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Orbitally forced ice sheet fluctuations during the Marinoan Snowball Earth glaciation

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Abstract

Two global glaciations occurred during the Neoproterozoic. Snowball Earth theory posits that these were terminated after millions of years of frigidity when initial warming from rising atmospheric CO2concentrations was amplified by the reduction of ice cover and hence a reduction in planetary albedo. This scenario implies that most of the geological record of ice cover was deposited in a brief period of melt-back. However, deposits in low palaeo-latitudes show evidence of glacial-interglacial cycles. Here we analyse the sedimentology and oxygen and sulphur isotopic signatures of Marinoan Snowball glaciation deposits from Svalbard, in the Norwegian High Arctic. The deposits preserve a record of oscillations in glacier extent and hydrologic conditions under uniformly high atmospheric CO2concentrations. We use simulations from a coupled three-dimensional ice sheet and atmospheric general circulation model to show that such oscillations can be explained by orbital forcing in the late stages of a Snowball glaciation. The simulations suggest that while atmospheric CO2concentrations were rising, but not yet at the threshold required for complete melt-back, the ice sheets would have been sensitive to orbital forcing. We conclude that a similar dynamic can potentially explain the complex successions observed at other localities.
LETTERS
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 24 AUGUST 2015 | DOI: 10.1038/NGEO2502
Orbitally forced ice sheet fluctuations during the
Marinoan Snowball Earth glaciation
Douglas I. Benn1,2*, Guillaume Le Hir3, Huiming Bao4, Yannick Donnadieu5, Christophe Dumas5,
Edward J. Fleming1,6, Michael J. Hambrey7, Emily A. McMillan6, Michael S. Petronis8,
Gilles Ramstein5, Carl T. E. Stevenson6, Peter M. Wynn9and Ian J. Fairchild6
Two global glaciations occurred during the Neoproterozoic.
Snowball Earth theory posits that these were terminated
after millions of years of frigidity when initial warming from
rising atmospheric CO2concentrations was amplified by the
reduction of ice cover and hence a reduction in planetary
albedo1,2. This scenario implies that most of the geological
record of ice cover was deposited in a brief period of
melt-back3. However, deposits in low palaeo-latitudes show
evidence of glacial–interglacial cycles4–6. Here we analyse the
sedimentology and oxygen and sulphur isotopic signatures
of Marinoan Snowball glaciation deposits from Svalbard, in
the Norwegian High Arctic. The deposits preserve a record
of oscillations in glacier extent and hydrologic conditions
under uniformly high atmospheric CO2concentrations. We
use simulations from a coupled three-dimensional ice sheet
and atmospheric general circulation model to show that such
oscillations can be explained by orbital forcing in the late stages
of a Snowball glaciation. The simulations suggest that while
atmospheric CO2concentrations were rising, but not yet at
the threshold required for complete melt-back, the ice sheets
would have been sensitive to orbital forcing. We conclude
that a similar dynamic can potentially explain the complex
successions observed at other localities.
The Wilsonbreen Formation in northeast Svalbard contains a
detailed record of environmental change during the Marinoan, the
second of the major Cryogenian glaciations (650–635 Ma; refs 7,8).
At this time, Svalbard was located in the Tropics on the eastern
side of Rodinia9,10. The <180 m thick Wilsonbreen Formation was
deposited within a long-lived intracratonic sedimentary basin11. It
is subdivided into three members (W1, W2 and W3) based on
the relative abundance of diamictite and carbonate beds7,8 (Fig. 1
and Supplementary Figs 1 and 2). The occurrence throughout the
succession of lacustrine sediments containing both precipitated car-
bonate and ice-rafted detritus, and intermittent evaporative carbon-
ates and fluvial deposits, indicates that the basin remained isolated
from the sea, consistent with eustatic sea-level fall of several hundred
metres and limited local isostatic depression (Supplementary Infor-
mation; ref. 12). This makes it ideal for investigating environmental
change within a Neoproterozoic panglaciation, as it provides direct
evidence of subaerial environments and climatic conditions.
We made detailed sedimentary logs at ten known and new
localities extending over 60 km of strike (Fig. 1 and Supplemen-
tary Fig. 1; see Methods). Seven sediment facies associations were
identified, recording distinct depositional environments that varied
in spatial extent through time (Supplementary Fig. 3 and Supple-
mentary Information). These are: FA1: subglacial, recording di-
rect presence of glacier ice; FA2: fluvial channels; FA3: dolomitic
floodplain, recording episodic flooding, evaporation and microbial
communities; FA4: carbonate lake margin, including evidence of
wave action; FA5: carbonate lacustrine, including annual rhythmites
and intermittent ice-rafted debris; FA6: glacilacustrine, consisting
of ice-proximal grounding-line fans (FA6-G) and ice-distal rainout
deposits (FA6-D); and FA7: periglacial, recording cold, non-glacial
conditions. Further descriptions are provided in the Supplementary
Information. The vertical and horizontal distribution of these facies
associations (Fig. 1) allows the sequence of environmental changes
to be reconstructed in detail:
(1) The base of the Wilsonbreen Formation is a well-marked
periglacially weathered horizon with thin wind-blown sands
(Supplementary Fig. 4a,b). This surface records very limited
sediment cycling in cold, arid conditions.
(2) At all localities, the weathering horizon is overlain by fluvial
channel facies (FA2) and mudstones, marking the appearance
of flowing water in the basin and implying positive air temper-
atures for at least part of the time (Supplementary Fig. 5a).
(3) Glacilacustrine deposits (FA6-D) record flooding of the basin
and delivery of sediment by ice rafting (Supplementary
Fig. 4c,d). Far-travelled clasts are common, indicating transport
by a large, continental ice sheet.
