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ISSN 1392-2785 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS. 2008. No5
WORK HUMANISM
Improving the Development of Managers’ Personal and Professional Skills
Povilas Zakarevičius
1
, Erika Župerkien÷
2
1
Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
Daukanto g. 28, LT-44246, Kaunas
2
Klaip÷dos universitetas
Minijos g. 153, LT-93185, Klaip÷da
The present article analyzes the development of
personal and professional skills of managers who perform
managing function in contemporary organizations.
Research shows that it is necessary to develop managers‘
skills using a set of different methods and tools. In the
course of time, a number of models for manager skills
development that recommend the potential ways for the
implementation of these processes have been created.
One of these models is the training cycle proposed by
Kolb (1992) encompassing four stages: actions, thinking,
understanding, and checking. Another model – the one
made by Byham, Smith, and Pease (2002) - is based on
application of group training method. It is carried out in
five stages: 1) formation of a group of employees, 2)
defining training abilities of the employees, 3) making
recommendations for the development, 4) implementing the
program, 5) defining directions for new improvements.
Probably, the most widely applied and used model is
Statt‘s(2000) sequence of development processes: defining
demand for development, formulating the goals, compiling
the content, choosing the methods, evaluating the results.
The most modern model is Whetten and Cameron‘s (2002)
five-step model applying social science theory. It is based
on the following steps: assessment of a skill, development
of the skill, analysis of the skill, testing the skill in practice,
using the skill in practical performance.
The above listed models have their strengths and
weaknesses. The most typical weakness is underestimated
complexity and sophisticated character of the development
process. Having made the analysis of the described models
of managers‘ personal and professional skills development
and having generalized the results of particular research
carried out in Lithuanian organizations, it could be stated
that the process of skills development needs to be improved.
This process holistically combining possible 17 activities.
On a basis of research results, the article offers a
holistic development process that is comprised of the
following fields: defining personal and professional
priority skills of managers; selecting of employees and
assessing of their possessed skills; choosing the best tool
for the assessment; systematization of the skills to be
developed; search for the possible development ways and
methods; choosing the development method that
corresponds the goals; providing managing activity to the
trained employees; correcting the development process
depending on specific situations; responding to the needs
of the development; combining several development tools;
applying of short-term development tools; choosing the
most suitable development program; defining the role of
direct supervisor in the development process; appointing
mentors for the employees involved in self-development;
career planning.
Implementation of the holistic model of managers‘
skills development process showed that this attitude has
positive impact on the results of this process.
In order to survive in constantly changing society,
people must learn a lot on their own; most often it is related
to competence training seminars, re-qualification training,
maintenance of professional competence level, development
of personal and professional skills.
Keywords: manager, manager’s skill, skill development,
development model, personnel development,
development process.
Introduction
The problem. All administrative levels in nowadays
organizations, need talented, well prepared top managers
and this need is constantly increasing and the effectiveness
of management becomes one of the most crucial conditions
for organization‘s success. This is related to various
reasons: globalization, changing character of work,
increasing diversity of people available on the labour
market, migration of people, actions of competitors trying
to “hunt for heads” of qualified personnel, etc. Managers in
organizations are continuously facing new challenges
demanding new thoughts and ideas: how to manage
organization, to communicate and foresee the future
performance of organization in the world of fast-paced
changes, total competition, diversity of the labour force,
fast changes of the market, changes in organizational
structure, continuously changing economy and the market.
These external and internal powers force managers to
search for new methods aimed at not only retaining the
quality of goods and services, but also keeping the loyalty
of the personnel and organizational stability. This means
that the development of managers’ personal and professional
skills has become a tool in ensuring qualitative
characteristics of the organization‘s managerial personnel.
Organization that finds an effective method/way/model of
managers development will not experience a deficit in
talented, time-efficient managers; it will minimize its time
and resource costs in searching for qualified personnel, and
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will be able to keep a company of qualified, intelligent,
and initiative showing employees.
An excellent overview of research on a manager‘s
personal skills is proposed in two Stogdill‘s studies (1948,
1974). In his first study, Stogdill compiled and analyzed
more than 124 research works on personal skills carried
out in 1904 – 1947. In his second study, he analysed the
other 163 studies that were made in 1948 – 1970.
Analysing each of these studies in more detail, it becomes
clear, how personal qualities contribute to management.
Mann (1959), Miner (1978), Lord DeVader and
Alliger (1986), R.Bleik and J.Mouton (1985), Kirkpatrick
and Locke (1991), Wilson (2004), etc. also studied
personal skills of managers.
Robert Katz (1955) started a more detailed research of
professional skills that resulted in a management model
based on the manager‘s professional qualities (skills), and
which was improved in 1990-ies by Mumford, Zaccaro,
Harding, Jacobs and Fleishman (2000); Yammarino,
(2000), Connelly, Gilbert,
Zaccaro, Threlfall, Marks,
Mumford
(2000).
Although managers‘ personal skills have been studied
since the beginning of the 20
th
century, and their
professional skills - since the middle of the 20
th
century,
the constantly changing environment of organizations
raises new requirements, therefore the definition of
personal and professional skills of managers who
correspond to such new requirements and improvement of
their development is an urgent scientific and practical
problem.
The objective. The objective of the research that
resulted in the present article: to analyse models of
developing managers‘ personal and professional skills,
define their strengths and weaknesses; to offer an option
for managers‘ skills development that would create
conditions for a successful development of managers‘ skills
taking into account challenges of contemporary world.
Research methods. Comparative analysis of scientific
literature, critical analysis, systematization, and
generalization were used as the methods of scientific
research.
