in the literature include a lack of rigorous research to investigate the health benefits of non-conventional companion animals. Non-conventional companion animals may benefit their guardians by providing social support through acting as attachment figures, facilitating social opportunities and daily routines, fulfilling cognitive needs, and recreating restorative capacities of mindfully observing natural landscapes. Further high-quality research into the human-non-conventional companion animal bond is warranted.
Article
The review provides an overview of the current literature concerning the use of horses in equine-assisted services (EAS) and of their effects on humans, and it focuses on their effects on horses. The scientific contributions on EAS are discussed and it is underlined the need to monitor the ability of horses to cope with stress conditions during activity in order to maintain and enhance their welfare. The changes of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis’ hormones and of total and free iodothyronines during therapeutic riding are presented and critically discussed. The hypothesis of the utilization of Triodothyronine (T3) and free Triiodothyronine (fT3) as markers to assess the mental stress of therapeutic horses during EAS is presented.
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Human-dog attachment is a special relationship and has been studied from various perspectives. Attachment or social bonding has a positive effect on the psychological and physiological wellbeing of a dog owner, increasing physical health and quality of life. Attachment is idiosyncratic, induced by neuroendocrinological functions like an oxytocin increase after an interaction, but also based on subjective perceptions of the quality of bonding and relationship. Dog-owner attachment was measured in this study using the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale in its validated German version as a tool to compare owner perception with factual movement data of their dog. The question posed was whether the perceived dog behaviour impacted on the attachment score as assessed through the LAPS. The authors could show that perceived problematical or unwanted conduct, like hunting behaviour, had a negative effect on LAPS scores whereas perceived obedient behaviour had a positive effect upon attachment. The authors found that actual walking data of the dogs were not in congruence with owner assessments. Thus, owner reports alone possibly will not be a sufficient measure of dog-human relationships and animal behaviour.
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Background The COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have affected the welfare and health of dogs, due to surges in adoptions and purchases, changes in the physical and mental health and financial status of dog owners, changes in dogs’ lifestyle and routines and limited access to veterinary care. Research is needed to be able to assess the extent of these effects. The aims of this study were to investigate whether COVID-19 restrictions were associated with differences in Labrador Retrievers’ lifestyle, routine care, insurance status, illness incidence or veterinary attendance with an illness, who were living in England and enrolled in Dogslife, an owner-based cohort study. Longitudinal questionnaire data from Dogslife that was relevant to the dates between the 23rd of March and the 4th of July 2020, during COVID-19 restrictions in England, were compared to data between the same dates in previous years from 2011 to 2019 using mixed regression models and adjusted chi-squared tests. Results The COVID-19 restrictions study period (March 23rd to July 4th 2020) was associated with owners who enrolled in Dogslife reporting increases in dogs’ exercise and worming and decreases in insurance, titbit-feeding and vaccination, in comparison with previous years (March 23rd to July 4th, 2010 to 2019). There were decreased odds of owners reporting that their dogs had an episode of coughing (0.20, 95% CI: 0.04 – 0.92) and that they took their dog to a veterinarian with an episode of any illness (0.58, 95% CI: 0.45 – 0.76) during the COVID-19 restrictions and owners were even less likely to take their dog to a veterinarian with certain illnesses. Conclusions Dogslife provided a unique opportunity to study prospective questionnaire data from owners already enrolled on a longitudinal cohort study, which minimised bias associated with recalling events prior to the pandemic, allowed a wider population of dogs to be studied than is available from primary care data and offered unique insights into owners’ decision making about their dogs’ healthcare. There are clear implications of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions for the lifestyle, care and health of dogs.