(4) Warm-based, active ice advanced into the basin, indicated by
traction tills and glacitectonic shearing (FA1; Supplementary
Fig. 4e–g). (1–4 make up Member W1).
(5) Ice retreat is recorded by a second periglacial weathering
surface (FA7). This is overlain by fluvial channel, flood-
plain, lake-margin and carbonate lacustrine sediments of
W2 (FA2-5; Supplementary Fig. 5), recording a shifting mo-
saic of playa lakes and ephemeral streams. Lakes and river
channels supported microbial communities. Millimetre-scale
carbonate-siliciclastic rhythmites indicate seasonal cycles of
1Department of Geology, The University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), N-9171 Longyearbyen, Norway. 2School of Geography and Geosciences, University of
St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 8YA, UK. 3Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, 75238 Paris, France. 4Department of Geology and Geophysics, E235
Howe-Russell Complex, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA. 5Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement,
CNRS-CEA, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France. 6School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
7Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DB, UK. 8Natural Resource Management, Environmental
Geology, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, New Mexico 87701, USA. 9Lancaster Environment Centre, University of Lancaster, Lancaster
LA1 4YQ, UK. Present address: CASP, West Building, 181A Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DH, UK. *e-mail: Doug.Benn@unis.no
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LETTERS NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO2502
010
180
150
100
50
m
0
km
20 30 40 50 60
D1
W3
W2
W1
E4
DRA
DIT
REIN
KLO
McD
ORM
PIN
AND
BAC
SLA
Marine carbonate FA1: subglacial (till) FA2: fluvial
FA6: (proximal)
FA7: periglacial
FA6: glacilacustrine (distal)FA1: (glacitectonite)
FA2-5: (carbonate) fluvial and lacustrine
Figure 1 | Sedimentary architecture and palaeoenvironments of the
Wilsonbreen Formation. Regional correlation of facies associations and
members W1, W2 and W3 across northeast Svalbard. From north to south,
study locations are: DRA, Dracoisen; DIT, Ditlovtoppen; AND, East
Andromedafjellet; REIN, Reinsryggen (informal name); KLO, Klofjellet;
McD, MacDonaldryggen; BAC, Backlundtoppen–Kvitfjellet ridge; PIN,
Pinnsvinryggen (informal name); SLA, Slangen and ORM, Ormen.
photosynthesis. The environment seems to have been closely
similar to that of the present-day McMurdo Dry Valleys in
Antarctica, although with less extreme seasonality owing to its
low latitude13.
(6) Water levels and glacier extent underwent a series of oscil-
lations, recorded by switches between glacilacustrine diamic-
tite (FA6-D) and fluvial, lacustrine and lake-margin sediments
(FA2-5) in W2. Sedimentation rates inferred from annual
rhythmites in W2 suggest that each retreat phase may have
lasted 104years.
(7) A second major ice advance marks the base of W3, with
widespread deposition of subglacial tills and glacitectonism of
underlying sediments. Basal tills are absent from the northern-
most locality, but close proximity of glacier ice is recorded by
grounding-line fans (FA6-G; Supplementary Fig. 4h,i).
(8) Ice retreated while the basin remained flooded and glaci-
genic sediment continued to be delivered to the lake by
ice rafting. Thin laminated carbonates (FA5) in W3 indi-
cate periods of reduced glacigenic sedimentation, indicative
of minor climatic fluctuations over timescales of 103years
(Supplementary Fig. 5g).
(9) A sharp contact with overlying laminated ‘cap’ carbonate
(Supplementary Fig. 2) records the transition to post-glacial
conditions. At some localities, basal conglomerates provide ev-
idence of subaerial exposure, followed by marine transgression.
The cap carbonate closely resembles basal Ediacaran carbonates
elsewhere, and marks global deglaciation, eustatic sea-level rise
and connection of the basin to the sea1,12,14.
Environmental and atmospheric conditions during deposition
of W2 and W3 can be further elucidated by isotopic data from
carbonate-associated sulphate in lacustrine limestones (Fig. 2
and Supplementary Fig. 6). These exhibit negative to extremely
negative 117O values, with consistent linear co-variation with δ34S,
indicating mixing of pre-glacial sulphate and isotopically light
sulphate formed in a CO2-enriched atmosphere15,16. The observed
0
−1.6
−1.4
−1.2
−1.0
−0.8
−0.6
−0.4
−0.2
0.0
y = 0.106x − 3.37
Heavy
endmember
Towards light
endmember
r2 = 0.59
W2 limestones, existing data
W2 limestones, new data
W3 limestones, all new data
51015202530
CAS δ34S (% )
%
CAS Δ17O (% )
%
Figure 2 | Co-variation of 117O and δ34S from carbonate-associated
sulphate in W2 and W3. ‘Existing data’ (ref. 16) and new data define a
mixing line between pre-glacial sulphate (top) and an isotopically light
sulphate formed by oxidation of pyrite including incorporation of a
light-117O signature from a CO2-enriched atmosphere. Data from W2 and
W3 lie on closely similar trend lines, indicating no detectable change in
pCO2between deposition of the two members.
values could reflect non-unique combinations of pCO2,pO2, O2
residence time and other factors, but a box model17 indicates pCO2
was most likely 10 to 100 mbar (1 mbar =1,000 ppmv).
