Article

Positive Adaptation among Youth Exposed to Community Violence

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Abstract

Exposure to community violence threatens the well-being of children in several ways. Living in communities plagued by violence threatens the very core of what is needed for healthy development and is related to a host of short- and long-term developmental problems (Bell & Jenkins, 1993; Cooley-Quill, Boyd, Frantz, & Walsh, 2001; Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 1998; Richters & Martinez, 1993; Schwab-Stone et al., 1995). Unfortunately, although it is possible to list many problems and disorders associated with exposure to community violence, we can say very little based on scientific study about variations in outcome, relations between specific types of exposure and outcome, and mechanisms through which children who are exposed do better or worse. We know that some children appear to suffer symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder or other types of internalizing disorders, and others seem to react by becoming more aggressive or showing greater behavioral problems. However, we know little about how and why these different reactions occur. We also have few empirically based treatments for children exposed to chronic community violence, and even less work has been conducted on how to protect children from exposure in the first place. So, although it is clear that exposure to community violence can harm children, the scientific knowledge base on promoting positive adaptation among youth exposed to community violence is very sketchy.

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... Living in communities plagued by violence can interfere with healthy development and is related to a number of psychological, behavioral, and academic problems (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). In 1991, violence exposure for children and youth was listed as a public health epidemic (Osofsky, 1999;Prothow-Stith & Weissman, 1991). ...
... Studies have linked exposure to violence, even as a witness, with aggressive and delinquent behaviors (Attar et al.,1994;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003), heightened anxiety and depression (Acosta et al., 2001), grief and loss reaction (Osofsky, Wewers, Hann, & Fick, 1993), PTSD symptomatology (Fitzpatrick & Boldizar, 1993;Garbarino et al., 1992), increased recklessness in play (Schwab-Stone et al., 1995;, sleep disturbances (Cooley-Quille & Lorian, 1999;Warner &Weist, 1995), and cognitive or academic delays (Osofsky et al., 1993;Warner & Weist, 1995). Fitzpatrick and Boldizar (1993) found in a study of 221 low-income African-American youth, ages 7 to 18, victimization and witnessing violence were both associated with symptoms of PTSD. ...
... Consistent with prior research, this African-American, urban sample had high rates of violence exposure. Since community violence exposure has been linked with a host of negative internalized and externalized symptoms in adolescents (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003), it is important that social workers understand the risk and protective factors when working with this population. With the understanding of these factors social workers can provide therapy and programs that reduce risk and increase support of those factors that buffer adolescents from the negative impact of violence exposure. ...
Article
Background: Violence is often part of life in impoverished Black communities. Youth with higher violence avoidance self-efficacy and positive coping strategies are better able to avoid violence than those without these skills. Using edutainment, e.g. dramatic presentation followed by group discussion, is one intervention that has shown success in increasing self-efficacy and coping strategies. Methods: This quasi-experimental research, examined the impact of live dramatic presentation about violence followed by group discussion, as an intervention with Black adolescents exposed to community violence as compared to group discussion only and no intervention. Self-administered scales were used to measure the concepts: stress, anxiety, violence avoidance self-efficacy and coping strategies. Data were collected pre and 9 days post intervention/no intervention from 19 subjects receiving the edutainment intervention, 20 subjects participating in a group discussion about violence, and 21 subjects receiving no intervention (N = 60). Analysis: Univariate descriptive statistics and ANOVA were conducted to determine comparability of the groups. ANOVA was conducted to determine differences in outcomes among the interventions and regression analysis was undertaken to assess mediator effects of violence avoidance self-efficacy on outcomes. Results: Edutainment and no intervention were more effective than group discussion alone in increasing violence avoidance self-efficacy. Although self-efficacy was not found to be a mediator in the relationship between edutainment nor group discussion/no intervention and outcomes, it was found to have an intervening relationship between edutainment and the outcome of stress. This study indicates limited but positive effects for edutainment. Clinical implications, limitations and further research are discussed.
... Community violence includes many forms such as experiencing victimization, witnessing violence, and listening to violence experienced by friends and family members. A growing body of research links this exposure to psychological and behavioral problems and school underachievement (Gorman-Smith and Tolan, 2003;Walker et al., 2011). ...
... There is also increasing evidence that communities may play a protective role (Garbarino, 2001). Social processes, such as the perceived social support and cohesion among neighbors and supervision of children by other adults in the community, may be particularly important (Gorman-Smith and Tolan, 2003). These processes have been shown to help protect against structural disadvantages (e.g. ...
... In response to witnessing or being the victim of violence, studies have reported that girls have more serious symptomology, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress, than boys (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). Girls may display more psychological distress in response to violence exposure while boys may display more risky behaviors (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). ...
... In response to witnessing or being the victim of violence, studies have reported that girls have more serious symptomology, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress, than boys (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). Girls may display more psychological distress in response to violence exposure while boys may display more risky behaviors (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). The disaster literature has documented similar sex differences in response to stress, with girls showing greater anxiety symptoms and boys displaying more "belligerence" (Masten & Narayan, 2012). ...
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This chapter reviews how the field of developmental psychopathology has shaped research on risk and resilience processes in the context of childhood stress. The central tenets of developmental psychopathology, including its transdisciplinary and multilevel nature, equifinality and multifinality, developmental cascades, and the interaction of risk and protective factors across development, guide research aiming to understand individual differences in response to stressors during childhood. Various stressors that children experience, including maltreatment, poverty, institutional care, malnutrition, and environmental exposures, can lead to different effects on biology and behavior depending on the type, timing, chronicity, and severity of the stressor. Genetics, psychobiology, and neurophysiology have been incorporated into this research to enhance our understanding of individual differences in functioning following childhood stress. Future directions include more fully incorporating sex differences into studies of childhood stress and utilizing research in this area to create effective interventions for children experiencing severe stress.