Article
Many dogs are left alone at home by their owners for several hours on a daily basis. This practice is known to be a possible source of complication in dog keeping. Behaviourists and veterinarians are frequently consulted due to excessive vocalisations, destructive behaviour and house-soiling of dogs left alone by their owners. These observations are thought to be symptoms of a disorder which most authors refer to as separation anxiety or separation related behaviour. Little is known about dogs, which showed mostly inconspicuous behaviour during separation, and possible effects of the presence of conspecifics in multi-dog households, which may help coping with separation. Therefore, we videotaped 32 dogs in single-dog and 45 dogs in multi-dog households left home alone as part of their usual routine. We performed a continuous sampling of location, posture, vocalization, and various other behaviours. Calculating and comparing percentages of observation time we tested possible effects of familiar conspecifics, and investigated the effects of sex and neuter status, variables that are discussed to have an influence on the onset of separation anxiety. In general, our dogs showed low physical activity as well as a low vocal activity, independent from the time being alone. Male dogs in multi-dog households showed a significantly higher vocal activity. A further sex related difference was that male dogs were more prone to stay at the exit-door. This bias may be due to sex-specific motivations but seems to get stronger with increasing duration of separation. Dogs in multi-dog households showed a significant higher activity (single dog: 15.3 ± 14.3, multi-dog: 27.5 ± 26.1 mean ± SD). The major difference in activity was found in the first hour of being alone and interactions with other pets played only a marginal role even in multi-dog households (0.24 ± 0.6). Whining was not reduced by the presence of familiar conspecifics. Further research is needed to see if familiar conspecifics facilitate coping with separation from humans in this context. Our data suggest rather the opposite.
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The authors have claimed that emotional intelligence (EI) meets traditional standards for an intelligence (J. D. Mayer, D. R. Caruso, & P. Salovey, 1999). R. D. Roberts, M. Zeidner, and G. Matthews (2001) questioned whether that claim was warranted. The central issue raised by Roberts et al. concerning Mayer et al. (1999) is whether there are correct answers to questions on tests purporting to measure EI as a set of abilities. To address this issue (and others), the present authors briefly restate their view of intelligence, emotion, and EI. They then present arguments for the reasonableness of measuring EI as an ability, indicate that correct answers exist, and summarize recent data suggesting that such measures are, indeed, reliable.
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The aim of this study was to examine the predictive role of attachment on different dimensions (emotional attention, clarity and repair) of perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) when variables such as gender and age were controlled. For this purpose, 144 university students completed the Trait-Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) and the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR). The results indicated that security in attachment, as opposed to insecurity, was related to higher scores in two of the PEI dimensions (emotional attention and clarity). These results varied depending on whether categorical or dimensional attachment measures were used, particularly when they were compared to emotional repair. The study reveals the need to consider the attachment dimensions of anxiety and avoidance, together with other variables, as PEI predictors.
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Our model outlines the cognitive operations, response strategies, and dynamics of the attachment system in adulthood. It also describes the goals of each attachment strategy and their psychological manifestations and consequences. Whereas the goals of security-based strategies are to form intimate relationships, to build a person's psychological resources, and to broaden his or her perspectives and capacities, the goal of secondary attachment strategies is to manage attachment-system activation and reduce or eliminate the pain caused by frustrated proximity-seeking attempts. Hyperactivating strategies keep the person focused on the search for love and security, and constantly on the alert for threats, separations, and betrayals. Deactivating strategies keep the attachment system in check, with serious consequences for cognitive and emotional openness. This framework serves as our "working model" for understanding the activation and functioning of the attachment system in adulthood. It also provides a framework for reviewing our research findings, which is the mission of the next section.
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This study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and attachment styles in delinquent adolescents. In this study 75 delinquent adolescents were selected by means of accessible sampling procedure from Remedial and Training Institute of delinquent adolescents in Iran. These adolescents completed measures of Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey et al., 1995), and Revised Attachment Scale (Collins, 1996). Analysis of data with utilization of multiple regression analysis revealed that emotional intelligence of delinquent adolescents can be predicted from the magnitude of their attachment styles. Moreover, data revealed that delinquent adolescents with anxious attachment were lower in emotional intelligence than individuals with a secure attachment style. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.