These values are far too high to permit formation of low-
latitude ice sheets in the Neoproterozoic, but they are consistent
with a late-stage Snowball Earth. For an ice-free Neoproterozoic
Earth, model studies indicate mean terrestrial temperatures in the
range 30–50 C for pCO2=10 to 100 mbar (ref. 18). Formation of
low-latitude ice sheets requires much lower pCO2, on the order of
0.1–1 mbar (refs 2,19,20). Once formed, however, ice sheets can
persist despite rising CO2from volcanic outgassing, as a result of
a high planetary albedo. This hysteresis in the relationship between
pCO2and planetary temperature is a key element of Snowball Earth
theory. It implies that W2 and W3 were deposited relatively late in
the Marinoan, after volcanic outgassing had raised pCO2from 0.1 or
1 mbar to 10 or 100 mbar. Modelled silicate weathering and volcanic
outgassing rates indicate that this would require 106to 107years21.
The consistent co-variation of 117O and δ34S in lacustrine
limestones in both W2 and W3 suggests no detectable rise in
atmospheric pCO2, as this would alter the slope of the mixing
line (Fig. 2). This implies that the glacier oscillations recorded
in W2 and W3 occurred during a relatively short time interval
(<105years21) towards the end of the Marinoan. In turn, this implies
that the remainder of the Wilsonbreen Formation (including the
basal weathering horizon) represents many millions of years, during
which pCO2built up from the low values necessary for inception
of low-latitude glaciation to those indicated by the geochemical
evidence. The weathering horizon provides direct evidence of cold,
arid conditions during this interval, before the appearance of fluvial
and glacilacustrine sediments in the basin.
The evidence for ice sheet advance/retreat cycles at low latitudes
in a CO2-enriched atmosphere motivated a series of numerical
simulations to test the hypothesis that these cycles were linked
to Milankovitch orbital variations. We employed asynchronous
coupling of a three-dimensional ice sheet model and an atmospheric
general circulation model using the continental configuration of
ref. 22. We first ran simulations with a modern orbital configuration
to examine ice sheet behaviour through a large range of pCO2
values from 0.1 to 100 mbar (ref. 23; Supplementary Figs 7–10).
Consistently with previous results2,20, at low pCO2(0.1 mbar), global
ice volume reaches 170 ×106km3, but substantial tropical land
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NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO2502 LETTERS
Surface NH
Surface SH
Land ice surface
(×1013 m2)
0
−1,000
−600
−200
1,000
600
200
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
Ice thickness (CSO, 30 kyr of simulation)Ice thickness (WSO, 20 kyr of simulation)
Ice thickness (WSO minus CSO)
0°
20° N
20° S
40° N
a
40° S
60° S
0°
20° N
20° S
40° N
40° S
60° S
0°
20° N
20° S
40° N
40° S
60° S
2.5
3.0
5.5
6.0
0 10,000 20,000
Time (yr)
30,000 40,000
[CSO][WSO] [WSO][CSO]
m
m
Latitude
Latitude
Latitude
b
cd
0.50
0.50
0.50
Figure 3 | Modelled ice sheet oscillations in response to orbital forcing. a,b, Shaded contours show land ice thickness obtained with 20 mbar of carbon
dioxide in response to changes of orbital forcing (WSO (a)) and CSO (b), warm/cold summer orbit for the northern hemisphere) over the course of two
precession cycles (40kyr of simulation). In the light brown continental areas without ice, the white line is used to represent the old ice sheet extension
(WSO case). The Svalbard area is indicated by a red circle. c, Ice thickness variation in 10 kyr (WSO case after 20 kyr minus CSO case after 30kyr of
simulation). In acthe continental outline is shown by the 0.5m elevation contour. d, Surface of hemisphere covered by ice (m2) through time ([WSO] and
[CSO] indicate which orbital configuration is used).
areas remain ice free as a result of sublimation exceeding snowfall
(Supplementary Fig. 10a). Ice volume remains relatively constant
for pCO2=0.1 to 20 mbar (Supplementary Fig. 10b), owing to an
increase in accumulation that compensates for higher ablation rates
(Supplementary Fig. 13). In contrast, above 20 mbar, ice extent in the
eastern Tropics significantly decreases (Supplementary Fig. 10c). At
pCO2=100 mbar, most of the continental ice cover disappears, except
for remnants over mountain ranges (Supplementary Fig. 10d).
To test the sensitivity of the tropical ice sheets to Milankovitch
forcing, experiments with changing orbital parameters were initial-
ized using the steady-state ice sheets for pCO2=20 mbar. Although
obliquity has been invoked as a possible cause of Neoproterozoic
glaciations24, this mechanism remains problematical and cannot
account for significant climatic oscillations at low latitudes25,26 . We
therefore focused on precession as a possible driver, and used two
opposite orbital configurations, favouring cold and warm summers,
respectively, over the northern tropics (CSO: cold summer orbit
and WSO: warm summer orbit; Supplementary Fig. 14). Switch-
ing between these configurations causes tropical ice sheets to ad-
vance/retreat over several hundred kilometres in 10 kyr (Supple-
mentary Movie 1), with strong asymmetry between hemispheres
(Fig. 3). Shifting from WSO to CSO causes ice retreat in the South-
ern Hemisphere and ice sheet expansion in the Northern Hemi-
sphere (Supplementary Fig. 14c,d). Significant ice volume changes
occur between 30N and S, but are less apparent at higher lati-
tudes. This reflects higher ablation rates in the warmer low lati-
tudes (Supplementary Fig. 14e,h), and higher ice sheet sensitivity
to shifting patterns of melt. Larger greenhouse forcing at the end of
the Snowball event implies increasing ice sheet sensitivity to subtle
insolation changes. Given a strong diurnal cycle23, our simulations
also predict a significant number of days above 0C in the tropics
(Supplementary Fig. 15), consistent with geological evidence for
ice rafting, liquid water in lakes and rivers, and photosynthetic
microbial communities.