Models of organisation of managers’ personal
and professional skills development
Development of managers‘ skills – one of personnel
management activities – is a part of personnel development
used in the management process. Therefore, the
development of managers‘ personal and professional skills
in the organization should be related to the development of
the organization‘s personnel, where one of strategic
directions is development of personal and professional
skills necessary for managerial work of such organization
employees who have aspirations to build their career.
When analysing the issue of developing managers‘ value
orientation and personal as well as professional skills, one
faces a multiple problem encompassing not only
development itself as a process, but also an analysis of its
models, development as personnel management activity
and a component of career planning, as well as a strategy
for inciting individual‘s active performance.
Models and programs are used for the development of
personal and professional skills. Many programs
improving manager‘s work are based on application of
specific management theories; for instance, education
programs are based on LPC accident theory (Fiedler,
Chemers, 1982, 1984), a normative solution model
(Vroom, Jago, 1988), transforming management (Bass,
1990, 2000; Bass, Avolio, 1990) and a manager‘s
motivation (Miner, 1986). A review of research made on
the basis of such theories showed that all these methods
can improve the quality of duties performed by a manager
(Bass, 1990; Latham, 1988; Tetrault, Schriesheim, Neider,
1988). However, many researchers did not disclose
whether increased effectiveness stems from the application
of a theory or, rather, from acquiring of interpersonal and
managerial skills. In practice, a number of development
organisation models aimed at the development of both
managers and all employees are widely applied. One of the
earlier models is the development cycle offered by Kolb
(1976). According to Kolb (1992), four stages could be
defined in a successful development process:
1. Actions. Specific experience from what we call
“the real life“.
2. Thinking. Empiric observation and analysis of
activities.
3. Understanding. Logical analysis of the
observations, search for respective patterns in observations,
memorising what was taught.
4. Checking. Checking how new expertise relates to
“the real world“ and how the behaviour has changed.
Kolb demonstrated this cycle using a round diagram
(Figure 1)
.
Figure 1. Kolb‘s development cycle
Seeking for a truly integrated development of
managers‘ personal and professional skills, one needs to go
through this cycle at least once. However, a round diagram
is not the most appropriate way to demonstrate Kolb‘s
idea, as the development does not end where it started. In
any case, seeking for better results, each stage is important
regardless of which one is given priority by a person-
mentor of a manager.
Specific experience
(Actions)
Formation and generalization of
abstract definitions
(Understanding)
Checking of conclusions
and new assessments of
the situation (Checking)
Observation and
analysis (Thinking)
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1 Stage. Employees having high level of potential are drawn together
Structural sub-divisions select members of express-development groups.
All candidates are discussed and group’s members are selected from them.
A candidate is informed about all the benefits and shortcomings of being in the development group; after that, he/she
decides whether he wants to become a group member.
2 Stage. Further assessment of the employees‘ development/training possibilities
Defining the group member’s strengths and development/training needs with the help of the express-development
centre.
The participant is informed about the results of the evaluation; his/her further development/training priorities are
defined.
3 Stage. Making specific recommendations for improvement
Decisions are made on the nature of the tasks, special exercises given to participant, instructor’s appointment,
progress assessment and information about the methods of completion of the program.
Specific goals related to his/her job or new tasks are established for further employee‘s development.
The group member together with his/her supervisor define target fields and form a strategy for his/her further
development/training. This process might be carried out changing job authorities, setting additional goals of
development.
4 Stage. Implementation of the program and process documentation
Develops crucial behavioural skills
by participating in special trainings
and working under a mentor‘s
supervision.
Uses new expertise and behaviour
patterns during a new appointment
or short-term training.
The participant reports on how
successfully he/she uses new skills and
behavioural templates.
Each group member compiles a career-building portfolio and meets with his/her supervisor or mentor to make
assessment of the development process and to set new development goals.
5 Stage. Assessment of progress and defining new directions.
A group of observers watch the participant‘s progress and make decisions regarding assignment of further tasks.
Figure 2. A model of managers’ skills development
The model of organisation of managers‘ skill
development offered by Byham, Smith, and Paese (2002)
is based on the group method. They offer to organize
groups consisting of personnel who all have high potential
of taking new positions in the future. Development of
necessary skills of such persons is achieved through
extending job descriptions and delegating new
responsibilities. That results in a faster learning pace and a
clearer evaluation of career opportunities. Every group
members are assigned a mentor-supervisor; the group
participates in special tutoring-improvement programs
.
Each member is provided with information on his/her
progress (feedback), they receive consultations of
specialists on a regular basis while top managers
attentively watch employees‘ abilities and evaluate their
readiness to take new positions.
This model is exhibited in Figure 2. Another quite
often applied model of development organisation is Statt‘s
(2000) sequence of development process stages (Figre 3).
As the author emphasises, the first stage of the
development process organisation is defining develop-
pment needs – an action rarely implemented in practice in
organizations. Managers usually limit themselves to an
announcement made to employees that some of them need
training since there are certain performance problems or
because there are some funds left in the training budget.
Organizations often incompletely implement this
important stage of defining development needs or pay to
that too little attention thinking that skills that need to be
developed are obvious or that specialists will be able to better
define the content of the development trainings.
Figure 3. Stages of the development organisation process
The second stage is defining the goals for development.
If the goals are specific, short-term, it is easier to achieve
positive results, and they will be less related to managerial
Defining
development needs
Goals
Content
Methods
Assessment(results)
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problems. However, long-term goals are of no less
importance, although they are more difficult to achieve,
they should not become a reason for giving up the entire
development program since they often pay back.