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Domestication is thought to have influenced the cognitive abilities of dogs underlying their communication with humans, but little is known about its effect on their interactions with conspecifics. Since domestication hypotheses offer limited predictions in regard to wolf-wolf compared to dog-dog interactions, we extend the cooperative breeding hypothesis suggesting that the dependency of wolves on close cooperation with conspecifics, including breeding but also territory defense and hunting, has created selection pressures on motivational and cognitive processes enhancing their propensity to pay close attention to conspecifics' actions. During domestication, dogs' dependency on conspecifics has been relaxed, leading to reduced motivational and cognitive abilities to interact with conspecifics. Here we show that 6-month-old wolves outperform same aged dogs in a two-action-imitation task following a conspecific demonstration. While the wolves readily opened the apparatus after a demonstration, the dogs failed to solve the problem. This difference could not be explained by differential motivation, better physical insight of wolves, differential developmental pathways of wolves and dogs or a higher dependency of dogs from humans. Our results are best explained by the hypothesis that higher cooperativeness may come together with a higher propensity to pay close attention to detailed actions of others and offer an alternative perspective to domestication by emphasizing the cooperativeness of wolves as a potential source of dog-human cooperation.
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The possible relationship between companion animal behavior and owner attachment levels has received surprisingly little attention in the literature on human-companion animal interactions, despite its relevance to our understanding of the potential benefits of pet ownership, and the problems associated with pet loss, or the premature abandonment and disposal of companion animals. The present study describes a preliminary investigation of this topic involving a questionnaire survey of 37 dog owners and 47 cat owners exactly 1 year after they acquired pets from animal shelters. The results demonstrate a number of highly significant differences in owners' assessments of the behavior of dogs and cats, particularly with respect to playfulness (Mann-Whitney U Test, P = 0.125), confidence (P < 0.001), affection (P = 0.002), excitability (P = 0.018), activity (P = 0.002), friendliness to strangers (P < 0.001), intelligence (P = 0.02), and owner-directed aggression (P = 0.002). However, few differences were noted between dog and cat owners in terms of their perceptions of what constitutes ‘ideal’ pet behavior. The findings also suggest that dog owners who report weaker attachments for their pets are consistently less satisfied with most aspects of their dogs' behavior compared with those who report stronger attachments. Weakly attached cat owners are significantly more dissatisfied with the levels of affection shown by their pets (P = 0.0186), but in other respects they are far less consistent than dog owners.
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This study explored links between emotional intelligence, measured as a set of abilities, and personality traits, as well as the contribution of both to the perceived quality of one's interpersonal relationships. In a sample of 103 college students, we found that both emotional intelligence and personality traits were associated with concurrent self-reports of satisfaction with social relationships. Individuals scoring highly on the managing emotions subscale of the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), were more likely to report positive relations with others, as well as perceived parental support, and less likely to report negative interactions with close friends. These associations remained statistically significant even controlling for significant Big Five personality traits and verbal intelligence. Global satisfaction with one's relationships was associated with extraversion, neuroticism (negatively), and the ability to manage one's emotions, as assessed by the MSCEIT.
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The intensity with which the horse reacts to novelty is crucial for safety of both horse and human. The aim of the study was to examine: (1) whether horses' fear reactions to a startling novel object diminish with successive test days and (2) whether the active human handling leads to the decrease of the fear-related responses of the horse. Eight adult horses were submitted daily to 5-minutes exposition to a novel object (NO) - open umbrella - for 5 consecutive days when released (Trial 1) and for 5 consecutive days when held by the handler (Trial 2), with 2-days break between Trials. Startle reaction score (SR), latency to touch the novel object (LNO), mean heart rate (HR) during 6 minutes of the tests, the percentage of time the horse spent standing, on locomotor activity (walk, trot, gallop) or on vigilance (vigilant standing, sustained walk) were analysed. The SR and LNO during Trial 1 did not change in consecutive test days. The NO provoked higher HR (P<0.05 ) and intense vigilant standing at the beginning of the study (P<0.01). Per cent of time of sustained walking, standing, trotting and galloping did not differ between days during Trial 1. The SR during Trial 2 differed neither within nor between Trials. The horses approached NO when handled as compared to almost no approach when not held by the handler (P<0.05). With each day of the Trial 2 the horses approached quicker the umbrella (P<0.05). The HR was lower than in the Trial 1 (P<0.05) but did not differ within the Trial 2. This study revealed that horses habituated to a startling event as expressed by a decrease in HR and vigilant behaviour. Gentle and repeated handling facilitates habituation to a novel situation and/or stimuli.