Our results show that geological evidence for glacial–interglacial
cycles5–7 is consistent with an enriched Snowball Earth theory. Ter-
mination of the Marinoan panglaciation was not a simple switch
from icehouse to greenhouse states, but was characterized by a
climate transition during which glacial cycles could be forced
by Milankovitch orbital variations. The geochemical evidence
presented here implies that at least the upper 60–70% of the
Wilsonbreen Formation was deposited in 105years, on the as-
sumption that a trend in pCO2would be evident over longer
timescales21. Rates of CO2build-up, however, may have slowed in
the later stages of Snowball Earth owing to silicate weathering of
exposed land surfaces, so it is possible that the oscillatory phase was
more prolonged.
Initiation of low-latitude glaciation in the Neoproterozoic re-
quires low pCO2(0.1–1 mbar; refs 2,19,20), implying that the os-
cillatory phase was preceded by a prolonged colder period (106
to 107years) during which pCO2increased gradually as a result of
volcanic outgassing21. This timescale is in agreement with recent
dates indicating the Marinoan lasted 15 million years27. The basal
weathering horizon is consistent with a period of low temperatures
and limited hydrologic cycle before the oscillatory phase2,19 .
Further work is needed to refine the upper and lower limits
of pCO2conducive to climate and ice sheet oscillations in Snow-
ball Earth. Factors not included in the present model, such as
supraglacial dust or areas of ice-free tropical ocean28–30 , can be
expected to make the Earth system more sensitive to orbital forcing.
While many details remain to be investigated, our overall conclu-
sions remain robust.
The Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth was nuanced, varied and
rich. We anticipate that detailed studies of the rock record in other
parts of the world, in conjunction with numerical modelling studies,
will continue to yield insight into the temporal and regional diversity
of this pivotal period in Earth history.
Methods
Methods and any associated references are available in the online
version of the paper.
Received 17 February 2015; accepted 8 July 2015;
published online 24 August 2015
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LETTERS NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO2502
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NERC-funded project GR3/ NE/H004963/1 Glacial
Activity in Neoproterozoic Svalbard (GAINS). Logistical support was provided by the
University Centre in Svalbard. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of
CCRT under allocation 2014-017013 made by GENCI (Grand Equipement National de
Calcul Intensif). We also thank D. Paillard and P. Hoffman for stimulating discussions
and valuable insights.
Author contributions
Field data were collected and analysed by I.J.F., D.I.B., E.J.F., M.J.H., E.A.McM., M.S.P.,
P.M.W. and C.T.E.S. Geochemical analyses were conducted by H.B. and P.M.W. Model
experiments were designed and conducted by G.L.H., Y.D., C.D. and G.R. The
manuscript and figures were drafted by D.I.B., I.J.F. and G.L.H., with contributions from
the other authors.
Additional information
Supplementary information is available in the online version of the paper. Reprints and
permissions information is available online at www.nature.com/reprints.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to D.I.B.
Competing financial interests
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
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NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO2502 LETTERS
Methods
Sedimentology. Lithofacies were classified based on grain size, internal
sedimentary structures and deformation structures, and bounding surfaces.
Detailed stratigraphic logs were made in the field, supplemented by drawings and
photographs of key features. Samples were taken for polishing and thin sectioning,
to allow detailed examination of microstructures in the laboratory. In addition,
data were collected on clast lithology, shape, surface features and fabric.
Diamictites of the Wilsonbreen Formation are commonly very friable, allowing
included clasts to be removed intact from the surrounding matrix, allowing
measurement of both clast morphology and orientation, using methods developed
for unlithified sediments. Clast morphology (shape, roundness and surface texture)
was measured for samples of 50 clasts to determine transport pathways. Clast fabric
analysis was performed by measuring a-axis orientations of samples of 50 clasts
with a compass-clinometer, and data were summarized using the eigenvalue or
orientation tensor method. Oriented samples for measurement of anisotropy of
magnetic susceptibility (AMS) were collected using a combination of field-drilling
and block sampling. AMS was measured using an AGICO KLY-3 Kappabridge
operating at 875 Hz with a 300 A m1applied field at the University of Birmingham
and an AGICO MFK-1A Kappabridge operating at 976Hz with a 200 A m1
applied field at New Mexico Highlands University.
Geochemistry. Laboratory procedures for extracting, purifying and measuring the
triple oxygen (δ18O and 117O) and sulphur (δ34 S) isotope composition of
carbonate associated sulphate (CAS) in bulk carbonates are detailed in ref. 16.
Briefly, fresh carbonate-bearing rock chips were crushed into fine grains and
powders using mortar and pestle. Rinsing the fines with 18 Mwater revealed little
water-leachable sulphate in any of the Wilsonbreen carbonates. Subsequently,
about 10 to 30 g carbonates were slowly digested in 1–3 M HCl solutions. The
solution was then centrifuged, filtered through a 0.2µm filter, and acidified before
saturated BaCl2droplets were added. BaSO4precipitates were collected after >12 h
and purified using the DDARP method (see Supplementary Information). The
purified BaSO4was then analysed for three different isotope parameters: 117O, by
converting to O2using a CO2-laser fluorination method; δ18O, by converting to CO
through a Thermal Conversion Elemental Analyzer (TCEA) at 1,450C; and δ34 S,
by converting to SO2by combustion in tin capsules in the presence of V2O5
through an Elementar Pyrocube elemental analyser at 1,050 C. The 117O was run
in dual-inlet mode, whereas the δ18O and δ34 S were run in continuous-flow mode.