On the third stage, while compiling the content of
the development program, it is necessary to ensure that it
corresponds to the level of the trained persons. Besides,
it is proven that information which can be related to the
already possessed expertise is easier to understand. This
principle is especially important when compiling
development programs. The role of feedback is crucial
while developing both practical and communication
skills.
A lot of educative methods can be successfully used
for the development of managerial qualities and skills
(the fourth stage): lectures, demonstrations, textbooks,
videotapes, simulation equipment and dialogue computer
tutors, exercises, professional games. Statt (2000)
divides educative methods into three groups: information
presentation methods, modelling methods and educating
methods applied at work, simultaneously with the main
duties of the trained.
The fifth stage of the development organisation
process is assessment – a rather complex task, thus it is
either carried out incompletely or not performed at all.
Ideal assessment has to be an ongoing process,
continuing throughout the entire development program.
When making assessment of the development program,
it is recommended to use 4 different criteria listed in an
order of increasing importance: response (how the
trained respond to the training), expertise (feedback tools
are used, i.e. tests before and after the program to find
out what the participants have really learned), behaviour
(reaction of the direct supervisors to the performance
results of the trained upon completion of training is
observed. It is a way to define how the acquired
expertise is applied at work), results (improvement level
of performance results of the trained are assessed, and
decisions are made on what needs to be done in order to
maintain the same results). Social science theory method
proved itself as one of the most effective tools in
developing manager‘s skills (Boyatzis, Kolb, 1995;
Whetten, Cameron, 2002). It is based on interaction of
existing conceptual, practically applied expertise and the
acquired expertise. As methods for skill development
both cognitive work (related to cognition) and
behaviour-related activities are used. Various options of
this method are used differently – both during training at
work and during training seminars of managers. In
business schools this method is used less often. Four
stages, corresponding to the four Kolb‘s development
cycle stages, compose this training process (Hopkins,
1993; Boyatzis, Kolb, 1995; Boyatzis, Stubbs, Taylor,
2002; Statt, 2000; Whetten, Cameron, 2002): (1)
instruction (behaviour principles and sequence of actions
are indicated); (2) demonstration of these principles with
the help of various cases, films, documents or incidents;
(3) a role game or exercises that allow to apply these
principles; (4) discussion (ensuring a feedback channel),
with colleagues, instructors and experts.
Research on understanding of the similar skills and
skills development (Boyatzis and Kolb, 1995; Whetten,
Cameron, 2002) demonstrated that effectiveness of this
method can be increased under three important conditions.
First, the applied behaviour principles have to be based on
psychology theories of a relevant case and relevant serious
studies (the validity of development tools is supported by real
and reliable scientific research, determining effectiveness of
application of one or another principle). Second, the trained
must understand their own level of competence and be
motivated enough to develop it further (it is important to
ensure feedback allowing people to assess their level of
competence). Third, there has to be an applicability condition
in the development model. When training sessions are held in
classrooms, a fast feedback communication is available, thus
the trained can make decisions without fear to make a
mistake; however, the real work conditions are difficult to re-
create, therefore the tasks are usually limited to consultation-
like exercises, independent analysis of publications, solving
of specific problems defining preconditions for success or
failure of every decision.
It is recommended (Whetten, Cameron, 2002) to apply a
five-element development model instead of the four-element
one thus improving the development process cycle created by
Kolb. In order to implement this method, Whetten, Cameron
offers a development model presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Model of managers‘ personal and professional skills
development
Components Content Goals
Assessment
of a skill Research
instruments
Role-games
Evaluation of the existing
competence and expertise level;
formation of readiness for a
change.
Development
of a skill Tests
Behaviour
recommendati
ons
Learning the relevant
principles, substantiation of the
behaviour recommendations
Analysis of a
skill Cases Examples of successful and
unsuccessful activities, analysis
and support of behaviour
principles
Practice Exercises,
Imitations,
Role-games
Practical understanding of
behavioural recommendations;
combining the principles with
individual style; using and
maintaining the feedback
communication.
Application
of a skill Tasks
(behavioural
and written)
Transition from classroom-
based to practical actions,
development of individual
skills.
In order to survive in constantly changing society, people
must learn a lot on their own; most often it is related to
competence training seminars, re-qualification training,
maintenance of professional competence level, development
of personal and professional skills. This is carried out at work
through self-learning and skills development called
autodidactic in educology. Informal self-learning, according
to scientists (Pineau, 1995; Tremblay, 1986; Foucher, 1991;
Moisan, 1995; Portelli, 1995, Vasileff, 1992, and others), has
some benefits as compared to formal studies that usually put
more emphasis on theoretic expertise: new expertise is
acquired on a basis of one‘s own or others‘ experience;
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necessary personal skills are better developed; new
projects are implemented; relevant professional skills are
acquired which contribute to one‘s career-building;
relevant value orientation is formed. Independent
professional development and self-learning is easier to
implement applying mobility strategy in organizations:
when importance of higher (university) degree education
is emphasised in a company, in spite of how many of
such people are really needed, because it is assumed that
those with higher degree of education have much more
opportunities to be re-qualified and adapted to new work
requirements than those with lower education level.
Mobility strategy (Sakalas, 1998) is recommended in HI-
TECH companies where the rapid progress of innovative
technologies takes place, rapidly changing qualification
requirements for the personnel. There are favourable
conditions to apply this strategy in Lithuania because
there are enough people with university degree; besides,
companies applying this strategy make a positive impact
on pre-conditions for the development of the
organization and its employees. However, an
organization that does not have an idea of what kind of
managers it will need in the future, cannot systematically
develop the required skills of its future managers and
make assessment of its employees abilities to take
managerial positions, because responding to the
environment and organization needs, the importance of
skills and qualities required for the company‘s managers
may also change as well as their relevance in each
specific case.
