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Effect of boiling and storage in five different commonly used cooking vessels on water fluoride concentration

Authors:
Sadhana Kandavel at Sree Balaji Dental College and Hospital
Sadhana Kandavel
N.B. Iyenkani
N.B. Iyenkani
N.B. Iyenkani
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Pd Madan Kumar at Ragas Dental College
Pd Madan Kumar
Junaid Mohammed at University of Western Australia
Junaid Mohammed
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Abstract

To evaluate the effect of cooking vessel composition on the concentration of fluoride in the water used for cooking and also its effect on fluoride levels after storage for 24 hours. Standard water sample of 1parts per million (ppm) fluoride concentrations was boiled in five commonly used cooking vessels in India namely Aluminium, Earthen pot, Stainless Steel, Teflon and Glass. The fluoride levels in water were analyzed two hours after boiling and after storage for 24 hours using Ion Chromatography method. The data was analyzed using Mann Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis test. There was an increase in fluoride concentration in water boiled in Teflon (1.36 ppm), Stainless Steel vessels (1.06ppm) whereas a decrease was observed in Aluminum (0.76ppm), Earthen Pot (0.85ppm) and Glass vessels (0.98 ppm). After 24 hours storage there was a further drop in fluoride concentration in water stored in Aluminum (0.74ppm) and Earthen pot (0.82ppm), while there was an increase in fluoride concentration in water stored in Teflon vessel (1.39 ppm). There was a statistically significant difference in fluoride concentration in water boiled in five different vessels, analyzed 2 hours after boiling and after storing for 24 hours (P= 0.009). Fluoride concentration in water boiled in Stainless Steel and Teflon vessels increased, whereas a decrease was observed in Aluminum, Earthen pot and Glass vessels. Further research to assess the effect of cooking vessel composition on the fluoride concentration in water and food prepared is needed.
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Der Pharmacia Lettre, 2015, 7 (6):192-197
(http://scholarsresearchlibrary.com/archive.html)
ISSN 0975-5071
USA CODEN: DPLEB4
192
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Effect of boiling and storage in five different commonly used cooking vessels
on water fluoride concentration
Sadhana Kandavel, Nanda Balan Iyenkani, Madan Kumar P. D.
and Mohammed Junaid
Department of Public Health Dentistry, Ragas Dental College and Hospital, Chennai
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
To evaluate the effect of cooking vessel composition on the concentration of fluoride in the water used for cooking
and also its effect on fluoride levels after storage for 24 hours. Standard water sample of 1parts per million (ppm)
fluoride concentrations was boiled in five commonly used cooking vessels in India namely Aluminium, Earthen pot,
Stainless Steel, Teflon and Glass. The fluoride levels in water were analyzed two hours after boiling and after
storage for 24 hours using Ion Chromatography method. The data was analyzed using Mann Whitney U and
Kruskal Wallis test. There was an increase in fluoride concentration in water boiled in Teflon (1.36 ppm), Stainless
Steel vessels (1.06ppm) whereas a decrease was observed in Aluminum (0.76ppm), Earthen Pot (0.85ppm) and
Glass vessels (0.98 ppm). After 24 hours storage there was a further drop in fluoride concentration in water stored
in Aluminum (0.74ppm) and Earthen pot (0.82ppm), while there was an increase in fluoride concentration in water
stored in Teflon vessel (1.39 ppm). There was a statistically significant difference in fluoride concentration in water
boiled in five different vessels, analyzed 2 hours after boiling and after storing for 24 hours (P= 0.009). Fluoride
concentration in water boiled in Stainless Steel and Teflon vessels increased, whereas a decrease was observed in
Aluminum, Earthen pot and Glass vessels. Further research to assess the effect of cooking vessel composition on
the fluoride concentration in water and food prepared is needed.