Both the 117O and δ18 O were run on a MAT 253 at Louisiana State University,
whereas the δ34S was determined on an Isoprime 100 continuous-flow mass
spectrometer at the University of Lancaster, UK. The 117O was calculated as
117Oδ017 O0.52×δ018 O in which δ01,000ln (Rsample/Rstandard ) and Ris the
molar ratio of 18O/16 O or 17O/16O. All δvalues are in Vienna Standard Mean Ocean
Water VSMOW and Vienna Canyon Diablo Troilite (VCDT) for sulphate oxygen
and sulphur, respectively. The analytical standard deviation (1σ) for replicate
analysis associated with the 117O, δ18O and δ34 S are ±0.05h,±0.5hand ±0.2h,
respectively. As the CAS is heterogeneous in hand specimens, the standard
deviation is for laboratory procedures. δ34S values were corrected against VCDT
using within-run analyses of international standard NBS-127 (assuming δ34S values
of +21.1h). Within-run standard replication (1 s.d.) was <0.3h. All geochemical
data are included in Supplementary Table 1.
Numerical modelling. Model runs were conducted with a coupled
atmospheric general circulation model (LMDz) and ice sheet model (GRISLI:
GRenoble Ice Shelf and Land Ice model). LMDz (spatial resolution 4in latitude
×5in longitude with 38 vertical levels) was run with prescribed continental ice
to climatic equilibrium. GRISLI has a 40km grid size and is driven with
downscaled climatic fields of surface air temperature, precipitation and
evaporation. To capture ice sheet–climate feedbacks, LMDz is rerun using the new
ice sheet distribution and topography. This procedure was repeated each 10 kyr to
investigate orbital forcing.
Surface mass balance (accumulation minus sublimation and melting) was
computed from monthly mean temperature, precipitation and evaporation rate.
Melt rate is calculated using the positive-degree-day method.
No sea ice dynamics treatment is specified, the sea ice cover is prescribed and a
thickness of 10 m is imposed. Ice albedo is fixed at 0.6, whereas snow albedo varies
from 0.9 from 0.55 as a function of the zenith and ageing process. Land ice/snow
free surface has the characteristic of a bare soil (rocky regolith) with an
albedo of 0.3.
Code availability. Code for the GCM LMDz can be accessed at:
http://lmdz.lmd.jussieu.fr. Code for the ISM GRISLI (GRenoble Ice Shelf and Land
Ice model) is not available.
Further details of the methods and modelling procedures are provided in the
Supplementary Information in the online version of the paper.
NATURE GEOSCIENCE |www.nature.com/naturegeoscience
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... wedges, reflecting periglacial conditions [28,31,[33][34][35], present further challenges to reconcile with the Snowball Earth model. ...
... Other possible sources of clast-free sediments include dusts and volcanic ashes transported and accumulated on the ice surface in tropics [61][62][63]. However, this interpretation is inconsistent with the been interpreted as fluctuations of the ice grounding line during glacier melting or ice-sheet advancing/retreating influenced by astronomical cycles [34]. In this scenario, the ice-shelf margin would have been highly dynamic. ...
... However, alternations of diamictites and clast-free sediments in mid-latitudes, such as the Nantuo Formation in South China, cannot be explained within this framework. In fact, many continents located beyond the tropics, such as Baltica, Tarim, and West Africa (Fig. 1), also display similar cyclic depositional features [34,47,64]. In addition, there are precessional cycles at low latitudes [34]. ...
... 56 Myr of the preceding Sturtian. This result could be interpreted to imply that the Marinoan glaciation was not a snowball, especially since Ghaub Fm exhibits cyclic deposition that in Svalbard and Oman has been argued to be similar to Cenozoic-style orbitally forced ice mass variability (36,37). This stratigraphic variability presents a challenge for the snowball hypothesis, which requires a weak hydrologic cycle (17,35). ...
... Ref. 37 modeled the precession-like forcing of ice sheets in a hard snowball state, which at high atmospheric CO 2 demonstrated significant ice mass variability in apparent reconciliation of an active hydrological cycle and the snowball Earth hypothesis. Ref. 37 suggest that cyclic snowball records primarily record deglaciation. Sensitivity to orbital forcing, however, implies a high-frequency responsiveness of global climate whereby orbital forcing could trigger deglaciation (38). ...
Article
Twice during the Neoproterozoic Era, Earth experienced runaway ice-albedo catastrophes that resulted in multimillion year, low-latitude glaciations: the Sturtian and Marinoan snowball Earths. In the snowball climate state, CO 2 consumption through silicate weathering collapses, and atmospheric CO 2 accumulates via volcanic outgassing until a sufficiently strong greenhouse causes deglaciation. The duration and extent of ice cover are critical for planetary habitability, both on exoplanets and on Earth where animals emerged between the two glaciations. Radioisotopic ages have defined the duration of the Sturtian glaciation to 56 Myr, but the duration of the Marinoan glaciation (4 to 15 Myr) currently has 11 Myr of uncertainty. Here, we show that the Marinoan glaciation in Namibia lasted ca. 4 Myr with less than 10 m of vertical ice grounding line motion through glacial advance-retreat cycles. The stability of a low-latitude ice grounding line is consistent with the strong hysteresis of a hard snowball state. The disparity in durations demonstrates different routes to deglaciation, through slower CO 2 accumulation for the longer Sturtian and radiative perturbation for the Marinoan. The short duration of the Marinoan glaciation may have been essential for the survival and evolution of animals and illustrates an additional path toward habitability on exoplanets.
... Many Neoproterozoic successions display spatial and temporal variability, with sedimentary patterns and facies reflecting active ice dynamics, including dropstone rainout intervals and thick, glacially derived diamictite deposits (e.g., Condon et al., 2002;Allen & Etienne, 2008;Le Heron et al., 2013). Sedimentary geochemistry and climate modeling also suggest that as atmospheric CO 2 levels rise during Snowball Earth, the climate becomes increasingly sensitive to orbital forcing (Rieu et al., 2007;Benn et al., 2015;. Consequently, ice sheet advance and retreat cycles, along with glacier-fed hydrological systems, were likely active during the later stages of a snowball period, leading to enhanced erosion and increased sediment transport. ...