Modification of the managers‘ personal and
professional skills development process
Having made the analysis of the described models of
managers‘ personal and professional skills development
also having evaluated models, and having generalized
the results of particular research carried out in
Lithuanian organizations, it could be stated that the
process of skills development needs to be improved. We
offer one of possible options of this process holistically
combining 17 activities.
1.
Define managers‘ personal and professional
priority skills. Byham, Smith, Paese‘s (2002) experience
in practice proves that various organizations strive for
developing specific skills by dividing them into
categories: job requirements, knowledge about an
organization, skills, abilities, negative personal factors.
Having analysed personal and professional skills crucial
for managers we offer using another categories for the
skills to be developed. Personal qualities: intellect, self-
confidence, determination, adherence to principles and
sociability; professional skills: technical, communi-
cative, conceptual; value orientation: a manager is an
example for everybody, people are the most important,
relations, results, precision of actions, a need for
innovation, honesty and co-operation. Even in the
smallest organization, the most important personal and
professional skills of manager has to be listed.
2.
Select employees and make assessment of
existing skills. One main condition has to be set to the
selected candidates – a sufficient potential for the
development of skills that are crucial for a manager. The
potential is the existing or developed basic personal
(initiative, active attitude, etc.) and professional (university
degree or a personal tendency to extend existing knowledge)
skills typical for a manager. The skills that are important for
a manager are developed depending on the level of skills
he/she already possesses.
Purposeful development of personal and professional
skills of the employees having high potential will not be
fruitful if the organization itself does not participate in the
development process. Good employees know their value that
was foreseen in them by the organization‘s managers, thus
the development process is often understood as an enforced,
automatic procedure and not as an opportunity to acquire
new knowledge. According to Byham, Smith, Paese (2002),
it is easier to spot an employee with high potential than to
prepare him/her for a managerial position.
A relation between a person‘s individual qualities,
abilities, values and the major goals of the organization
performance is necessary for a successful employee skill
development. Ideally, self-development of managers should
be reflected in their organization‘s performance results.
Striving for both of these goals, a thorough assessment is
needed providing extensive information on optimal direction
of further development of employee skills. Standard
managerial skills courses and learning plans do not always
correspond to an individual employee‘s development needs.
A clear and detailed assessment allows for making a decision
that suits a particular situation. When assessing an
employee‘s suitability for a specific position, it is necessary
to systemize data of assessment results, information about the
course of development and data about the results of current
performance. Such integrated data will help to discover
whether the employee‘s skills correspond to his/her current
position.
3.
Choose the best suiting tool for assessment of
existing personal and professional skills. A number of tools
widely analysed in research publications are used for
assessment (imitation of work situations, 360 degrees
feedback, evaluation centres, personal interviews and
feedback, analysis of personal qualities, tests of learning
abilities, psychological analysis of personality, etc). Each
assessment tool discloses yet different scope of information
on existing skills. Imitations of work situations allow to
disclose information about the existing skills and abilities in
the most precise way; quite enough of information is
provided through the 360 degrees feedback as well as
interviews that are oriented toward particular behaviour in
situations. Analysis of personal qualities and tests of learning
abilities are not as informative. Analysis of personal qualities
as well as interview with 360 degrees feedback and imitation
of work situations disclose more information when assessing
negative personal qualities. Interview with a 360 degrees
feedback and interview oriented towards particular behaviour
in situations are the best ways to get information on job
requirements and knowledge about the organization.
In order to make deeper and more informative
assessment, use of several, complementing each other
instruments is necessary, what will allow evaluating of a
manager‘s existing potential in various aspects.
4.
Systemize a manager‘s personal and professional
skills to be developed. It is important for a manager to have
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as many as possible personal and professional skills that
would help him/her managing in even better way; at the
same time, he/she should have as few as possible
negative personal qualities. When choosing an employee
for a managerial position these skills have to be
systemized: divide the skills to be developed into basic
categories, define priority skills related to a specific
position applying assessment scale (Fig., 1-5 Likert
scale, DDI scale – based on behaviour patterns) .
5.
Describe potential development ways and
methods and search for them. It is important to look
for new methods of managers’ personal and professional
skills development - for ones that are most relevant to
the 21
st
century organization and requirements of its
employees. One of such alternatives is the Byham,
Smith, Paese’s (2002) recommended development in
groups of express-development. Even though this system
might seem quite complex at first sight, it should not
require more time than is spent on planning of personnel
replacement. Employees suiting specific requirements
are drawn into groups of express-development;
directions and methods of skills development are more
clearly defined for each employee; higher quality level
in the analysis of group members is achieved due to
clearly defined time and behaviour standards.
It is recommended to use the most advanced
development models, e.g. skill assessment – skill
development – skill analysis – practical testing – skill
use; also: analysis of whom one wants to become – self-
analysis – improvement program – practical testing and
development of new behavioural habits - creation and
sustainment of harmonious relationships.
6. Choose personal and professional skill
development method that is most relevant to the goals
of the development. It is better to choose a skill
development method depending on the goals of such
development: if the goals of development should
correspond to a certain position requirements, in this
case the most relevant is appointment method (trial
position); if the case is deepening knowledge about the
organization, then short-term courses, appointments,
sometimes practical tasks should be chosen; if skills and
abilities are to be developed, - choose various practical
exercises; if personal skills need to be developed, -
professional consultations should be used. Personal
skills (high energy level, abilities to adapt in various
situations, tendency to manage, learn, positive attitude,
abilities to recognise environment changes, orientation
towards innovations, towards results and strategic
directions, etc.) are the most difficult to develop as well
as managerial skills (entrepreneurship, management of
performance processes, consolidation of resources,
insight into processes in a global context, etc). It is easier
to develop communication skills (communicate and
influence people, communication with people with a
different cultural and social backgrounds), management
skills (assign and delegate tasks, communicate a vision,
form effective teams).