Key words: Cooking vessels, Fluoride concentration, Boiling, Storage.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Prevention is better than cure goes the old maxim. Research on the oral health effects of fluoride started way back in
1930; from then on, the focus of research was on the consequential effects of various fluoride delivery systems, on
prevention of dental caries [1]. Extensive databases generated through systematic reviews, have led to the
conclusion that water fluoridation, and the use of fluoride tooth paste and mouth rinses have significantly
contributed towards prevention of dental caries [1].
While other fluoride-containing products are available, water fluoridation remains the single most cost effective
method of delivering fluoride to all communities starved of optimum level of fluoride in water. Fluoride was first
added to Grand Rapids water supply in 1945. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has ranked water
fluoridation as one of the ten great public health achievements of the 20
th
century [2]. The Canadian Dental
Association (CDA) encourages the appropriate use of fluorides in preventive dentistry to be the most successful
preventive health measures in the history of health care [3].
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The behavior of fluoride on humans is a double-edged sword, being vital for the prevention of dental caries,
mitogenic stimulus for osteoblasts, and enhancement of mineral deposition while simultaneously proving to be toxic
above a threshold concentration [4].
Fluorosis is an important public health problem in 24 countries, including India [5]. Of the 85 million tons of
fluoride deposits on the earth’s crust, 12 million are found in India leading to widespread, intensive and alarming
contamination of ground water. Ground water being the main resource for the vast population of India, results in
consumption of elevated levels of fluorides among the majority of people thus increasing their risk to develop
fluorosis [5]. Reports on Endemic flurosis in India have been reported since 1937 .Seventeen of the thirty five states
in India, where fluoride level in drinking water is greater than 1.5 mg/l are endemic for fluorosis resulting in about
25 million people suffering from dental, skeletal and non- skeletal fluorosis [6].
The omnipresence of fluoride in India makes it an inevitable component of human diet as the water from various
ground sources is used for drinking and cooking.
Metals form insoluble compounds with fluoride [7]. Thus the material ingredients of cooking vessel and the
resultant evaporation of water during the process of cooking may influence the concentration of fluoride in water
and the food prepared. Full C.A. and Parkins F.M have reported variations in fluoride concentration of water boiled
in vessels of different surface composition [7]. Shanon IL in his study has analyzed the changes in fluoride
concentration in water boiled in Aluminium and Teflon vessels [8]. Hauges S et al have studied the effect of clay
pots on the fluoride concentration in water [9].
The most commonly used vessels for cooking in India are Aluminium, Earthen Pot, Stainless Steel, Teflon and
Glass. There are few studies conducted across the globe on the effect of boiling water on fluoride levels in different
vessels; however there are no Indian studies on this issue. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of cooking
vessel composition on the concentration of fluoride in the water used for cooking and also its effect on fluoride
levels after storing it for 24 hours.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Standard water sample of 1ppm fluoride concentrations was prepared from a 1000 ppm fluoride stock solution
containing Sodium fluoride at Chennai Mettex Lab Private Limited. 5 liters of the standard water solution was
utilized for the study. For the present study five commonly used cooking utensils were selected to find out the effect
of the fluoride levels on boiling and storing water for 24 hours. All the cooking vessels were newly procured from a
reputed super market and care was taken that the products were manufactured within 6 months of the initiation of
the study. The vessels were used to boil water for five times before the initiation of the study.
The cooking utensils were grouped under the following:
Group 1(Aluminium) – The composition of the utensils consisted of an alloy of
a. Aluminium -98.3%
b. Iron -0.5%
c. Silicon -0.5%
d. Manganese -0.1%
e. Chromium -0.1%
f. Nickel-0.1%
g. Zinc-0.1%
h. Titanium -0.1%
i. Tin -0.1%
j. Copper -0.1%
Group 2(Earthen Pot) - Earthen pot made of Clay and red soil was used in the study
Group 3-(Stainless Steel) - The vessel used in the study had a composition of 18% Chromium and 8% Nickel.
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Group 4-(Teflon)-Teflon vessel made of Stainless steel with a Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene coating was used to boil
the water . The Stainless Steel vessel had a similar composition of 18% Chromium and 8% Nickel.