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GO TO THE DOI LINK FOR PDF. It has long been speculated that isolated Paleoproterozoic basins of northern Laurentia are remnants of a once contiguous sedimentary cover due to similarities in stratigraphy, paleocurrent directions, sediment provenance, and geochronological data. However, corroborating evidence for this `superbasin hypothesis' has been lacking outside the footprints of the preserved basins. We present new zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He and fission-track thermochronology data and time-temperature inversions from metamorphic basement that support the previous existence of sedimentary cover over currently exposed shield regions, bridging the gap between preserved basin strata across a large expanse of northern Canada. Inversions also reveal a notably synchronous and relatively rapid cooling event consistent with deep erosional exhumation during supercontinent breakup and Snowball Earth glaciations. Our study provides a comprehensive dataset from the exposed craton in northern Canada that supports an originally more widespread Proterozoic basin and offers additional evidence of ~4.3 ± 1.1 km of Neoproterozoic erosional exhumation that played a role in the formation of the Great Unconformity surface across North America.
... The theory of Snowball Earth climate state was developed from energy balance models of ocean albedo, in the manner that Plate Tectonics originated as a theory for ocean basins. Geological records of low-latitude Cryogenian (720-635 Ma) glaciation are documented along continental margins and shallow marine basins, but the degree to which ice covered the continents during Snowball Earth is poorly constrained and inferred primarily from climate models (1)(2)(3)(4)(5). ...
Article
The Snowball Earth hypothesis predicts global ice cover; however, previous descriptions of Cryogenian (720-635 Ma) glacial deposits are limited to continental margins and shallow marine basins. The Tavakaiv (Tava) sandstone injectites and ridges in Colorado, USA, preserve a rare terrestrial record of Cryogenian low-latitude glaciation. Injectites, ridges, and chemically weathered crystalline rock display features characteristic of fluidization and pervasive deformation in a subglacial environment due to glacial loading, fluid overpressure, and repeated sand injection during meltwater events. In situ hematite U-Pb geochronology on hematite-quartz veins, which crosscut and are cut by Tava dikes, constrain sand injection at ~690-660 Ma. We attribute early Tava sand injection episodes to basal melting associated with rifting and geothermal heating, and later injections to meltwater generation during ~661 Ma Sturtian deglaciation. A modern analog is provided by the Ross Embayment of Antarctica, where rift-related faults border sediment-filled basins, overpressurized fluids circulate in confined aquifers below ice, and extensive preglacial topography is preserved. Field evidence and geochronology in Colorado further highlight that deep chemical weathering of Proterozoic bedrock and denudation associated with the Great Unconformity predate Cryogenian injection of fluidized sand, consistent with limited glacial erosion.
... With the presence of a large global ice sheet, sea level should fall significantly and the global mass of the liquid ocean should decrease. Hoffman et al. 1 estimate ocean volume change during glaciation by summing continental and sea ice volumes under various dust accumulation rates and pCO 2 levels 61,62 . We explore the range of estimates and assume a decrease in ocean volume of 10% to 30% relative to the modern ocean. ...
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At least two global “Snowball Earth” glaciations occurred during the Neoproterozoic Era (1000-538.8 million years ago). Post-glacial surface environments during this time are recorded in cap carbonates: layers of limestone or dolostone that directly overlie glacial deposits. Postulated environmental conditions that created the cap carbonates lack consensus largely because single hypotheses fail to explain the cap carbonates’ global mass, depositional timescales, and geochemistry of parent waters. Here, we present a global geologic carbon cycle model before, during, and after the second glaciation (i.e. the Marinoan) that explains cap carbonate characteristics. We find a three-stage process for cap carbonate formation: (1) low-temperature seafloor weathering during glaciation generates deep-sea alkalinity; (2) vigorous post-glacial continental weathering supplies alkalinity to a carbonate-saturated freshwater layer, rapidly precipitating cap carbonates; (3) mixing of post-glacial meltwater with deep-sea alkalinity prolongs cap carbonate deposition. We suggest how future geochemical data and modeling refinements could further assess our hypothesis.
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Geological observations informed by climate dynamics imply that the oceans were 99.9% covered by light-blocking ice shelves during two discrete, self-reversing Snowball Earth epochs spanning a combined 60 to 70 Myr of the Cryogenian Period (720 to 635 Ma). The timescale for initial ice advances across the tropical oceans is ~300 y in an ice−atmosphere−ocean general circulation model in Cryogenian paleogeography. Areas of optically thin oceanic ice are usually invoked to account for fossil marine phototrophs, including macroscopic multicellular eukaryotes, before and after each Snowball, but different taxa. Ecosystem relocation is a scenario that does not require thin marine ice. Assume that long before Cryogenian Snowballs, diverse supra- and periglacial biomes were established in polar−alpine regions. When the Snowball onsets occurred, those biomes migrated in step with their ice margins to the equatorial zone of net sublimation. There, they prospered and evolved, their habitat areas expanded, and the cruelty of winter reduced. Nutrients were supplied by dust (loess) derived from cozonal ablative lands where surface winds were strong. When each Snowball finally ended, those biomes were mostly inundated by the meltwater-dominated and rapidly warming lid of a nutrient-rich but depauperate ocean. Some taxa returned to the mountaintops while others restocked the oceans. This ecosystem relocation scenario makes testable predictions. The lineages required for post-Cryogenian biotic radiations should be present in modern polar−alpine biomes. Legacies of polar−alpine ancestry should be found in the genomes of living organisms. Examples of such tests are highlighted herein.