7. Assign as many as possible managerial duties to
high potential employees, setting their development
goals in the development process questionnaires.
Extending employees‘ duties in such a way allows to
develop their skills and abilities that are reflected in their
questionnaire forms that, in their turn, disclose the
effectiveness of the development process in each assignment.
The questionnaire forms help employees to realize what and
why they have to develop in each assignment as well as to
see clearly what kind of help they need while performing
new tasks. Using of questionnaire forms prevent
unreasonable wasting of development opportunities.
8. Respond flexibly to changing situations and make
respective amendments to the planned development
processes. Members of the development groups should as
often as possible participate in events and situations
providing opportunities to acquire as fast as possible one or
another type of practical experience. However, majority of
events providing possibilities for a fast-paced development is
impossible to plan ahead, because professional is full of
surprises. Therefore an opportunity to get new experience
should be recognised in each unplanned event or task that
contribute to development of personal and professional skills.
9. Consider the employees‘ need for development
depending on trends of performance. Business
globalization not only offers new possibilities but also
requires different personnel development policies, e.g.
implementation of new work methods and restructuring of
activities will not justify themselves without well trained
personnel and managers who clearly understand and accept
the new vision and actively disseminate new values and
organizational culture.
10. Development combining several development
tools during the process. Usage of only one tool does not
ensure effective manager skill development; to implement
the development plan, a creative combination of these tools is
necessary, for instance, to combine appointment, short-term
practical exercises, development programs, and professional
instruction.
11. Use as many various short-term development
tools as possible. It is necessary to use all opportunities both
within and outside of the organization; to promote the
initiative and creativity of the trained in their search for such
opportunities. Examples of possible short-term development
tools are offered in Table 2.
12. Choose the most relevant programs of skills
development. When choosing, the following recomme-
ndations should be taken into account: the scope of skills and
qualities developed by the program should correspond to the
manager‘s development goals; choose university programs
based not on acquisition of specific skills but on acquisition of
the latest information in the field of management; choose
programs that involve as many people from different countries
as possible – in this way development process results are
better; use participation in development programs to establish
new relations with employees and managers from other
organizations – it is one of the most valuable elements of
participation in a development program since these relations
allow for comparing experience of the person’s “own”
organization to that of other companies as well as personal
management style with that of other managers; find out about
the goals of the program before choosing it: is the program
aimed at satisfying the diagnosed development needs of the
group members, or for intensive training of managers of certain
level who will take higher positions – in the latter case the
program might be useless for majority of participants if there
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Table 2
Examples of a few short-term tools for managers‘ personal and professional skills development
Skills to develop An example of a short-term means for development
Personal skills
Ability to adapt, self-analysis, high
energy level, strive for leadership,
strive for knowledge, positive
attitude, adequate assessment of the
environment, etc.
Observe the behaviour of people who might be exemplary carriers of the skills to be developed.
Write an article reviewing specific behaviour patterns that are associated with success or with
exposure of certain personal quality.
Entrepreneurship Participation in meetings of the organization and the customer with a goal to define the
customer‘s needs as precisely as possible. Participation in a marketing program of some group
of artists.
Insight, business-like thinking Participation in a meeting that involves considering of possibilities to acquire shares or other
organization. Working with a person possessing strong insight and business-like thinking skills,
who is striving to change the situation in unprofitable or going-bankruptcy venture.
Communication Work as a public relations mediator, to represent the organization in common projects with
charity funds or supported culture fields. Free-of-charge assistance in preparing reports on
performance results of some group in the organization. Working with employees representing
social-cultural minorities in the organization (helping them to adapt, assessing their
performance, etc.).
Influence, persuasion Search for funds or other resources for some important project. Assistance in preparing meeting
of the organization’s employees with an important customer or in preparing a presentation for
him/her. Watching this process and assisting at any stage.
Professional skills
Process management Organize a charity fund raising event in the organization. Manage a group responsible for yearly
events in the organization.
Resource management Implement large-scale organizational changes, participate in the activity of a group that
implements some strategy; assist in planning a community event (e.g. a festival, show, etc.).
Decision making Be involved in a group that is lead by a specialist having superior decision-making skills.
Manage implementation of community projects.
Conceptual thinking Participate in the process of formation of organization‘s strategy. Create a system for assessment
results of performance.
are no real opportunities for a promotion; when choosing a
development program, find out about its ratings and recent
comments of its participants, as the quality of programs
might change in the course of time: instructors, fields of
their interest and focal points of the program might also
change; sending an employee for a training will not always
be enough to remove the shortcomings of development of
his/her as a future manager existing skills, however, the
training might contribute to that process. The program has
to be coordinated with an opportunity to apply the
knowledge at work as well, supported by supervision and
feedback.
13. Choose a program that is composed specifically
for organization‘s personnel. Such program, despite
certain peculiarities, has to correspond to general recomme-
ndations: the program has to ensure a positive ROI;
determine clearly what the expected results are; choose the
most relevant development methods; adapt the program to
particular needs of organization; make a precise
development schedule; promote and create opportunities for
the participants of the development process to try out the
acquired skills at work; attract qualified lecturers; choose a
suitable place; prepare the participants for the development;
involve as many organization‘s managers as possible.