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The use of massage (as a potential form of acupressure) has long been documented as a human relaxation aid. However, little scientific research has been carried out into its potential use as a form of stress reduction in the horse. This preliminary study investigated the effect of massage at six different sites (thoracic trapezius [withers], mid-brachiocephalicus, cervical ventral serrate and cervical trapezius [mid-neck], proximal gluteal fascia and proximal superficial gluteal [croup], proximal and mid-semitendinosus [second thigh], lateral triceps, proximal extensor carpi radialis and proximal common digital extensor [forearm], proximal brachiocephalicus, proximal splenius and ear [poll and ears) on stress-related behavioral and physiological (heart rate [HR]) measures in the horse. Ten riding school ponies/horses were massaged at each of the six sites (three preferred and three nonpreferred sites of allogrooming (mutual grooming between conspecifics) and changes in HR and behavior were recorded. The results indicated that during massage, all sites except the forearm resulted in a significant reduction in HR (P < .05) with massage at the withers, mid-neck, and croup having the greatest effect (preferred sites of allogrooming). Massage at preferred sites of allogrooming also elicited significantly more (P < .05) positive behavioral responses compared with the three nonpreferred sites. The practical implications of this study are discussed.
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Despite a long history of human-horse relationship, horse-related incidents and accidents do occur amongst professional and non professional horse handlers. Recent studies show that their occurrence depend more on the frequency and amount of interactions with horses than on the level of competency, suggesting a strong need for specific research and training of individuals working with horses. In the present study, we review the current scientific knowledge on human-horse relationships. We distinguish here short occasional interactions with familiar or unfamiliar horses (e.g. veterinary inspection) and long-term bonds (e.g. horse-owner).
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Background It has been suggested that dogs display a secure base effect similar to that found in human children (i.e., using the owner as a secure base for interacting with the environment). In children, this effect influences their daily lives and importantly also their performance in cognitive testing. Here, we investigate the importance of the secure base effect for dogs in a problem-solving task. Methodology/Principal Findings Using a manipulative task, we tested dogs in three conditions, in which we varied the owner's presence and behavior (Experiment 1: “Absent owner”, “Silent owner”, “Encouraging owner”) and in one additional condition, in which the owner was replaced by an unfamiliar human (Experiment 2: “Replaced owner”). We found that the dogs' duration of manipulating the apparatus was longer when their owner was present than absent, irrespective of the owner's behavior. The presence of an unfamiliar human however did not increase their manipulation. Furthermore, the reduced manipulation during the absence of the owner was not correlated with the dog's degree of separation distress scored in a preceding attachment experiment. Conclusions/Significance Our study is the first to provide evidence for an owner-specific secure base effect in dogs that extends from attachment tests to other areas of dogs' lives and also manifests itself in cognitive testing – thereby confirming the remarkable similarity between the secure base effect in dogs and in human children. These results also have important implications for behavioral testing in dogs, because the presence or absence of the owner during a test situation might substantially influence dogs' motivation and therefore the outcome of the test.
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Simple Summary This article discusses the impacts of arousal and emotional state on training animals using methods based on reward and punishment. Three-dimensional graphs are provided to offer a visual means to illustrate how arousal and emotional state may influence the effectiveness of reward and punishment depending on the behaviour being trained. Dogs and horses are used to illustrate this with reference to commonly trained behaviours in a predatory and a prey animal. Abstract Animal training relies heavily on an understanding of species-specific behaviour as it integrates with operant conditioning principles. Following on from recent studies showing that affective states and arousal levels may correlate with behavioural outcomes, we explore the contribution of both affective state and arousal in behavioural responses to operant conditioning. This paper provides a framework for assessing how affective state and arousal may influence the efficacy of operant training methods. It provides a series of three-dimensional conceptual graphs as exemplars to describing putative influences of both affective state and arousal on the likelihood of dogs and horses performing commonly desired behaviours. These graphs are referred to as response landscapes, and they highlight the flexibility available for improving training efficacy and the likely need for different approaches to suit animals in different affective states and at various levels of arousal. Knowledge gaps are discussed and suggestions made for bridging them.