Group 5-(Glass)-The Glass vessel used to boil the water had a composition of
a. Silicon Oxide -80.62 %
b. Boric oxide -12.6%
c. Sodium oxide -4.2%
d. Aluminum oxide -2.2 %
e. Ferric oxide -0.04%
f. Calcium oxide -0.1%
g. Magnesium oxide -0.05 %
h. Chlorine -0.1 %
In each of the vessels 500 ml of water was taken, as a minimum of 200 ml of water was required to analyze the
fluoride concentration in water. Hot plate manufactured by Bionic Scientific Technologies with a highest setting
point of 250 degree Celsius was used to bring the water to rolling boil, after which the temperature was reduced to
about 70 degrees to maintain a moderate degree of boiling for 15 minutes. The water was collected in a polyethylene
bottle and was analyzed two hours later after the temperature had come down to room temperature. In order to
determine the effect of storage, water samples were stored in the same vessel in which they were boiled and the
fluoride levels were analyzed after 24 hours. This procedure was repeated thrice and the mean fluoride concentration
was obtained.
The fluoride levels in the water samples were analyzed by Ion Chromatography method .The following apparatus
were used for the analysis.
Ion Chromatograph: Dionex DX500
Columns: Dionex AG9-HC/AS9-HC, 2 mm
Detector: Suppressed Conductivity Detector, Dionex CD20
Suppressor: ASRS-I, external source electrolyte mode, 100mA current
Eluent: 9.0 mM Na
2
CO
3
Eluent flow: 0.40 ml per minute
Sample loop: 10 µl
System backpressure: 2,800 psi
Background conductivity: 22 µS
This equipment has a precision of detecting fluoride levels from 0.26 to 8.49 ppm.
Descriptive statistics were calculated and expressed as mean and standard deviation. Mann Whitney U test was used
to analyze the change in fluoride concentrations analyzed two hours after boiling and after storage for 24 hours.
Kruskal Wallis test was used to analyze the difference in fluoride concentration in water boiled in five different
vessels, analyzed 2 hours after boiling and after storage for 24 hours. The level of significance was set as 0.05 and P
values less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for
Social Sciences version 19 (IBM, 2010).
RESULTS
This present study was done to assess the changes in the mean fluoride concentration of water boiled in various
types of cooking vessels analyzed two hours after boiling and after storage for 24 hours. Among the various vessels
used in the present study, there was a significant increase in fluoride concentration of water boiled in Teflon vessels
analyzed 2 hours after boiling (1.36ppm) and after storage for 24 hours (1.39 ppm). A significant drop in fluoride
concentration was also observed in water boiled in Aluminium vessel analyzed two hours after boiling (0.76 ppm)
and also on storage for 24 hours (0.74 ppm). A slight increase in fluoride concentration when water was boiled in
Stainless Steel vessel was observed and the level remained the same for 24 hours (1.06 ppm).Water boiled in
Earthen Pot showed a reduction from baseline values when analyzed two hours after boiling (0.85 ppm) and also
after storage for 24 hours (0.82 ppm).Water boiled in Glass vessel showed a reduction from baseline when analyzed
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two hours after boiling and remained the same after storage for 24 hours (0.98ppm). There was no statistically
significant difference observed between the changes in fluoride concentrations analyzed two hours after boiling and
after storage for 24 hours (P value>0.05). (Table 1)
Further, there was a statistically significant difference in fluoride concentration in water boiled in five different
vessels, analyzed 2 hours after boiling and after storage for 24 hours (P value 0.009). On Individual comparison, a
significant difference was observed between Glass and other vessels when the water was analyzed for Fluoride
levels two hours after boiling (P value <0.05). However no statistically significant difference in fluoride
concentration was observed when water was analyzed after the storage period of 24 hours. (P value >0.05)(Table 1)
DISCUSSION
Rocks rich in fluoride are the major source of fluoride in ground water [5]. India lies in the geographic fluoride belt
extending from Turkey to China and Japan, through Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan. The rocks present at Nalgonda
district of Andhra Pradesh, have a fluoride concentration of more than the world’s average fluoride concentration of
810 mg/kg [5].Dental and skeletal flurosis are a major public health problem in various parts of Indian subcontinent
due to the utilization of fluoride contaminated ground water. The Bureau of Indian Standards has therefore laid
down the standards as 1.0 mg/l as maximum permissible limit of fluoride and further remarks that “lesser the better
“[10].