14. Convince the managers participating in training
that “the key to success is in their own hands“.
Partnership relationships between the participants themselves
and the participants and their mentors-supervisors are
necessary for the development of managers‘ skills. The
trained persons are the driving power of their progress
therefore they have responsibly and on their own to seek for
the implementation of their skill development plan; if an
organization does not provide necessary support or a mentor
is not assigned in time, they themselves have to take
initiative in such case; the trained should also realize that
people who agreed to help them face a difficult task: it is not
easy to use all their creative skills and initiative when
providing the necessary support for the trained. Thus already
before the beginning of the development process, it is
necessary to define responsibilities of the development
process participants themselves, their managers and their
mentors-supervisors.
15. Define the role of a direct supervisor in the
development process. The direct supervisor of the trained
has to give advice on how to implement the given tasks and
develop the necessary skills as well as provide specific
assistance if needed.
The direct supervisor‘s functions in the process of skills
development:
To set for the trained clear, realistic and measurable
goals of further development in each appointment. The
trained need to know what results of the appointment
they might expect and in which way their progress will
be measured within that field. When discussing this
issue, the system of organization‘s management
effectiveness should be used.
- 111 -
Incite the trained to control his/her development
independently since an independent formation of
one‘s development plans results in more motivated
and effective implementation of them.
Evaluate, together with the trained, his/her
progress and usage of the developed skills in
practice (using a 360
0
feedback or considering
customers’ comments).
Help implementing plans of skills development. It
is important that development plans and self-
education would not be hindered by internal
policies or lack of resources or other reasons. Thus
the help has to be provided to the trained by timely
contacting necessary people, providing the trained
with all necessary resources. Every appointment
has to be the challenge for the trained; however, it
needs to be honest and implementable.
Instruct the trained before he/she makes a mistake,
i.e. explain what has to be done in advance, not
afterwards, thus helping to gain positive
experience, building on trust and speeding up the
development process. Instructions are to help the
trained to make a decision independently – not
provide him/her with a ready solution, i.e. not to
decide instead of the trained, but to help analyze
all alternatives and promote correct decision-
making.
Support the development of the supervisor‘s of the
trained. Support is necessary to all without
exception, even to self-confident people. When
developing personal and professional skills and
value orientation, one has to apply to
himself/herself higher standards, thus the
assurance, that the goal is being successfully
achieved, is crucial. It is recommended to remind
about the overall achieved progress even at the
time when current performance problems are
being addressed.
Help planning one‘s time. The time meant for the
main duties should not be given up in the name of
the appointed training position. Here the
supervisor‘s help is crucial determining the
priorities: what should be given more time and
attention in order not to waste the organization‘s
investment into an employee’s development but at
the same time ensuring the smooth work of
organization.
At once, after a particular event ensure feedback
both on positive moments of the assessed activity
and the fields that need further improvement.;
provide this information to the trained and help
interpreting it.
Record the progress of the trained in relevant
documents.
Share your experience and work-related expertise.
Assign increasingly more complicated tasks and
more responsibilities.
Disclose a different standpoint on ideas and
actions, i.e. be able in principle to defend an
opposite view, oppose to a generally accepted
opinion. Help to have a look at the same problem
from a different point of view.
16. Appoint mentors-supervisors to the trained who
have wide organizational knowledge and experience.
It is necessary to evaluate all possible benefits and
shortcomings when deciding what mentor (helper) to
appoint to the trained. “Short-term” mentors have to help
the trained to plan activities necessary for the development,
watch the progress of the trained achieved during the
implementation of development plans and provide other
needed assistance. Short-term mentors have to help their
apprentices to understand the goals, values and
organizational culture of the organization, overall activity
directions of the organisations, their own abilities and
shortcomings in performance in the organization. The
short-term mentor must observe communication between
the trained and his direct supervisor; if the task set for skill
development of the trained turns to be ineffective, the
mentor has the right to adjust the situation. By the end of
the mentoring period, a new short-term mentor has to be
assigned to the trained and the plan of skill development
updated accordingly. With a change of mentors, the trained
is given an opportunity to get to know as many as possible
people within the organization as well as diverse points of
view. As the trained moves to higher position in the
organizational hierarchy, the mentor has to be of higher
level as well.
Long-term mentors have to be able to give career
advice to their apprentices, help establishing new business
relations, promote additional opportunities, “advertise“
their apprentice‘s achievements among the top
management and give advice on issues related to the
organization‘s policies. However, at first it is helpful to
appoint a short-term mentor to the trained and replace
him/her every two years by the principle of rotation. Such
an appointment of mentor is much more flexible, besides
the trained should also have a possibility to choose a
mentor or choose the other one in addition to the already
assigned one – thus the trained could compare their points
of view and expect additional assistance.
When choosing a mentor for the trained from the same
department where the trained is working, or from other
department, distinctive benefits and weaknesses of both
cases should be considered. One mentor should take care
of only one trained since in case of several trained ones, it
is difficult to perform mentor’s duties impartially and
honestly due to a big scope of work.
17. Plan promotion to higher and higher position.
As the trained moves from one position to another, he/she
experiences certain hardships that need to be discussed
with the trained. Only that way creates an opportunity for
the development of necessary skills. When moving a
manager to the higher position, it is necessary to evaluate
possible and sometimes inadequate responses as a success
formula that perfectly worked in one case might be
inapplicable in another (this is especially typical when
moving lower-level managers with developed technical
skills to a higher management level where conceptual and
similar skills are necessary).