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The secure base and safe haven effects of the attachment figure are central features of the human attachment theory. Recently, conclusive evidence for human analogue attachment behaviours in dogs has been provided, however, the owner's security-providing role in danger has not been directly supported. We investigated the relationship between the behavioural and cardiac response in dogs (N = 30) while being approached by a threatening stranger in separation vs. in the presence of the owner, presented in a balanced order. Non-invasive telemetric measures of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) data during the threatening approaches was compared to periods before and after the encounters. Dogs that showed distress vocalisation during separation (N = 18) and that growled or barked at the stranger during the threatening approach (N = 17) were defined as behaviourally reactive in the given situation. While characteristic stress vocalisations were emitted during separations, the absence of the owner did not have an effect on dogs' mean HR, but significantly increased the HRV. The threatening approach increased dogs' mean HR, with a parallel decrease in the HRV, particularly in dogs that were behaviourally reactive to the encounter. Importantly, the HR increase was significantly less pronounced when dogs faced the stranger in the presence of the owner. Moreover, the test order, whether the dog encountered the stranger first with or without its owner, also proved important: HR increase associated with the encounter in separation seemed to be attenuated in dogs that faced the stranger first in the presence of their owner. We provided evidence for human analogue safe haven effect of the owner in a potentially dangerous situation. Similarly to parents of infants, owners can provide a buffer against stress in dogs, which can even reduce the effect of a subsequent encounter with the same threatening stimuli later when the owner is not present.
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The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) is increasingly being used to study attachment between dogs and humans. It has been developed from the Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure, which is used extensively to investigate attachment between children and their parents. In this experiment, 12 female beagle dogs were tested in two treatments to identify possible order effects in the test, a potential weakness in the SSP. In one treatment (FS), dogs participated together with a 'familiar person' and a 'stranger'. In a control treatment (SS), the same dogs participated together with two unfamiliar people, 'stranger A' and 'stranger B'. Comparisons were made between episodes within as well as between treatments. As predicted in FS, dogs explored more in the presence of the familiar person than the stranger. Importantly, they also explored more in the presence of stranger A (who appeared in the same order as the familiar person and followed the same procedure) than stranger B in SS. Furthermore, comparisons between treatments, where a familiar person was present in FS and stranger A was present in SS, showed no differences in exploration. In combination, these results indicate that the effect of a familiar person on dogs' exploratory behaviour, a key feature when assessing secure attachment styles, could not be tested reliably due to the order in which the familiar person and the stranger appear. It is proposed that in the future only counterbalanced versions of the SSP are used. Alternatively, since dogs reliably initiated more contact with the familiar person compared to the strangers, it is suggested that future studies on attachment in dogs towards humans should focus either on the behaviour of the dog in those episodes of the SSP when the person returns, or on reunion behaviour in other studies, specially designed to address dog-human interactions at this time.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the mediating effect of leader member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between followers' emotional intelligence and the outcomes of turnover intention and job satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach Using a longitudinal design, survey data were collected from 579 employees within a private pathology company. Measures of emotional intelligence and LMX were collected at Time 1 and employee turnover intentions and job satisfaction were collected at Time 2. Findings The results show the quality of LMX mediates the relationship between follower emotional intelligence and both turnover intention and job satisfaction. Research limitations/implications A limitation is the use of a self‐report measure of emotional intelligence. While this published measure has been shown to be valid and reliable, there are debates over the validity of self‐report measures of emotional intelligence. Practical implications The authors contend that encouraging more emotionally intelligent responses in employees may enhance the quality of LMXs and improve employee attitudes. Originality/value Although the relationship between emotional intelligence and LMX has been theorized, the study described in the paper is the first to use a workplace sample to empirically test the relationship between emotional intelligence and measures of turnover intention and job satisfaction with LMX from a follower's perspective as a mediating variable. As such, this study enables us to explore the tension between an organization's interest in the efficient use of time to focus on core activities and the followers' desire to maintain high‐quality relationships with their leaders (a time consuming process).
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The purpose of this study is to examine if attachment styles predict emotional intelligence (intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management, and general mood). Participants of the study consisted of 463 (272 females, 191 males) undergraduate students selected randomly from different faculties of Selcuk University. Regression and correlation analyses were used for data analysis. Results indicate that there is a significant positive correlation between the secure attachment style and all subscales of emotional intelligence abilities. Results also indicate that attachment styles significantly explain emotional intelligence and secure attachment style predict all sub-dimensions of emotional intelligence. (Contains 7 tables.)