Fluorine being the most electronegative element and a strong oxidizing agent reacts with metals. Thus the
composition of the cooking vessels may have an effect on the fluoride concentration in water. With time and
discovery, the conventional earthen vessels have been replaced by metal vessels such as Aluminum, Stainless Steel
and Teflon vessels. Earthen vessels are widely used in rural areas unlike urban population where non stick cookware
and Pyrex Glass are used.
Full CA and Parkins FM in their study analyzed the changes in fluoride concentration when tap water in a
community with known fluoride concentration was boiled in Aluminium, Stainless Steel, Teflon and Glass vessels.
The result showed that there was a decrease in fluoride concentration in water that was boiled in Aluminium vessel
from 1ppm to 0.5 ppm and an increase in fluoride concentration in water that was boiled in Teflon vessel from 1ppm
to 3ppm. A minor decrease in the fluoride concentration in water that was boiled in Glass vessel, and a minor
increase in fluoride concentration in water that was boiled in Stainless Steel was also noted [6].
The fluoride concentration in the present study decreased from 1ppm to 0.76 ppm when analyzed 2 hours after
boiling the water in Aluminium vessel and there was a further decrease to 0.74 ppm when the boiled water was
stored in the Aluminium vessel for 24 hours. This was in accordance to the study done by Full CA and Parkins FM
where there was a decrease in fluoride concentration in water boiled in Aluminium vessel [6]. Rao TVR et al in their
study have reported that fluoride present in water used for cooking enhances the migration of aluminium from the
vessel [11]. Tennakone K, Wickramannayake S and Fernando C.A.N have reported that trace amounts of fluoride in
water and fluoride rich foodstuff can catalyze the dissolution of Aluminium from the vessel
[12]. Poonam R et al
have observed a small amount of leaching from Aluminium vessel during preparation of tea [13]. Thus the decrease
in fluoride concentration in water boiled and stored in Aluminium could be due to the formation of metallic
compounds as a result of interaction between the vessel surface and fluoride in water.
An increase in fluoride concentration from 1ppm to 1.36ppm was observed when analyzed 2 hours after boiling in
Teflon vessel and there was a further increase to 1.39 ppm after 24 hours storage. Teflon vessels are made up of
steel with a Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFA) coating which are responsible for the non stick nature of the vessel.
Full CA and Parkins FM in their study reported that water boiled in Teflon vessel increased the concentration of
fluoride from 1ppm to 3ppm, as there was no interaction between the vessel wall and water, and the increase in the
fluoride concentration was due to the evaporation of water during boiling [6]. Shanon IL reported that Teflon vessels
release small amount of fluoride while boiling water in them [7]. In the present study also there was an increase in
fluoride concentration in water boiled and stored in Teflon vessel. The evaporation of water from the vessel could be
a possible explanation for this phenomenon.
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Fluoride concentration in water sample boiled in Stainless steel vessel increased from 1ppm to 1.06 ppm when
analyzed 2 hours after boiling and there were no changes seen in the fluoride concentration when the boiled water
was stored for 24 hours. This was similar to the study conducted by Full CA and Parkins FM [6].
In the water that was boiled in Glass vessel a decrease in fluoride concentration from 1ppm to 0.98 ppm was
observed on analysis after 2 hours and there was no change in fluoride concentration when the boiled water was
stored in the Glass vessel for 24 hours. This was in accordance to the study by Full CA and Parkins FM, who
suggested that the mild decrease could be due to the interaction between the Glass vessel and the fluoride in water
during boiling [6].