... Ç áíèåêôéêüôçôá óõíÞèùò áîéïëïãåßôáé ìå âÜóç ôï åìðåñéóôáôùìÝíï éóôïñéêü ôïõ áôüìïõ íá áíôáðïêñßíåôáé óôéò âáóéêÝò ðñïóäïêßåò ìéáò óõãêåêñéìÝíçò êïéíùíßáò, ôç óõãêåêñéìÝíç ÷ñïíéêÞ óôéãìÞ, ó÷åôéêÜ ìå ôç óõìðåñéöïñÜ ôùí áôüìùí ìéáò çëéêéáêÞò ïìÜäáò, óå ìéá äåäï-ìÝíç êáôÜóôáóç, äçëáäÞ ìå âÜóç êïéíùíéêÜ êáé áêáäçìáúêÜ êñéôÞñéá (ð.÷. Gorman- Smith & Tolan, 2003. Veenhoven, 1991. ...
... Áîßaeåé íá óçìåéùèåß üôé ç áíèåêôéêüôçôá ðñÝðåé íá óõìðåñáßíåôáé áðü ôçí åðßäåéîç óôïé÷åßùí ïìáëÞò ðñïóáñìïãÞò óå ðïëëáðëÜ åðßðåäá êáé óå äéÜöïñïõò ôïìåßò óå âÜèïò ÷ñüíïõ (ð.÷. Gorman- Smith & Tolan, 2003. Yoshikawa & Seidman, 2000. ...
... Moving on from the relatively proximal extrafamilial contexts of school, peers, and interpersonal supports to those more distal: Aspects of the wider community may also play an important role in buffering risk for children (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Ungar et al., 2013). Particularly important are social organization processes in the neighborhood, including levels of cohesion, a sense of belonging to the community, supervision of youth by neighborhood adults, and high participation in local organizations. ...
... Direct benefits to children are seen in Gorman-Smith and Tolan's (2003) findings that when inner-city families are lacking in warmth and closeness, children's vulnerability can be reduced somewhat if they feel a sense of belonging and support in the neighborhood. Indirect benefits for youth have been found in longitudinal research, through, and in tandem with, family factors. ...
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Resilience research involves the study of processes predicting better-than-expected adjustment following exposure to adversity, with the central goal of informing effective interventions. This chapter presents a review of accumulated research findings on salient risk-modifiers across the realms of family, community, and individual characteristics. Cumulatively, findings highlight the power of proximal relationships, particularly with primary caregivers in the family, and with teachers, mentors, and peers in the community. Forces inimical to psychological and physical survival (such as maltreatment and violence) are much more powerful than positive influences (such as affection or support). Children's own “protective attributes” such as self-efficacy are themselves continually shaped by salient socializing influences. Future research aimed at fostering childhood resilience—and future interventions—must prioritize attention to risk-modifiers that are broadly deterministic (with large effect sizes, and generative of other assets); to gender-specific patterns; and to developmental contexts (mores, needs, and existing resources). Understanding the processes underlying salutary salient relationships, and systematically harnessing these in large-scale, community-based interventions, is the best hope in maximizing the yield of science on resilience in childhood, adolescence, and subsequently in development.
... It covers more than urban neighborhoods, and provides information on adolescent exposure to extreme violence in the nation. between 50% and 96% of urban African American children have witnessed community violence in their lifetimes (Fitzpatrick & Boldizar, 1993;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;McCart et al., 2007;Schwab-Stone et al., 1995). Numerous other studies also documented high levels of violence exposure among African American youth (Boney-McCoy & Finkelhor, 1996;Cooley-Quille, Boyd, Frantz, & Walsh, 2001;Foster, Kupermine, & Price, 2004;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 1998;Rosenthal, 2000;Jenkins & Bell, 1994;Schwab-Stone et al., 1999;Self-Brown et al., 2006;Singer et al., 1995;White, Bruce, Farrell, & Kliewer, 1998). ...
... In spite of this specific definition, almost 3 out of 10 African American youth and at least 1 of out of 10 Asian American youth had been exposed to at least one type of severe violence over the study year. These rates may look lower than the 50% to 96% violence exposure rates in the previous published studies ( Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;McCart et al., 2007;Schwab-Stone et al., 1995;Self-Brown et al., 2006). It is important to note, however, that the violence exposure rates in this study reflect the personal experiences of these adolescents in a limited one-year time frame as compared to other studies that focused on lifetime violence exposure experience among poor, urban African American communities. ...
Article
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This study compares African American and Asian American adolescents in their rates of extreme community violence exposure and consequent internalizing behaviors. Using information from a national longitudinal survey, this study found substantial violence exposure rates for both groups. Also, gender differences in exposure rates and adolescent reports of internalizing behaviors after violence exposure were detected. Male African American adolescents had the highest exposure rate, while female Asian American adolescents reported the highest level of internalizing behaviors. These findings suggest further research is needed to better understand the effect of violence exposure on various ethnic minority adolescents. Moreover, social workers and other professionals involved in adolescent services could use these results to improve out-reach methods to vulnerable adolescents.
... Such a community serves as an inevitable risk factor for associated psychopathological disadvantages among children. Although in few cases, such adverse circumstances may work as a thrust towards building resilience, with significant strides from the children and supportive systems towards positive adaptations (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;O'Donnell et al., 2002). In such scenarios, family, peers and teachers function as support systems to deal with challenging circumstances and attain a resolution of the crisis. ...