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We describe the relationships between dog owners' personality attributes (assessed via questionnaire), their behaviours and the dog's behaviours observed during brief dog-owner and dog-stranger interactions (N = 78). Interactions comprised the owner commanding the dog to sit, and the stranger showing a ball to the restrained dog and then hiding it. Owners scoring higher on neuroticism and openness used more commands (gestural and verbal) when asking the dog to sit, and the dogs of owners higher on neuroticism obeyed with a longer latency and spent more time looking at the stranger. More extraverted owners praised their dog more, and it took longer for their dogs to look at the stranger but they spent more time looking at the stranger, whereas dogs of more agreeable owners spent more time looking at the ball. Based on these results we conclude that some aspects of owners' personality appear to be tied to their dog's attentional concerns.
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Housing in an animal shelter is a stressful experience for dogs. This study examined the effects of different forms of human interaction on concentrations of circulating cortisol and stress-related behaviors of dogs within 40 hr of admittance to a county animal shelter. Blood samples were collected before and after 30-min sessions in a secluded area in which dogs received one of three forms of human interaction: exposure to a passive human, petting, or play. Controls were either exposed to the secluded area alone, or remained in the general housing area. There was a substantial and near uniform reduction in plasma cortisol concentrations from pretest to post-test in all three conditions receiving human interaction, but not in control conditions. Human interaction also reduced behavioral signs of excitation/social solicitation (vocalizing) and fear (panting). Finally, pretest cortisol levels were found to predict levels of panting and another fear-related behavior (tongue protrusions) that dogs exhibited during subsequent testing. The findings suggest practical means of reducing stress, and potentially of improving the welfare, of dogs in shelters.
Book
Equine Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists is the quintessential reference for all who really want to know what makes horses tick. Research in horse behavior has made great strides in recent years. This book examines the truth behind modern trends and ancient traditions. Full of insight, it rounds up the latest findings of practitioners and researchers from all over the world, drawing on both cutting-edge research and best practice. With more than 1,000 references, the book explores equine behavior from first principles, by considering the behavior of free-ranging horses and focusing on ways in which management and training influence the responses of their domestic counterparts. Equine physicians, trainers, handlers and owners all need to be students of equine behavior, because the first sign of a problem is often a change in behavior. So, whether you own, ride, lead, groom, feed or heal horses, what you observe is vital to your understanding. Behavioral problems in the stable and under saddle are a grave concern for equine veterinarians worldwide, because they can lead to poor performance, welfare issues, abuse and, ultimately, wastage. Traditionally, veterinarians gave priority to the physical health of their equine patients. This book is a unique attempt to demonstrate the way science can throw light on how and why problems and unwelcome behaviors arise. It also offers ways to bring about change for the better. Beautifully illustrated with photographs and line diagrams, Equine Behavior: A guide for veterinarians and equine scientists is an essential resource for practising veterinarians, students and enthusiasts with a specific interest in horses, ponies, and donkeys. Professional trainers and handlers, equine scientists and behavior therapists will also find its contents invaluable.
Book
Dogs have become the subject of increasing scientific study over the past two decades, chiefly due to their development of specialized social skills, seemingly a result of selection pressures during domestication to help them adapt to the human environment. The Social Dog: Behaviour and Cognition includes chapters from leading researchers in the fields of social cognition and behavior, vocalization, evolution, and more, focusing on topics including dog-dog and dog-human interaction, bonding with humans, social behavior and learning, and more. Dogs are being studied in comparative cognitive sciences as well as genetics, ethology, and many more areas. As the number of published studies increases, this book aims to give the reader an overview of the state of the art on dog research, with an emphasis on social behavior and socio-cognitive skills. It represents a valuable resource for students, veterinarians, dog specialists, or anyone who wants deeper knowledge of his or her canine companion.