In the present study we observed that there was a decrease in fluoride concentration from 1 ppm to 0.85 ppm in
water samples boiled in Earthen pot when analyzed 2 hours after boiling and there was a further decrease to 0.82
ppm when the water was stored for 24 hours. Hauges S et al in their study have reported that clay pots fired at a
suitable temperature of 600 degree Celsius were effective in reducing the fluoride concentration [9]. The decrease in
fluoride concentration can be attributed to the presence of red mud and clay which was used to prepare clay pots.
Red mud is an industrial by product that is produced during the production of Aluminum. Othman OC et al have
reported that red clay soil reduced the fluoride concentration from 4.59 ppm to less than 1.1 ppm [14]. Bjorvatn K
and Bardsen A have demonstrated that the use of laterite soil reduced the fluoride concentration in water from 5.47
ppm to 0.48 ppm in 2 hours and from 12.2 ppm to 0.26 ppm in 12 hours [15] .The variations in the level of decrease
in the fluoride concentration in the different studies may be due to the difference in the soil composition at different
countries used for the production of Earthen pot.
To the best knowledge of the author , this study is one of the first study to be conducted in India, where the effect of
the composition of various commonly used vessels, on the fluoride concentration in water have been studied, using a
standard water sample of 1ppm . The water samples in this study were analyzed 2 hours after boiling as they had to
be brought down to room temperature as analysis could not be done immediately after boiling. This study assessed
the effect of storing water in the vessels for a period of 24 hours; hence further studies are recommended to assess
the fluoride concentration when water is boiled and stored for different time period.
CONCLUSION
In the present study only minor changes in fluoride concentration of water boiled in five different vessels were
observed. Except for the water samples that were boiled in Stainless Steel and Teflon vessel all the other water
samples showed a decrease in fluoride concentration. Thus the observations of this study can be utilized for further
research, to throw light on the effect of cooking vessels on the fluoride concentration in water and food prepared in
vessels of different material composition.
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... More studies are needed to establish a possible container effect on the F concentration of non-dairy milk products. Researchers have reported a decreased F concentration of water boiled in aluminium and in glass containers, whereas an increased F concentration has been reported with Teflon and stainless steel containers (Full and Parkins, 1975;Kandavel et al., 2015). It was also reported that F concentrations of contents were more stable in plastics than in glass containers (Hattab, 1981). ...
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Consumption of ready-to-drink beverages, as a potential source of fluoride (F), has increased considerably in China over the last decade. To help inform the public and policy makers, this study aimed to measure F concentration of ready-to-drink beverages on sale in Heilongjiang province, north east China. Three batches of 106 drink products manufactured by 26 companies were purchased from the main national supermarkets in Harbin, Heilongjiang province, China. The F concentration of all samples was determined, in triplicate, using a fluoride ion-selective electrode in conjunction with a meter and a direct method of analysis. The products were categorised into 10 groups according to product type. F concentrations of the samples ranged from 0.012-1.625 mg/l with a mean of 0.189 mg/l and a median of 0.076 mg/l. More than half of the products (55%) had an F concentration of ≤0.1 mg/l, while <5% had a F concentration of >0.7 mg/l. The 'tea with milk' group contained the highest mean F concentration (1.350 mg/l), whereas the lowest mean F concentration (0.027 mg/l) was found for the 'fruit juice' group. For some products, such as tea, fruit juice and carbonated beverages, there were substantial variations in F concentration between batches, manufacturers and production sites. In conclusion, ready-to-drink products (apart from tea), sold in Heilongjiang province, China, when consumed in moderation are unlikely to constitute a substantial risk factor for the development of dental or skeletal fluorosis.