The listed recommendations for development of
managers‘ personal and professional skills are not final and
comprehensive as in the course of implementation of the
development process, more previously unnoticed
development improvement opportunities are disclosed. An
- 112 -
ongoing observation and control as well as creative
problem - solving are essential for the improvement of
development process. However, implementation of the
above mentioned recommendations already might result in
better development of personal and professional skills in
the organization.
Conclusions
1. Under conditions of globalization and
internationalization of economy, the issue of managing
organizations becomes more and more complicated.
Organizations’ managers face new situations that require to
apply modern methods, organizational forms and processes
in management. As a result of these challenges, personal
and professional skills of managers have to change and
develop. Thus improvement of development of these skills
becomes an important tool ensuring conditions for the
success of the organization‘s activities.
2. The discussion on the issues of personal and
professional skills development started in the first half of
the 20
th
century. On a basis of such research, a number of
models of organisation of skills development process were
created and applied in practice. The most widely used are
following ones: the Kolb‘s four development stages model,
the Statt‘s five development stages model, and Whetten
and Cameron‘s model applying social science theory. The
main drawback of these and other well-known models is
the fact that they incompletely evaluated complexity and
sophisticated character of the development process.
3. Striving to ensure a holistic approach to the
development of managers‘ skills, the process should be
organised applying processes- and action-based approach,
i.e. to create a systematised complex of development
actions and implement it during the development process.
Research publications making a basis of the present article
show that one possible option for the approach of process-
and actions-based skills development is a process
holistically combining 17 development means. Practical
application of this model showed that activity aimed at the
development of managers‘ personal and professional skills
is effective and yields positive results.
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Povilas Zakarevičius, Erika Župerkien÷
Vadovų asmeninių ir dalykinių savybių ugdymo tobulinimas
Santrauka
Šių dienų organizacijose visuose valdymo lygiuose vis did÷ja
talentingų, gerai parengtų vadovų poreikis, o vadovavimo veiksmingumas
tampa viena iš svarbiausių organizacijos veiklos s÷km÷s sąlygų. Tai
siejama su įvairiomis priežastimis: globalizacija, darbo pobūdžio kitimu,
darbo rinkoje esančių žmonių did÷jančia įvairove, žmonių migravimu,
konkurentų veiksmais siekiant pervilioti kvalifikuotus specialistus ir kt.
Organizacijų vadovai nuolat patiria vis naujų iššūkių, reikalaujančių naujų
minčių ir id÷jų: kaip valdyti organizaciją, bendrauti ir numatyti
organizacin÷s veiklos ateitį greitoms permainoms, visuotinei
konkurencijai, darbo j÷gos įvairovei, greitiems rinkos pokyčiams,
organizacin÷s struktūros permainoms, kintančiai ekonomikai ir rinkai.
Šios išor÷s ir vidaus j÷gos verčia vadovus ieškoti naujų metodų, kaip
išlaikyti ne tik prekių ir paslaugų kokybę, bet ir darbuotojų moralumą bei
organizacinį stabilumą. Tad vadovų asmeninių ir dalykinių savybių
ugdymas tampa priemone, užtikrinančia organizacijai vadovaujančio
personalo kokybines savybes. Organizacija, radusi veiksmingą vadovų
ugdymo metodą / būdą / modelį, nestokos talentingų, veiksmingai
organizuojančių savo veiklą vadovų, sumažins laiko ir išteklių sąnaudas
specialistų paieškai, geb÷s išlaikyti kvalifikuotų, protingų ir iniciatyvių
darbuotojų kolektyvą.
Puiki vadovo asmeninių savybių tyrimų apžvalga pateikta dviejuose
Stogdill (1948, 1974) tyrimuose. Pirmajame tyrime Stogdill surinko ir
analizavo daugiau negu 124 asmeninių savybių tyrimus, kurie buvo atlikti
1904–1947 metais. Antrajame tyrime jis nagrin÷jo kitus 163 tyrimus,
kurie buvo atlikti 1948–1970 metais. Atidžiau žvelgiant į kiekvieną iš šių
tyrimų, paaišk÷ja, kaip asmens savyb÷s prisideda prie vadovavimo.
Asmenines vadovų savybes tyrin÷jo ir Mann (1959), Miner (1978),
Lord DeVader ir Alliger (1986), R. Bleik ir J. Mouton (1985), Kirkpatrick
ir Locke (1991), Wilson (2004) ir kt.
Robert Katz (1955) prad÷jo išsamesnius dalykinių savybių tyrimus,
kuriais remiantis atskleistas vadovo dalykin÷mis savyb÷mis (įgūdžiais)
grįstas vadovavimo modelis, patobulintas XX a. dešimtajame
dešimtmetyje Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs ir Fleishman (2000),
Yammarino (2000), Connelly, Gilbert, Marks ir kt. (2000).
Nors vadovų asmenin÷s savyb÷s tiriamos jau nuo pra÷jusio
šimtmečio pradžios, o dalykin÷s savyb÷s - nuo pra÷jusio šimtmečio
vidurio, nuolat besikeičianti organizacijų aplinka kelia naujus
reikalavimus, tod÷l juos atitinkančių vadovų asmeninių ir dalykinių
savybių įvardijimas bei jų ugdymo tobulinimas yra aktuali mokslin÷ ir
praktin÷ problema.
Šio straipsnio objektas – vadovų savybių ugdymo modeliai.
Tikslas. Tyrimų, kurių rezultatais remiantis parašytas šis straipsnis,
tikslas: išanalizuoti vadovų asmeninių ir dalykinių savybių ugdymo
modelius, įvardyti jų pranašumus ir trūkumus; pasiūlyti vadovų savybių
ugdymo proceso variantą, sudarantį sąlygas s÷kmingai ugdyti vadovų
savybes, atsižvelgiant į šių dienų iššūkius.