Chapter
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Children witness various degrees and intensities of violations and violence along with a hoard of environmental stressors. Such a spectrum of violence includes disturbing family environments, witnessing adults, including parents and family members, indulge in violence and abusive behaviours and direct or vicarious exposure to violence outside the home. The chapter aims to provide an overview of the nature and impact of witnessing violence. The frequency, type, intensity and the child's relationship with the people involved or impacted by the violence can determine the impact on a child's mental health and development. Children may witness distressing events in their daily lives like the loss of a loved one or watching adults take up challenging tasks, which may help them be resilient and learn coping skills with appropriate support. Long-term exposure to witnessing violence and trauma can lead to severe emotional and developmental difficulties. Such direct or vicarious exposure to varying degrees of violence may cultivate a culture of fear, repression and silence around the children. These difficulties may be similar to those of children who are direct victims of abuse. Witnessing violence has also been linked to anxiety and depression. Children growing up in such environments are at higher risk of normalizing violence and growing into abusive adults. Poverty, cultural factors, parenting, schooling, and policies can largely determine such risks for children. The paper discusses the preventive and promotive approaches at the school, family and community levels. Education and empowerment of adults in the child's environment can be the best preventative approach. Existing policies and programmes in India for children need to bring in more robust initiatives to identify, report, prevent and protect children witnessing violence. The needs and concerns of children witnessing violence and prevention approaches should be part of courses in helping professionals training and curriculum. The chapter calls for the necessity of individual and community-based interventions in terms of need-based models for addressing the mental health needs of children. The chapter strongly recommends the need for addressing mental health education for families and schools.
... interaction among its members and their level of support), of school (i.e. the school climate), of a neighborhood (i.e. activities and peer groups) or of society in general (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). Lastly, some of the most frequently studied external factors have been the positive evaluation by parents and the level of meaningful interaction with them (Vanderbilt-Adriance & Shaw, 2008), the good interpersonal relationships (Davies, Thind, Chandler & Tucker, 2011), and the support of school teachers (Brooks, 2006). ...
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There is shared commitment across European countries to ensure young people acquire social, civic and intercultural competences, by promoting across the disciplines democratic values and fundamental rights, social inclusion and non-discrimination, as well as active citizenship. However, this raises many challenges, not least in an uncertain world characterized by economic crisis, increased inequality, environmental concern, high migration flows, and the rise of populist ‘post-truth’ politics. All these challenges raise questions of fairness and social justice and prompt reflection on notions related to identity, the development of capabilities, citizenship, belonging, otherness, recognition of diversity, inter-generational solidarity and active democratic participation at the personal, global and policy level. In this context, papers from across the disciplines concerned with democratic values, constructs of identity, human dignity and capacities, participation and/or citizenship education in relation to issues of social justice in formal, in-formal or non-formal contexts are included in this volume.
... For example, future inventions may benefit from using both parents and peers in programs targeting high-risk youth. Indeed, there is evidence that including parents in programs may be more successful compared to youth-only programs (see Gorman-Smith and Tolan 2003). Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of emotion regulation interventions involving parents that are applicable to most negative emotions (e.g., anger, sadness), including the "Tuning into Teens" program (Havighurst et al. 2013). ...
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The purpose of this investigation was to examine the association between emotion regulation and adolescent adjustment and whether parent and peer factors moderated this link. The sample consisted of 206 families with 10–18-year-old adolescents from predominantly ethnic minority and low-income families. We assessed emotion regulation and antisocial behavior (via parent and adolescent reports); depressive symptoms were based on youth reports. In addition, we examined the following moderators: observed parent-adolescent relationship quality and youth reports of parental emotion coaching, peer prosocial behavior, and peer-youth openness. Findings indicated that emotion regulation was negatively and significantly related to adolescent antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms. Evidence for moderating effects was found for antisocial behavior but not depressive symptoms. Specifically, the link between youth emotion regulation and antisocial behavior was attenuated under high levels of parent-child relationship quality and peer prosocial behavior. Implications for emotion socialization among adolescents from low-income families are discussed.
... In one longitudinal study of detained youth in Cook County, Illinois, 51% had a comorbid diagnosis of substance abuse and an affective, anxiety, or conduct disorder; and 73% of those youth had a drug dependence problem and a behavioral disorder, including either conduct or oppositional defiant disorder (Teplin et al., 2012). Moreover, research estimates suggest that 30% of justice-involved youth have diagnosable learning disabilities (Sedlak & McPherson, 2010), 75% have experienced traumatic victimization, and 93% had adverse childhood experiences, including domestic/community violence, child abuse, and exposure to substance abuse/mental illness (Baglivio et al., 2014;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Kim, Gilman, Thompson, et al., in press;Logan-Greene, Kim, & Nurius, 2020). ...
Article
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In order to achieve equal opportunity and justice, our nation’s most vulnerable youth must not bear a disproportionate burden of justice system involvement. In 2016, nearly one million youth in the United States were arrested (Hockenberry & Puzzanchera, 2018). These youth are often those growing up with neglect, maltreatment, and abuse; living without financial security; facing mental, emotional, and behavioral health problems; and experiencing discrimination for various reasons not limited to race, ethnicity, culture, gender identity, and sexual orientation. Moreover, once they become justice-involved, they face diminished outcomes in development, education, and employment, as well as an increased likelihood of continued system involvement. Therefore, we propose rebuilding social work’s commitment to juvenile justice by capitalizing on recent policy and systems change, cross-sector collaboration, and evidence-based interventions. To transform the juvenile justice system over the next decade, we propose five actionable goals for social work practice, policy, and research to dismantle inequity and injustice and foster the full social, civic, economic, and political integration of justice-involved youth.
... Although children in Kenya who experience multiple types of violence are at higher risk for poor mental health outcomes than those who experienced no violence, protective factors may be associated with reduced risk and severity of mental distress resulting from childhood violence experiences. Resiliency factors, such as intelligence, temperament, parental attachment, external interests, coping skills, and relationships with peers have been shown to protect children against the effects of poly-victimization (Fergusson & Horwood, 2003;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Thomas, Leicht, Hughes, Madigan, & Dowell, 2004). ...
Article
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Children's exposure to poly-victimization, which is the experience of multiple types of victimization, has been found to be associated with negative health outcomes and risk behaviors. We examined the collective effects of childhood sexual, physical, and emotional violence on selected self-reported health outcomes among young Kenyan females and males using the Violence Against Children Survey (VACS). Overall, 76.2% of females and 79.8% of males were victims of sexual, physical, or emotional violence prior to age 18, and one-third (32.9% and 34.5%, respectively) experienced two or more types of violence. Poly-victimization was significantly associated with current feelings of anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts in females and males, as well as self-reported fair or poor health in males (p < .05) as compared to those who experienced no violence. The study data demonstrate an urgent need to reduce all types of violence against children, as well develop appropriate strategies for its prevention.