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Neoproterozoic snowball Earth events lasted for multiple million years, experiencing many orbital cycles. Here we investigate whether the deglaciation of these events would be triggered more easily at certain orbital configurations than others, by using an atmosphere‐land model that considers meltpond formation on land ice. Results show that the threshold concentration of atmospheric CO2 (pCO2) required for deglaciation can vary from 6 to 10 × 10⁴ ppmv under different orbital forcings. The threshold pCO2 decreases with the equatorial maximum monthly insolation (EMMI), which is affected most by the eccentricity and secondarily by obliquity. Therefore, we conclude that the snowball Earth deglaciation likely occurred when the eccentricity was high and obliquity was low. Compared to previous estimate that used present‐day orbital configuration which has a minimal eccentricity, the duration of snowball Earth events would likely be much shorter when the influence of orbital variations are considered.
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The extensive deglaciation linked to the Snowball Earth climate that elapsed in the terminal Neoproterozoic caused dramatic changes in ocean chemistry, exceptionally recorded in globally distributed cap carbonate successions. One of the most spectacular examples is the Puga cap carbonate (~635 Ma), which is exposed in the Amazon Craton and associated with extensive sea level changes related to glacial-isostatic adjustment and local ice gravity, resulting in continuously mixed waters. This study meticulously evaluates complex post-Marinoan dynamics using a comprehensive multiproxy approach. The rare earth element + yttrium (REE+Y) patterns in the Puga cap carbonate do not accurately reflect the global ocean water composition; instead, they primarily fractionate in response to local expression of the post-Snowball Earth event, including alkalinity levels and freshwater mixing in the aftermath of the Marinoan glaciation. The flattened REE + Y pattern, accompanied by a positive Eu anomaly, may suggest the influence of continental weathering. Specifically, low Y/Ho ratios in the cap dolostone are consistent with seawater dilution due to meltwater influx (Y/Ho ~ 29-32). Conversely, superchondritic Y/Ho ratios up to 71 in the basal cap dolostones suggest upwelling of hypersaline seawater in coastal areas. The shallow-water recurrence influenced by ice gravity resulted in continuous coastal uplift, forming isolated shelves and the deformation in diamicton, resulting in irregular substrate relief morphologies. This post-glaciation scenario was succeeded by significant landward shoreline migration concomitant with rapid recovery of primary productivity, with large microbial communities flourishing, inducing dolomite precipitation under restricted paleoenvironmental conditions on dolomitic platforms. The rapid rise in sea level led to the dilution of evaporative fluids, ultimately halting dolomicrite precipitation. Following the postglacial transgression, the stratified waters gradually became more mixed, resulting in the termination of dolomitic platform deposition and coinciding with an increase in detrital components, as indicated by the increase of insoluble elements (e.g., REE, Zr, and Th), followed by abrupt replacement by CaCO3-oversaturated seas during the post-glacial transgression. These observations elucidate the interplay between post-glaciation and paleoceanographic dynamics during the Cryogenian-Ediacaran boundary.
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Full-text available
At least two global "Snowball Earth" glaciations occurred during the Neoproterozoic Era (1000-538.8 million years ago). Post-glacial surface environments during this time are recorded in cap carbonates: layers of limestone or dolostone that directly overlie glacial deposits. Postulated environmental conditions that created the cap carbonates lack consensus largely because single hypotheses fail to explain the cap carbonates' global mass, depositional timescales, and geochemistry of parent waters. Here, we present a global geologic carbon cycle model before, during, and after the second glaciation (i.e. the Marinoan) that explains cap carbonate characteristics. We find a three-stage process for cap carbonate formation: (1) low-temperature seafloor weathering during glaciation generates deep-sea alkalinity; (2) vigorous post-glacial continental weathering supplies alkalinity to a carbonate-saturated freshwater layer, rapidly precipitating cap carbonates; (3) mixing of post-glacial meltwater with deep-sea alkalinity prolongs cap carbonate deposition. We suggest how future geochemical data and modeling refinements could further assess our hypothesis.
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The snowball Earth hypothesis predicts globally synchronous glaciations that persisted on a multimillion year time scale. Geochronological tests of this hypothesis have been limited by a dearth of reliable age constraints bracketing these events on multiple cratons. Here we present four new Re-Os geochronology age constraints on Sturtian (717-660 Ma) and Marinoan (635 Ma termination) glacial deposits from three different paleocontinents. A 752.7 ± 5.5 Ma age from the base of the Callison Lake Formation in Yukon, Canada, confirms nonglacial sedimentation on the western margin of Laurentia between ca. 753 and 717 Ma. Coupled with a new 727.3 ± 4.9 Ma age directly below the glacigenic deposits of the Grand Conglomerate on the Congo craton (Africa), these data refute the notion of a global ca. 740 Ma Kaigas glaciation. A 659.0 ± 4.5 Ma age directly above the Maikhan-Uul diamictite in Mongolia confirms previous constraints on a long duration for the 717-660 Ma Sturtian glacial epoch and a relatively short nonglacial interlude. In addition, we provide the first direct radiometric age constraint for the termination of the Marinoan glaciation in Laurentia with an age of 632.3 ± 5.9 Ma from the basal Sheepbed Formation of northwest Canada, which is identical, within uncertainty, to U-Pb zircon ages from China, Australia, and Namibia. Together, these data unite Re-Os and U-Pb geochronological constraints and provide a refined temporal framework for Cryogenian Earth history.