Article
This exploratory study investigated how clients of a large urban veterinary center viewed the role of their pet in the family and how they compared this role to that of humans. In Phase 1, randomly selected clients (N = 201) completed a questionnaire containing scales delineating family relationships and pet attachment. Being either a man ora college graduate was associated with lesser feelings of psychological kinship and intimacy, both with pets and people. Neither living with a partner nor having a child affected the strength of pet relationships. In Phase 2, 16 participants from Phase I completed a social network instrument and answered questions about family roles and boundaries. Thirteen of the 16 respondents said that there were circumstances in which they would give a scarce drug to their pet in preference to a person outside the family.
Article
This review collates peer-reviewed evidence for desirable attributes for those who work with dogs and horses. It is written with a particular focus on the veterinary profession. Although veterinarians and veterinary nurses (VNs) occupy variable roles when interacting with their patients, several behavioural attributes emerge as helpful across the range of such roles. In light of recent research on the value of considering animals' arousal and affective state as predictors of behaviour and welfare, best practice in human-horse and human-dog-interactions is outlined. The attributes of affiliation, safety and positive reinforcement seem to contribute greatly to the development and maintenance of moderate arousal and positive affect in animals. The information in this review article is offered in an attempt to show why veterinary professionals with good horsemanship are likely to remain safe, and to introduce the concept of dogmanship. In the light of the peer-reviewed evidence assembled here, it is arguable that veterinary teams, comprising both veterinarians and VNs, can become scholars in these areas. The benefits of this approach for practitioner safety, animal welfare and client satisfaction are likely to be significant. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Article
The aim of our study was to examine the influence of dyadic attachment, owner and dog personality, and owner gender on stress hormone dynamics in owner–dog dyads. We hypothesized that owner personality modulates dyadic relationships and, hence, would affect the cortisol levels resulting from acute and chronic stressors. Data were collected during three meetings with 10 male and 12 female owners aged 23–68 years, with their medium-to-large, intact male dogs aged 1.5–6.0 years. These owner-dog dyads were observed and video-taped during different tasks. The NEO-FFI (Five-Factor Inventory) was used to determine owner personality, and questionnaires covering owner–dog relationship and attachment were employed. Salivary cortisol levels were measured from samples collected during the dyads' daily routine and after experimental challenges. It was found that our experimental tasks had little effect on the salivary cortisol levels of either dog or owner except that dogs and male owners showed elevated levels during the first 20 minutes of our visit to their homes. However, owners who scaled high in neuroticism (NEO-FFI dimension 1) or low in conscientiousness (NEO-FFI dimension 5) showed high morning salivary cortisol values, in contrast to their dogs, which were low in morning salivary cortisol. In general, dogs of owners who considered them as being “social partners” and “meaningful companions” showed low morning salivary cortisol values. We conclude that the main individual and dyadic factors for stress coping in owner–dog dyads are owner personality, relationship with the dog, and attachment to the dog, and that relationship had generally a greater effect on dog cortisol levels than our experimental tasks.
Article
Previous research has indicated both petting (McIntire & Colley, 1967) and food (Feuerbacher & Wynne, 2012) have reinforcing effects on dog behavior and support social behavior towards humans (food: Elliot & King, 1960; social interaction: Brodbeck, 1954). Which type of interaction dogs prefer and which might produce the most social behavior from a dog has not been investigated. In the current study, we assessed how dogs allocated their responding in a concurrent choice between food and petting. Dogs received five 5-min sessions each. In Session 1, both food and petting were continuously delivered contingent on the dog being near the person providing the respective consequence. Across the next three sessions, we thinned the food schedule to a Fixed Interval (FI) 15-s, FI 1-min, and finally extinction. The fifth session reversed back to the original food contingency. We tested owned dogs in familiar (daycare) and unfamiliar (laboratory room) environments, and with their owner or a stranger as the person providing petting. In general, dogs preferred food to petting when food was readily available and all groups showed sensitivity to the thinning food schedule by decreasing their time allocation to food, although there were group and individual differences in the level of sensitivity. How dogs allocated their time with the petting alternative also varied. We found effects of context, familiarity of the person providing petting, and relative deprivation from social interaction on the amount of time dogs allocated to the petting alternative.