... A similar trend was reported by Bacchini, Miranda, and Affuso (2011) with respect to adolescent involvement in antisocial behavior and symptoms of anxiety/depression (see also Hamner et al., 2015). Similar to the buffering effect on individual factors such as impulsivity, these results show that notwithstanding the significant effects of exposure to community violence on child behavior, factors such as parental monitoring can decrease the negative effects (Gorman- Smith & Tolan, 2003). ...
... A similar trend was reported by Bacchini, Miranda, and Affuso (2011) with respect to adolescent involvement in antisocial behavior and symptoms of anxiety/depression (see also Hamner et al., 2015). Similar to the buffering effect on individual factors such as impulsivity, these results show that notwithstanding the significant effects of exposure to community violence on child behavior, factors such as parental monitoring can decrease the negative effects (Gorman- Smith & Tolan, 2003). ...
Article
This study adopts a social-ecological/contextual perspective to explore Arab youth involvement in cyberbullying perpetration. We explored the association between individual (age, gender, and impulsivity), family (socioeconomic status and parental monitoring), and community (experiencing neighborhood violence) characteristics and cyberbullying perpetration. A moderation model exploring individual, family, and context interactions was tested. A sample of 3,178 Arab students in Grades 7 to 11 completed a structured, anonymous self-report questionnaire. The findings suggest that almost 14% of the participants have cyberbullied others during the last month. Adolescent boys with high impulsivity, low parental monitoring, and who experience a high level of violence in their neighborhood are at especially high risk of cyberbullying perpetration. Parental monitoring moderated the effects of impulsivity and experiencing neighborhood violence on adolescents' involvement in perpetrating cyberbullying. Furthermore, the results show that impulsive adolescents who experience high levels of neighborhood violence are at higher risk of cyberbullying perpetration than low impulsive children who experience the same levels of neighborhood violence. The results highlight the central role parenting plays in protecting their children from involvement in cyberbullying perpetration by buffering the effects of personal and situational risk factors.
... Although poor children experience considerable stressors, academic success is more strongly linked to schools that are able to reduce disruptive classroom behavior, can support and engage students positively, and that can have an impact on the socioemotional, behavioral, and mental health of students (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Kellam et al., 1998). However, the schools that are embedded in low-income communities are unlikely to have the capacity to provide these supports for their students. ...
Article
The high prevalence of ADHD continues to present a challenge, particularly in high poverty urban schools. Low-income children of color are both more likely to be diagnosed with the disorder and more likely to be under-treated compared to their Caucasian peers. While significant attention is paid to what teachers across a variety of school settings know about ADHD, little is known about school social workers knowledge of ADHD. In addition, little is also known about the collaborative processes by which school social workers support teachers in addressing ADHD in urban schools. Utilizing a mixed-methods survey design, this study explored urban elementary school social worker knowledge of ADHD and inter-disciplinary collaboration processes between school social workers and teachers. Findings indicated that urban elementary school social workers N=43 had strong knowledge of ADHD causes and symptoms. No significant differences were observed when compared to their suburban elementary school colleagues N=24 as measured by The ADHD Belief and Attitudes Scale (Johnston and Freeman, 2002). A directive content analysis of responses for N= 43 urban elementary school social workers further revealed key findings. First, school social workers were able to identify a number of behavioral and instructional strategies applicable to students with attention related difficulties. Secondly, while collaboration between teachers and school social workers may occur during participation in interdisciplinary school teams and informal discussions, time constraints and teacher receptiveness presented as major barriers for consistent and effective collaboration. Given the limited resources of many urban school settings, it would benefit schools to promote the role of the school social worker and collaborative practices with teachers in addressing ADHD and similar disruptive behavior disorders within the classroom.
... Research on the socioemotional correlates of poverty among infants and toddlers is particularly disturbing, suggesting elevated risk for poor social and emotional outcomes during this formative stage of development (Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, & Aber, 1997;Evans & English, 2002;Morris & Gennetian, 2003). Young children exposed to community violence also are at risk for a range of psychological and behavioral problems, including insecure attachments to caregivers, depression, anxiety, and aggressive behavior (Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny, & Pardo, 1992;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998). ...
Chapter
Parenting is a powerful determinant of human development, and social-emotional development in early childhood cannot be understood fully without consideration for how a child is, and has been, parented. However, what constitutes optimal parenting to support social and emotional skill acquisition in children is a matter of considerable public debate. In this chapter, we use a dynamic skill perspective to highlight current knowledge on children's construction of progressively complex and interrelated skills in three domains—emotion regulation, emotion understanding, and attachment. Bearing in mind that children's capacity to form healthy attachments, to regulate emotions, and to understand a wide range of emotional experiences is shaped in part by their developmental contexts, we explore the role of parents in developing these fundamental skills. In addition, we consider the influence of early childhood interventions on social-emotional development in young children. The chapter concludes with implications of scientific knowledge for policy and practice aimed at promoting children's socioemotional wellbeing.
... At present, the existing research on individual resilience has been extended to children, adolescents, and adults at risk in a variety of risk conditions, ranging from normative stressors to non-normative ones, such as disasters including earthquakes, fi res, hurricanes, plane crashes, terrorism, or other wilful acts of violence, etc. (Peek, 2008). As for individual resilience in normative stressors, numerous researchers have paid attention to the risk posed to individuals by individual-related factors, ranging from individuals experiencing chronic illness, for instance, asthmatic children (Hee, 2007) and individuals with disabilities (King et al., 2003), through individuals living within various kinds of disadvantaged familial surroundings, for example, children coping with their parents' divorce and remarriage (Hetherington and Elmore, 2003), risk and resilience among children with maternal drug use , risk and protective factors for the children of depressed parents (Hammen, 2003), and young children whose mothers are living with HIV/AIDS (Murphy, 2008), to children's positive adaptation to a community risk environment, such as children exposed to community violence (Gorman-Smith and Tolan, 2003) and youths living in urban poverty (e. g. Anthony, 2008). ...