Book
This work presents the detailed geology of Svalbard. It arises from about 50 years of research in many aspects of Svalbard geology by the author, with many colleagues and collaborators. The work is divided into four parts, the first being introductory, setting the scene and outlining the main geological features and the principal geological conventions used throughout. Part two divides Svalbard into eight regions, describing each in a separate chapter. Part three looks at historical events and environments, and part four comprises a summary of the economic aspects of Svalbard geology, plus indexes and reference lists.
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Creep is an important mode of aeolian sand transport, but it has received little attention in previous studies due to experimental difficulties and insufficient theory. In this study, we conducted 116 groups of experiments with three repeats for each group in a wind tunnel to measure the creeping mass of four different mean grain sizes (152, 257, 321, and 382 µm) over six bed lengths (2.0, 3.5, 5.0, 6.5, 8.0, and 10.0 m) at six different friction velocities (0.23, 0.35, 0.41, 0.47, 0.55, and 0.61 m/s). We attempted to develop a comprehensive model of the aeolian creeping mass by analyzing the effect of wind velocity, the particle size and the sand bed length based on the experimental data. The primary conclusions are as follows: 1) the complex relationship among the wind velocity, the grain size, the length of the bed, and the surface shape determines sand creep. There was no unified formula to express the effect of particle sizes and the sand bed length on aeolian creeping masses, and their effects appeared to depend on each other and wind velocity, whereas the creeping mass increases with increasing wind velocity for any particle size with any length of sand bed. 2) This paper presented a predicting model to determine the aeolian creeping mass, whose calculating results can match to experimental data with correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.94 or higher. 3) The effect of grain size on creeping mass can be classified into three categories: the creeping mass increases with increasing grain size, the creeping mass initially decreases and subsequently increases with increasing grain size, and the creeping mass fluctuates with the grain size. 4) The effect of increasing bed length appears to depend on the grain size. For mean grain sizes of 152, 257, and 321 µm, creep initially increases with increasing bed length before decreasing above a certain value, while for a mean grain size of 382 µm, the creeping mass gradually increased with increasing bed length. The results help to elucidate aeolian creep and provide an intense foundation for advanced study.
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The aim of this article is to describe the state of the art of research on the Neoproterozoic atmospheres and glaciation. Using numerical modeling, the authors examine the potential for Earth to have been fully glaciated from the poles to the equator, evaluating the plausibility of a snowball Earth to have occurred. Physical processes and mechanisms suggested for the initiation of a global glaciation are explored and questions asked are as follows: (1) How can climate models that predict a totally ice-capped ocean be reconciled with paleontological evidence that establishes the persistence of photosynthetic activity throughout the snowball event? (2) How can the glacial sequences be explained with the Snowball Earth scenario? (3) What about the melting and the aftermath of the Snowball Earth solution? For each of these questions, 'modeling' solutions that are plausible but may not be definitive are presented, given the extreme severity of these events, which pushes the models to their physical limits. The models, nevertheless, provide important clues and quantitative constraints on the controversial question of whether these catastrophic events could have occurred in their most extreme form.
Chapter
Geologic evidence of tropical sea level glaciation in the Neoproterozoic is one of the cornerstones of the Snowball Earth hypothesis. However, it is not clear during what part of the Snowball Earth cycle that land-based glaciers or ice sheets could have grown: just before the collapse with tropical oceans still open, or after the collapse with oceans completely covered with sea ice. In the former state, the tropics may still have been too warm to allow flowing ice to reach sea level; in the latter, snowfall minus sublimation may have been too small to build significant ice. These possibilities are tested with a coupled global climate model and dynamic ice sheet model, with two continental configurations (~750 Ma, 540 Ma) and two CO2 levels bracketing the collapse to Snowball Earth (840, 420 ppmv). Prior to collapse large high- latitude ice sheets form at 750 Ma, but with flat continents, no low-latitude ice grows at 750 or 540 Ma. In the absence of reliable knowledge of Neoproterozoic topography, we apply a small-scale “test” profile in the ice sheet model, representing a coastal mountain range on which glaciers can be initiated and flow seaward. Prior to collapse, almost all low-latitude test glaciers fail to reach the coast at 750 Ma, but at 540 Ma many do reach the sea. After the collapse to full Snowball conditions, the hydrologic cycle is greatly reduced, but extensive kilometer-thick ice sheets form slowly on low-latitude continents within a few 100,000 years, both at 750 Ma and 540 Ma.
Article
Ongoing controversy about Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth events motivates a theoretical study of stability and hysteresis properties of very cold climates. A coupled atmosphere–ocean-sea ice general circulation model (GCM) has four stable equilibria ranging from 0% to 100% ice cover, including a “Waterbelt” state with tropical sea ice. All four states are found at present-day insolation and greenhouse gas levels and with two idealized ocean basin configurations. The Waterbelt is stabilized against albedo feedback by intense but narrow wind-driven ocean overturning cells that deliver roughly 100 W m−2 heating to the ice edges. This requires three-way feedback between winds, ocean circulation and ice extent in which circulation is shifted equatorward, following the baroclinicity at the ice margins. The thermocline is much shallower and outcrops in the tropics. Sea ice is snow-covered everywhere and has a minuscule seasonal cycle. The Waterbelt state spans a 46 W m−2 range in solar constant, has a significant hysteresis, and permits near-freezing equatorial surface temperatures. Additional context is provided by a slab ocean GCM and a diffusive energy balance model, both with prescribed ocean heat transport (OHT). Unlike the fully coupled model, these support no more than one stable ice margin, the position of which is slaved to regions of rapid poleward decrease in OHT convergence. Wide ranges of different climates (including the stable Waterbelt) are found by varying the magnitude and spatial structure of OHT in both models. Some thermodynamic arguments for the sensitivity of climate and ice extent to OHT are presented.