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Background Dental fluorosis is caused by prolonged exposure to excessive fluoride during the period of permanent tooth formation and is characterized by tooth discoloration, pitting, and loss of shape. Communities living near Lake Kivu in Western Rwanda exhibit a high prevalence of dental fluorosis; however, data on prevalence and risk factors are scarce. Methods This cross sectional, quantitative study used a One Health approach to investigate dental fluorosis prevalence among people and livestock and to measure fluoride content in the environment. In 2018, oral health examinations were conducted to assess the prevalence of fluorosis in children (aged 9 to 15 years), cattle and goats residing on Gihaya Island (Rwanda, East Africa). All children and cattle/goats meeting basic eligibility criteria (e.g., island residence) were invited to participate. Presence and severity of dental fluorosis was categorized according to the Dean’s Fluorosis Index. Samples of local foods, water, soil and grass were collected from communal sources and individual households and analyzed for fluoride content using standard laboratory techniques. Descriptive and binomial analyses (Fisher Exact Test) were used to assess this dataset. Results Overall, 186 children and 85 livestock owners (providing data of 125 livestock -23 cattle and 102 goats) participated. Dental fluorosis was recorded in 90.7% of children and 76% of livestock. Moderate to severe fluorosis was observed in 77% children while goats and cattle most often exhibited mild or absent/questionable severity, respectively. Water from Lake Kivu (used primarily for human cooking water and livestock drinking water) contained fluoride levels that were consistently higher than the maximum threshold (1.5 mg/L) recommended by the World Health Organization. Other sources (borehole and rainwater) were within safe limits. All food, soil and grass samples contained fluoride. The highest levels were observed in porridge (0.5 mg/g) and small fishes (1.05 mg/g). Conclusions Altogether, dental fluorosis was highly prevalent among children and goats on Gihaya Island with various food and water sources contributing a cumulative exposure to fluoride. An immediate and coordinated response across human, animal and water professionals is needed to reduce fluoride exposure within safe limits for island residents.
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... Not only nutrients but also taste, texture, color, and fragrance, earthen pots enhance all the food parameters in terms of acceptability. In traditional indigenous knowledge and Ayurveda, the use of earthen pots is recommended in many medicine and fermentation processes ( It is observed that boiling of water in earthen pots decreases the heavy metal concentration in water due to soil composition (Kandavel et al., 2015). Besides boiling, cooking in earthen-were also enhances the flavonoids, crude protein, and higher acceptability (Gupta and Nagar, 2010). ...
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... Clay is considered to be a robust adsorbent [25] due to its low cost, sorption properties and ion exchange potential. Kandavel et al. [26], in their study found that the water stored in the clay vessels showed a reduction from baseline values by 0.82 ppm-0.85 ppm. ...
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Article
Full-text available
The behavior of fluoride ions in the human organism is a classic example of double-edged sword. On the one hand the daily supplementation with fluoride is undoubtedly an important preventing factor in protecting teeth from caries, and, as an important mitogenic stimulus for osteoblasts, it may enhance mineral deposition in bone, but on the other hand fluoride, above a threshold concentration, has been demonstrated to be toxic. We present here a brief review of fluoride metabolism and exposure, its use in caries prevention and its effects on bone, followed by an updating about the main hypotheses concerning its mechanism of action and toxicity. The effects of fluoride have been related mainly to its ability to evoke the activation of G proteins and the inhibition of phosphotyrosine phosphatases, leading to an intracellular increase of tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, and its capacity to cause generation of reactive oxygen species. We present also a unifying hypothesis accounting for these apparently different effects, although the available experimental models and conditions are highly variable in the literature. A lot of experiments still need to be performed to clarify the positive and negative effects of fluoride. Finding the mechanisms accounting for fluoride toxicity is an important point: indeed, the use of fluoride has been proposed in the preparation of new biomaterials to be inserted in the bone, in order to improve their stable and safe integration.