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The book is thematically focused on resilience in the families of children with a hearing impairment. It shows the need for early intervention for these children. The aim of the original research was to compare the functional factors in terms of China and the Czech Republic. The authors present a description of strengths and weaknesses and look for the sources of the influences on the development of the personality of a child with a hearing impairment. Suitable areas for intervention by special education or psychology are also described. The research has also shown that cross-cultural differences are an important factor that can affect the forms of early intervention, and that they should be respected.
... Risk in resilience research is often defined and operationalized as major life event and as minor daily hassles (Luthar, 1991;Wyman et al., 1999; for review see Luther & Zigler, 1991). On the other hand many studies focus on specific life stresses and risk conditions, like maltreatment (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997;Bolger & Patterson, 2003), parental mental illness or drug dependence (Hammen, 2003;Seifer, 2003;Zucker et al., 2003), death or divorce of parents (Sandler et al., 2003;Hetherington & Elmore, 2003), discrimination and violence (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Szalacha et al., 2003;Punamäki et al., 2001), and other sociodemographic risks like poverty and low SES (Luthar, 1991;Owens & Show, 2003;Seidman & Pedersen, 2003). ...
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The aim of this project was to analyse the international data from the 2001/2002 survey of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study based on resilience approach. For this purpose we identified a group of students characterised by good adjustment pattern in spite of their detrimental living circumstances. Disadvantageous status was defined by living in non-intact or low income families. Then it was attempted to identify those psychosocial factors that predict good adjustment in spite of detrimental status. Finally, cross-national comparison has been made to examine whether the findings differ across EU-Member states that participated the 2001/2002 HBSC survey, and to test the possible impact of some macro-level country-features (as indicated by GDP, Gini, and Expenditure on Social Protection). The rate of students living in non-intact families (one or both biological parents are absent) is 21.1% in the total sample, whilst the rate of those living in low income families (according to tercilis of Family Affluence Scale by countries) is 33.1%. Good adjustment was defined on the basis of several parallel criteria: 1/ at least 6 points on the life satisfaction scale; 2/ no more than one health complaint experienced at least once a week; 3/ good or very good school achievement; 4/ non-smoking; 5/ have not been drunk yet; and 6/ being involved no more than once in bullying (either as a bully or as a victim). Almost 30% of the total sample has been proved to be well adjusted according to all of the six criteria. The rate decreases with age. In the risk groups this proportion is around 20%. The odds for good adjustment are about 50% (for 11-year-olds) and 80% (for 15-year-olds) higher among students living in intact families compared to those living in non-intact families. The odds are about 30% higher for those living in at least moderately wealthy families. The latter relationship is significantly weaker for young people living in Austria, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Slovenia and Sweden, and stronger for youths living in Estonia, Italy, Lithuania and Portugal. GDP, Gini and Expenditure on Social Protection significantly influence the relationship of family affluence on adjustment in some agegroups: the lower the GDP and the Expenditure on Social Protection, and the higher the Gini, the stronger this relationship. GDP and Gini are significant predictors also for resilience in some age- and risk-groups: in general, higher GDP is associated with higher odds of resilience, whilst higher Gini is related to lower odds of resilience. According to multilevel logistic regression models, parent-child relation, school environment, and peer relations predict good adjustment (lower odds describe worse parent-child communication, negative perception of school, a lot time spending with peers, and a worse communication with friends). There were no significant cross-national differences in the effect of these psychosocial predictors. Examining interactions among risk status variables and predictors some interesting findings emerged. In general, the impact of classmate support and school pressure is stronger for students in the risk-groups than for their more advantaged peers, indicating that the quality of school environment is especially important for adjustment of disadvantaged young people.
... can have on neurodevelopment (Espy, Riese, & Francis, 1997), there is increasing interest in the effects that post-natal environmental conditions can have on children's neurodevelopment (Perry, 1997;Perry et al., 1995). In particular, there is a growing sentiment that repeated exposure to violence early in a child's life can disrupt neurological system development (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). Specifically, there is evidence that persistent, intense environmental input can result in the overstimulation of certain brain structures, which can potentially impair a child's ability to regulate arousal (Perry, 1997;Weiss & Wagner, 1998). ...
Article
The purpose of this study was to analyze the medical records of 167 children who attended an urban early intervention/partial hospitalization program in order to accomplish the following objectives: describe risk factor pervasiveness in the backgrounds of children attending the program; describe the prevalence and severity of externalizing behavior problems (non-compliance, aggression, tantrums) among the children; identify salient relationships between background risk factors and externalizing behavior problems; and test the cumulative risk premise which suggests that a significant, positive relationship exists between the number of risk factors a child is exposed to and the severity of his/her symptoms. Data was gathered from two items in the children's medical charts: 1) initial psychiatric evaluations, within which the presence or absence of the background risk factors of interest in this study are noted; and 2) monthly treatment plan progress notes, in which progress regarding presenting symptoms are noted. An analysis of medical record data painted a compelling picture regarding the pervasiveness of risk factors in the children's backgrounds, as nearly 80% of the children within the study were found to be exposed to three or more risk factors (not including poverty). An analysis of the data revealed a significantly high prevalence of children being referred for treatment due to clinically significant behavior problems, as approximately 80% of the children presented with clinically significant levels of non-compliance and/or aggression. Although clinically significant aggression and non-compliance frequently co-occurred with several background risk factors, no significant, positive correlations were discovered between background risk factors and externalizing behavior problems (when the entire sample was included within the analysis). In addition, a correlational analysis revealed no significant, positive correlations between the number of background risk factors and the severity of certain externalizing behavior problems. The absence of significant, positive correlations may reflect the need for researchers to attend to contextual details (i.e., severity of exposure, timing of exposure, individual traits) when investigating the effects of exposure to risk factors on children's development. In addition, it is likely that the correlations were partially weakened by the fact that the participants within this study represented a restricted sample (poor, clinically referred preschool-age children).