Article
A modified version of the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test was used to analyse 40 dog–owner pairs in order to assess whether owners can represent a secure base for their dogs. The Wilcoxon test revealed significant differences between owner and stranger for protest at separation (whining), contact maintenance effect (proximity, attention seeking and physical contact) and secure base effect (exploration, individual play and social play). The results suggest that dogs behave similarly to children towards the mothers and to chimpanzees towards human caretakers in the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test: owners are the preferred recipient of affiliative behaviours and, in their absence, dogs show behaviours indicative of distress. After reunion with the owner, dogs show an increase in social behaviours towards him/her. Dogs did not show fear of the stranger, and it was regarded as a normal behaviour for adult well-socialized dogs. Until now whether owners represented a secure base for their dogs was debated, due to controversial results. This study found that dogs play and explore more when owners were present, suggesting that owners can represent a secure base for their dogs. Therefore, according to Bowlby’s definition, dogs are linked to their owners by an attachment bond.
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This article reviews, through the lens of equitation science, one of the oldest known texts on horsemanship, written by Xenophon, general and horsemaster from ancient Greece. It identifies many instances in which Xenophon's recommendations align with current knowledge about equine ethology and learning theory, although, as one might expect, the explanations for their effectiveness are sometimes lacking. Xenophon counsels against disciplining a horse in anger and the use of relentless rein tension but makes a series of flawed assumptions about contiguity in instrumental conditioning. Because he is held up as the classical master and, therefore, somehow beyond reproach, it is important to understand how Xenophon's work exemplifies many of the pitfalls in thinking that persist in contemporary training. For example, his treatise imbues horses with powers of reasoning that have yet to be demonstrated in any empirical studies. In doing so, it encourages the reader to regard unwelcome behavior as disobedience and, predictably, goes on to justify punishment. The review explores how Xenophon aligns with and counters the recently published principles of ethical horse training. As such, it offers a framework for critiquing all horse-training dogmas.
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Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). We discuss (a) whether intelligence is an appropriate metaphor for the construct, and (b) the abilities and mechanisms that may underlie emotional intelligence. © 1993.
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In the popular literature, it is often assumed that a single conceptual framework can be applied to both dog–dog and dog–human interactions, including play. We have, through three studies, tested the hypothesis that dog–dog and dog–human play are motivationally distinct. In an observational study of dogs being walked by their owners (N=402), dogs which were walked together, and had opportunities to play with one another, played with their owners with the same frequency as dogs being walked alone. This finding was supported by a questionnaire survey of 2585 dog owners in which dogs in multi-dog households played slightly more often with their owners than dogs in single-dog households. The performance of dog–dog play does not, therefore, seem to suppress the dogs' motivation to play with their owners as would be predicted if they were motivationally interchangeable. In an experimental comparison of dog–dog and dog–human toy-centred play, the dogs were more likely to give up on a competition, to show and present the toy to their play partner, if that partner was human. When two toys were available, dogs playing with other dogs spent less time showing interest in both toys and possessed one of the toys for longer, than dogs playing with people. Overall, the dogs were more interactive and less likely to possess the object when playing with a person. We conclude that dog–dog and dog–human play are structurally different, supporting the idea that they are motivationally distinct. We therefore suggest there is no reason to assume that the consequences of dog–dog play can be extrapolated to play with humans.
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This review considers some contemporary training and restraining techniques that may lead to confusion or abuse in ridden and nonridden horses. As competitive equestrian sports boom, the welfare of the horse is under increasing scrutiny. The current focus on hyperflexion of the neck in dressage warm-up has exposed the problems with relying on subjective opinions when attempting to safeguard horse welfare. The discussion also highlights an opportunity for equestrian federations to evaluate practices within the various horse sports. Our review considers numerous examples of unorthodox practices that modify locomotion and posture. It offers a scientific framework for consideration of many contentious techniques in horse sports and emphasizes the role of Equitation Science in generating evidence-based enlightenment.
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Riding and training horses is the basis of a multi-billion dollar industry, but their use in the developed world is predominantly for recreational, competitive, entertainment, or performance purposes. However, when we consider the poor welfare outcomes for the horses involved, our ultimate focus on fun seems a poor justification for using horses in this way. This article is not intended to diminish the use of horses in the ridden context, rather it foreshadows a time when horse welfare and equestrian competition are as balanced and sustainable as possible.