Suformuluotiems tikslams realizuoti atlikti tyrimai parod÷, kad
vadovų asmenin÷ms ir dalykin÷ms savyb÷ms ugdyti naudojami įvairūs
būdai ir priemon÷s. Įvairiais laikotarpiais yra sudaryta daugyb÷ vadovų
savybių ugdymo organizavimo modelių.
Tyrimo metodai: mokslin÷s literatūros palyginamoji analiz÷,
sisteminimas, apibendrinimas.
Vienas iš tokių modelių – Kolb pasiūlytas ugdymo ciklas, apimantis
keturias stadijas: veiksmų, mąstymo, suvokimo, patikrinimo. Kitas
modelis – Byham, Smith, Pease (2002) sudarytas modelis, pagrįstas
grupinio ugdymo metodo taikymu (angl.). Jis realizuojamas penkiais
etapais: 1) darbuotojų grup÷s subūrimo; 2) darbuotojų ugdymo galimybių
nustatymo; 3) rekomendacijoms tobuliniti (development) sudarymo; 4)
programos realizavimo, 5) naujų tobulinimo krypčių nustatymo. Bene
plačiausiai praktikoje taikomas modelis – Statt (2000) sudaryta ugdymo
procesų seka: ugdymo poreikio nustatymas, tikslų formulavimas, turinio
sudarymas, metodų parinkimas, vertinimo atlikimas. Moderniausias
modelis - socialinio mokymo teoriją pritaikantis Whetten ir Cameron
(2002) penkių veiksmų modelis. Jis apima šiuos veiksmus: savyb÷s
vertinimą, savyb÷s ugdymą, savyb÷s analizę, savyb÷s patikrinimą
praktikoje, savyb÷s panaudojimą veikloje.
Apibūdinti modeliai turi ir pranašumų ir trūkumų. Būdingiausias
trūkumas – neįvertintas ugdymo proceso kompleksiškumas,
sud÷tingumas. Tyrimų rezultatais remiantis straipsnyje siūlomas
kompleksinis ugdymo procesas, jungiantis šias veiklas: vadovų
prioritetinių asmeninių ir dalykinių savybių įvardijimą; darbuotojų
atranką ir jų turimų savybių įvertinimą; vertinimui tinkamiausio
instrumento pasirinkimą; ugdytinų savybių susisteminimą; galimų
ugdymo būdų ir metodų paiešką; ugdymo metodo, atitinkančio tikslus
pasirinkimą; vadovavimo veiklos ugdomiems darbuotojams suteikimą;
ugdymo proceso atsižvelgiant į konkrečias situacijas koregavimą;
reagavimą į ugdymo poreikius; kelių ugdymo instrumentų derinimą;
trumpalaikių ugdymo priemonių taikymą; tinkamiausios ugdymo
programos pasirinkimą; tiesioginio vadovo vaidmens ugdymo procese
apibr÷žimą; glob÷jų besiugdantiems paskyrimą; karjeros planavimą.
Kompleksinio vadovų savybių ugdymo proceso modelio
realizavimas parod÷, kad toks požiūris daro teigiamą įtaką šio proceso
rezultatams.
Išvados.
1. Ekonomikos globalizavimo ir internacionalizavimo sąlygomis
vadovavimas organizacijoms tampa vis sud÷tingesnis. Organizacijų
vadovai susiduria su naujomis situacijomis, reikalaujančiomis vadyboje
taikyti modernius metodus, organizacines formas, naudoti procesus. D÷l
iššūkių turi keistis, ugdytis vadovų asmenin÷s ir dalykin÷s savyb÷s, tod÷l
šių savybių ugdymo tobulinimas tampa svarbia priemone, užtikrinančia
organizacijos veiklos s÷kmingumą.
2. Vadovų asmeninių ir dalykinių savybių ugdymo problemos
prad÷tos tyrin÷ti XX a. pirmojoje pus÷je. Šių tyrimų pagrindu sudaryta ir
praktikoje naudojama daugyb÷ savybių ugdymo organizavimo modelių.
Labiausiai paplitę modeliai yra Kolb keturių ugdymo stadijų modelis,
Statt (2000) penkių ugdymo etapų modelis bei Whetthen ir Cameron
(2002) socialinio mokymo teoriją pritaikantis modelis. Šių ir kitų žinomų
modelių pagrindinis trūkumas – juose neišsamiai įvertintas ugdymo
proceso kompleksiškumas ir sud÷tingumas.
3. Siekiant užtikrinti vadovų savybių ugdymo kompleksiškumą jį
tikslinga organizuoti taikant procesinį–veiklinį požiūrį, t. y. sudaryti
sisteminę ugdymo veiklų visumą ir ją realizuoti ugdymo proceso metu.
Tyrimais, kurių rezultatais remiantis parengtas šis straipsnis, nustatyta,
kad vienas iš galimų procesinio- veiklinio savybių ugdymo modelio
variantų yra 17 ugdymo veiklų kompleksiškai jungiantis procesas.
Praktinis šio modelio taikymas parod÷, kad vadovų asmeninių ir dalykinių
savybių ugdymo veikla yra efektyvi ir rezultatyvi.
Raktažodžiai: vadovas, vadovo savyb÷, savybių ugdymas, ugdymo
modelis, personalo ugdymas, ugdymo procesas.
The article has been reviewed.
Received in August, 2008; accepted in December, 2008.