... Risk in resilience research is often defined and operationalized as major life event and as minor daily hassles (Luthar, 1991;Wyman et al., 1999; for review see Luther & Zigler, 1991). On the other hand many studies focus on specific life stresses and risk conditions, like maltreatment (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997;Bolger & Patterson, 2003), parental mental illness or drug dependence (Hammen, 2003;Seifer, 2003;Zucker et al., 2003), death or divorce of parents (Sandler et al., 2003;Hetherington & Elmore, 2003), discrimination and violence (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Szalacha et al., 2003;Punamäki et al., 2001), and other sociodemographic risks like poverty and low SES (Luthar, 1991;Owens & Show, 2003;Seidman & Pedersen, 2003). ...
... Međutim, još uvijek su ostale neobjašnjene mnoge varijabilnosti u psihičkim posljedicama . Potrebno je utvrditi utjecaj različitih protektivnih faktora u različitim okolnostima zlostavljanja kao što su: inteligencija, privrženost, eksternalni interesi, vještine suočavanja, odnosi s učenicima i temperament (Fergusson i Horwood, 2003; Goran-Smith i Tolan, 2003; Ladd i Skinner, 2002; Schwartz i Proctor, 2000) koji mogu biti razlog varijacija u posljedicama izloženosti višestrukom zlostavljanju. ZAKLJUČAK Istraživači i službe za zaštitu zlostavljane djece definiraju zlostavljanje uglavnom u okviru četiri glavna oblika zlostavljanja (spolno, tjelesno, emocionalno/psihološko zlostavljanje, zanemarivanje) ili pet oblika ako se svjedočenje nasilju u obitelji uzima u obzir kao odvojeni oblik zlostavljanja. ...
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During the past few decades, the attention of researchers was directed toward understanding, prevalence and the consequences of certain forms of abuse. However, results of more recent research show that certain forms of abuse are not separate and independent of other forms of maltreatment, and that exposure to only one type of abuse is an atypical phenomenon. Multiple maltreatment is defined as the child’s exposure to different forms of abuse at the same time. Data on the prevalence of multiple abuse are presented, with attention being directed to the factors which increase the risk of multiple maltreatment and psychological challenges that occur in the adult as a result of exposure to multiple abuse in childhood.
... Research has shown that when a sense of belonging and support are met by the neighborhood, the risk carried by the family is minimized, suggesting the need to connect youth to neighborhood support to improve family functioning (Gorman-Smith, Tolan, Zelli, & Huesman, 1996). In terms of helping families cope with the effects of community violence, the current state of research suggests three potential strategies for intervention: (a) strategies to reduce the occurrence of the violence itself, (b) working with families to protect children and help them cope with exposure to violence, and (c) designing effective treatment for those exposed to community violence (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). ...
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The purpose of this grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) study was to explore the experiences of racially and culturally diverse young mothers whose own mothers abused substances two decades ago when substance abuse peaked in inner city, urban neighborhoods in the United States and to identify the factors that have influenced how they parent their own children today. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten drug-free mothers who report having been raised by a mother who was addicted to drugs, primarily crack cocaine during their childhoods. The emergent grounded theory is that exposure to maternal substance abuse has a significant and unique impact on female children throughout their lifespan, with particular emphasis at the onset of motherhood. Among the goals the young mothers expressed is that they wanted to "be there" for their children, protect their daughters from sexual abuse, and raise sons who do not abuse women.
... Research on the socioemotional correlates of poverty among infants and toddlers is particularly disturbing, suggesting elevated risk for poor social and emotional outcomes during this formative stage of development (Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, & Aber, 1997;Evans & English, 2002;Morris & Gennetian, 2003). Young children exposed to community violence also are at risk for a range of psychological and behavioral problems, including insecure attachments to caregivers, depression, anxiety, and aggressive behavior (Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny, & Pardo, 1992;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998). ...
... Over the last three decades, a substantial body of research has focused on the increased risk of psychosocial problems or deviant behaviors among youth who grow up in violent communities. Indeed, exposure to community violence (ETV) increases one's risk of psychosocial, behavioral, and academic problems (Kliewer, Lepore, Oskin, & Johnson, 1998;Osofsky, 1995); however, it is not deterministic (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). In fact, the majority of youth witnesses and victims of violence subsequently develop into healthy, caring, and confident adults (Benard, 2004;Werner & Smith, 2001). ...
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There is compelling evidence that many youth exposed to community violence manage to adapt successfully over time. Developmental assets have been deemed salient for positive youth development, though limited longitudinal studies have examined their relevance for high-risk youth. Using the Developmental Assets framework, the authors test whether supportive relationships, high expectations, and opportunities build emotional resilience directly or indirectly via interaction with risk. Further, the authors examine the effect of neighborhood collective efficacy on resilience. The authors use multiwave data from 1,166 youth aged 11–16 years and data about their neighborhoods from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN). Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to examine whether baseline protective factors in subjects’ home, peer, and neighborhood environments predicted log odds of emotional resilience at Waves 2 and 3 among youth ETV. Over 7 years, 60–85% were emotionally resilient. Positive peers and supportive relationships with parents and other adults had significant main effects. Positive peers and family support were particularly protective for witnesses and victims. Structured activities and collective efficacy influenced change in resilience differentially among ETV groups. Strengths-based policies and systems should focus on building developmental assets within the family, peer, and community environments for high-risk youth who have been exposed to violence (ETV).