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Fluoride in Drinking-water
Article
  • Sep 2013
Fluoride is known to occur at elevated concentrations in a number of parts of the world where it can be a significant cause of disease. The primary focus of Fluoride in Drinking Water is the prevention of adverse health effects from excessive levels of fluoride in drinking water. The book fills the urgent need, identified for updating the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, for information on the occurrence of fluoride, its health effects, ways of reducing excess levels and methods for analysis of fluoride in water. The draft document, produced by a working group of experts convened to consider protection from fluoride and its control, was issued for extensive review and consultation. The resultant book, which incorporates the comments received, was further peer review by experts in developed and developing countries. It is aimed at a wide range of individuals, including health workers and sanitary engineers who may require a broad introduction to the subject with more detailed guidance in some specific areas. Fluoride in Drinking-water will be an invaluable reference source for all those concerned with the management of drinking-water containing fluoride and the health effects arising from its consumption, including water sector managers and practitioners as well as health sector staff at policy and implementation levels. It will also be of interest to researchers, students, and development workers and consultants. Contents Introduction Environmental occurrence, geochemistry and exposure Human health effects Guidelines and standards Removal of excessive fluoride Analytical methods Country data on dental and skeletal fluorosis associated with exposure to fluoride through drinking water Appendix: Indices of severity of dental fluorosis
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Defluoridation of drinking water with pottery: effect of firing temperature
Article
Excessive fluoride (F) in drinking water should be removed, but simple, inexpensive methods of fluoride removal are not readily available. This study examines the F(-)-binding capacity of clay and clayware, especially the effect of the firing temperature on the F(-)-binding process. A series of pots were made from ordinary potter's clay and fired at 500-1000 degrees C. Likewise, small clay bricks were fired and then crushed and sieved. NaF solutions containing 10 mg/l F- (10 ppm F-) were prepared. Suitable aliquots of the solutions were poured into clay pots or exposed to powdered clayware. Samples were taken at storage periods of 30 min to 20 days and analyzed for F- by ion-selective electrodes. The rate and capacity of F(-)-binding in the clayware varied with the firing temperature. Clay fired at approximately 600 degrees C was most effective. Temperatures over 700 degrees C caused a decline in F(-)-binding, and pottery fired at 900 degrees C and above seemed unable to remove F- from water. Pots fired at 500 degrees C or less cracked in water. The findings indicate that clayware, fired at an optimal temperature, may be of practical value for partial defluoridation of drinking water.
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Aluminium contamination from fluoride assisted dissolution of metallic aluminium
Article
Trace amounts (microg g(-1) quantities) of fluoride ion are found to catalyse the dissolution of metallic aluminium in very slightly acidic or alkaline aqueous media. Possibly hazardous levels of aluminium could get leached from cooking utensils if fluoridated water or fluoride rich foodstuffs are used. The fluoride assisted corrosion of aluminium is most dramatic in oxalic, tartaric acids or sodium bicarbonate. Carbon dioxide also corrodes aluminium in the presence of the fluoride ion, generating colloidal hydrated aluminium oxide which is readily soluble in dilute organic and mineral acids.
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Effective use of fluorides for the prevention of dental caries in the 21st century: The WHO approach
Article
  • Nov 2004
Despite great improvements in the oral health of populations across the world, problems still persist particularly among poor and disadvantaged groups in both developed and developing countries. According to the World Oral Health Report 2003, dental caries remains a major public health problem in most industrialized countries, affecting 60-90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults. Although it appears that dental caries is less common and less severe in developing countries of Africa, it is anticipated that the incidence of caries will increase in several countries of that continent, due to changing living conditions and dietary habits, and inadequate exposure to fluorides. Research on the oral health effects of fluoride started around 100 years ago; the focus has been on the link between water and fluorides and dental caries and fluorosis, topical fluoride applications, fluoride toothpastes, and salt and milk fluoridation. Most recently, efforts have been made to summarize the extensive database through systematic reviews. Such reviews concluded that water fluoridation and use of fluoride toothpastes and mouthrinses significantly reduce the prevalence of dental caries. WHO recommends for public health that every effort must be made to develop affordable fluoridated toothpastes for use in developing countries. Water fluoridation, where technically feasible and culturally acceptable, has substantial advantages in public health; alternatively, fluoridation of salt and milk fluoridation schemes may be considered for prevention of dental caries.
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  • Jan 2013
  • 97-102
  • N Arlappa
  • I Qureshi
  • R Srinivas
N.Arlappa, I.Aatif Qureshi, R. Srinivas, Int J Res Dev Health., 2013, 1, 2, 97-102.