... Imperative, therefore, are national-level policy efforts to address the blight and disorganization rampant in poor urban communities and, in particular, the degree to which easy access to firearms facilitates random acts of violence (see Elliott, Williams, & Hamburg, 1998;Osofsky, 1997;Shahinfar, Fox, & Leavitt, 2000). Also important are community-level efforts to develop neighborhood social processes that might help mitigate violence (Cauce, Stewart, Rodriguez, Cochran, & Ginzler, 2003;Elliott et al., 1998;Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Osofsky, 1997;Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997;Sullivan et al., this issue), for example, by empowering community members to take an active role in reporting and reducing crime, by providing good after-school programs and schools that provide "safe havens" for vulnerable youth, and by developing partnerships between the police force and community mental health centers (e.g., Marans & Adelman, 1997). ...
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The 5 articles included in this special section are reviewed in this article. The studies encompassed were all focused on pre- or early adolescents, and samples were gener- ally from inner-city areas, with 1 involving rural youth. Considered collectively, the results point to 3 major conclusions: Many children in America are regularly exposed to violence in communities; such exposure carries risk for psychopathology; and par- ents and other adults can provide valuable support but are limited in how much they can offset the effects of ongoing violence exposure. Intervention implications are, foremost, that community violence itself must be reduced and, second, that positive relationships with significant adults should be fostered to the degree possible among children living in high-risk, violence-prone communities. The five articles on violence exposure within this special section reflect several strengths, including the focus on rural as well as urban children, the use of mul- tiple methods and respondents in assessments, and the exploration of diverse potentially protective processes, including different parenting domains and high per- ceived support from various people in the child's life. Considered in tandem, the results of these studies point to a series of three major conclusions.
... Moreover, while the infant attachment literatures largely deals with parental (or early caregiver) attachment, we argue that shift-and-persist strategies can still develop out of positive attachment relationships with others, even if they are not the primary caregiver. For example, attachment to teachers buffers toddlers exposed to difficult life circumstances from behavioral problems (Howes and Ritchie, 1999), and attachment to one's neighborhood buffers inner-city children from delinquency problems (Smith and Tolan, 2003). ...
Article
Some individuals, despite facing recurrent, severe adversities in life such as low socioeconomic status (SES), are nonetheless able to maintain good physical health. This article explores why these individuals deviate from the expected association of low SES with poor health, and outlines a "shift-and-persist" model to explain the psychobiological mechanisms involved. This model proposes that in the midst of adversity, some children find role models who teach them to trust others, better regulate their emotions, and focus on their futures. Over a lifetime, these low SES children develop an approach to life that prioritizes shifting oneself (accepting stress for what it is and adapting the self to it) in combination with persisting (enduring life with strength by holding on to meaning and optimism). This combination of shift-and-persist strategies mitigates sympathetic-nervous-system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical responses to the barrage of stressors that low SES individuals confront. This tendency vectors individuals off the trajectory to chronic disease by forestalling pathogenic sequelae of stress reactivity, like insulin resistance, high blood pressure, and systemic inflammation. We outline evidence for the model, and argue that efforts to identify resilience-promoting processes are important in this economic climate, given limited resources for improving the financial circumstances of disadvantaged individuals.
... Despite these considerable stressors, supportive family and school characteristics have been shown to be associated with positive outcomes for children living in poverty (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Masten, 2001;O'Donnell, Schwab-Stone, & Muyeed, 2002). However, these resilient features of families and schools are rarely targeted for mental health programs, which, in high-poverty communities, are plagued by fragmentation and lack of coordination, resulting in a system that neither allocates resources successfully nor attends to the quality of services provided (Knitzer, 2000). ...
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The large gap between efficacy and effectiveness research has resulted in a new consensus regarding the need for research that will inform practice (National Institute of Mental Health, 1999; Weisz, 2000). Epidemiological studies indicate that fewer than 20% of children who need mental health care actually receive any services (Goodman et al., 1997). Earlier studies indicated that of those children who did receive services, fewer than 50% received the appropriate service relative to their need (Kazdin, 1996). These realities have led to two important movements in child mental health services: efforts to increase the effectiveness of services prin cipally by advocating evidence-based treatments (Hibbs & Jensen, 1997; Weiszs 2000) and calls for alternative models for mental health services (Burns, 1999; National Institute of Mental Health, 1999)
... Well-being has been found to correlate with a number of mental health outcomes, such as self-efficacy and self-esteem (Gorman-Smith and Tolan, 2003). Reynolds and Ou (2003) demonstrated that early childhood experiences favour the development of positive psychological well-being later in life. ...
Article
Variable- and person-focused approaches were applied to study the resilient outcomes of 326 Greek male and female 1st year university students at a major educational transition point. Results indicated that resilience was related to both cognitive and behavioural psychosocial resources in late adolescence. Locus of control emerged as an important resource which affected adaptation in the face of difficulties. Active and avoidance coping strategies significantly influenced adaptation, as did adversity. Under low adversity, avoidance coping was used; under high adversity, however, both active and avoidance coping were used equally. Resilient and adapted young people utilised more resources than the maladaptive youths, and demonstrated significantly higher levels of positive adaptation. Excelling-resilient adolescents utilised coping resources expertly.
... Furthermore, variables on different ecological levels may interact and influence one another. For example, a frequent and important point in prior writings on resource and protective factors has been that even internal child attributes (e.g., intelligence, locus of control, coping skills) are substantially shaped by external variables (Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003;Luthar, 2006). ...
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Rochester. Dept. of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, 2008 This study examined patterns of parent-child relations and adaptation in a sample of 169 boys and girls ages 13-15 with high lifetime exposure to psychosocial adversities. A central question was whether the quality of adolescents’ bonding with their primary caregiver was associated with differences in the ability to access and benefit from other interpersonal resources. Two alternative models were proposed to explain competent functioning in the context of low youth-parent bonding: (1) a compensatory relational model and (2) a non-relational self-reliant model. The former model posits that competent youths who report suboptimal bonding with their primary parent will have high levels of interpersonal supports outside of their immediate families, which may play a compensatory role and promote positive adjustment. The second model emphasizes continuity and specificity of resilient processes and suggests that low bonding competent youths may be less likely to turn to relational resources. Instead, this model points to self-reliance and personal mastery as pathways to competence. Confirmatory factor analyses validated youth-parent bonding as a multi-measure construct based on adolescents’ reports of emotional and instrumental support, nurturant involvement, and relatedness with their primary caregiver (predominantly mothers). Higher youth-parent bonding scores were associated with better youth adjustment in three areas of functioning: antisocial behavior, social-emotional functioning, and school behavior competence. Four groups of youths (low bonding competent, high bonding competent, low bonding non-competent, high bonding non-competent) were identified and compared on six resource variables: personal mastery resources, realistic control, empathy, trust/intimacy, other adult support, and organized activity involvement. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to examine the associations of resource variables with youth adaptation for adolescents reporting low and high levels of bonding. Overall, results from this study were more consistent with a non-relational self-reliant model than a compensatory relational model of resilient functioning among low bonding youths. Findings suggested continuity in relational patterns, such that adolescents who did not feel connected and supported in their primary caregiving relationship were also less likely to draw on and benefit from other interpersonal resources, specifically adults outside of the immediate family. Instead, resources related to personal mastery and organized activity involvement were associated with adaptational success for low bonding youths. Study implications and limitations are discussed.
... A risk and resilience approach also has been applied to research on community violence to help explain variation in maladaptive as well as positive outcomes among youth (e.g., Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 2003). Resilience is defined as a process that involves positive adaptation despite exposure to adversity or significant stress (Luthar, 2000). ...
Article
This study examined interrelationships among community violence exposure, protective factors, and mental health in a sample of urban, predominantly African American adolescents (N = 504). Latent Profile Analysis was conducted to identify profiles of adolescents based on a combination of community violence exposure, self-worth, parental monitoring, and parental involvement and to examine whether these profiles differentially predict adolescents' depressive symptoms and aggressive behavior. Three classes were identified-a vulnerable class, a moderate risk/medium protection class, and a moderate risk/high protection class. The classes differentially predicted depressive symptoms but not aggressive behavior for boys and girls. The class with the highest community violence exposure also had the lowest self-worth.
... That is, community resources may offset or compensate for family risks, or families may buffer neighborhood conditions on children. More study on how family and community factors may combine in protecting children from ETV would advance ecologically focused preventions and interventions (Gorman-Smith and Tolan 2003). ...
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Theoretically informed models are required to further the comprehensive understanding of children's ETV. We draw on the stress process paradigm to forward an overall conceptual model of ETV (ETV) in childhood and adolescence. Around this conceptual model, we synthesize research in four dominant areas of the literature which are detailed but often disconnected including: (1) exposure to three forms of physical violence (e.g., child physical maltreatment, interparental violence, and community ETV); (2) the multilevel correlates and causes of ETV (e.g., neighborhood characteristics including concentrated disadvantage; family characteristics including socio-economic status and family stressors); (3) a range of consequences of ETV (e.g., internalizing and externalizing mental health problems, role transitions, and academic outcomes); and (4) multilevel and cross domain mediators and moderators of ETV influences (e.g., school and community factors, family social support, and individual coping resources). We highlight the range of interconnected processes through which violence exposures may influence children and suggest opportunities for prevention and intervention. We further identify needed future research on children's ETV including coping resources as well as research on cumulative contributions of violence exposure, violence exposure modifications, curvilinearity, and timing of exposure.
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Students with learning disabilities (LD) often appear to have low academic performance, experience difficulties in performing academic tasks and avoid engaging in them, consider their own academic and self-regulation skills as inferior to other students with typical performance, have low self-perception and self-esteem, fewer expectations of future success, and experience more emotional and social difficulties than their typically developing peers. However, there is no shortage of studies that characterize the developmental course of many individuals with LD as something that exceeds all expectations. Though recent theories of psychological resilience provide a framework for understanding the complex factors that influence adaptation and general wellbeing within this framework, it is important to look into the individual protective factors in building psychological resilience and psychological well-being in children with learning difficulties. The family and school environment are important factors that contribute to young people's psychosocial development.
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Objectives. To measure differences in suicide rates across race/ethnicity, age, and sex groups in Chicago, Illinois, from 2015 to 2021. Methods. We calculated the incidence rate and annual percentage change in suicides among Asian, Black, Latino/a, and White persons in Chicago. We also analyzed patterns in suicide method across race/ethnicity, age, and sex groups. Results. Suicides increased significantly among Black males (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.10; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.01, 1.20), Black females (IRR = 1.18; 95% CI = 1.04, 1.33), and Latino males (IRR = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.11, 1.38) between 2015 and 2021. Suicides decreased overall among White Chicagoans during this period. A significantly greater proportion of Black males than Black females died by suicide using a firearm (55.79% vs 24.05%; P < .001). Similar results were detected for Latino males and females (32.99% vs 9.09%; P = .001) and White males and females (30.10% vs 11.73%; P < .001). Conclusions. Black persons in Chicago were the only group to experience significant increases in suicide among both males and females from 2015 to 2021, although specific methods used varied by race/ethnicity and sex group. ( Am J Public Health. 2024;114(3):319–328. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307511 )
Article
Adolescents who experience community violence are exposed to toxic stressors at a critical period of growth and development. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between community violence exposure and stress reactivity in African American and non-Latino white adolescents with overweight/obesity. Fifty-one adolescents (47% female, 55% African American; aged 14–19) participated in this study. Community violence was assessed using the Survey of Children’s Exposure to Community Violence. Stress reactivity was assessed via salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase area under the curve (AUC) during a Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Race was a significant predictor of alpha-amylase reactivity (β = 10740±3665, p = 0.0006), with a higher alpha-amylase AUC observed in African American compared to non-Latino white adolescents. There was also a significant difference in the relationship between community violence exposure and alpha-amylase AUC by race (β = −3561±1226, p = 0.007). At similar increases in violence exposure, African Americans demonstrated a significant decline in alpha-amylase AUC while non-Latino whites demonstrated a significant increase in alpha-amylase AUC. Neither race nor violence exposure were significant predictors of cortisol AUC and there were no significant differences in the relationship between community violence exposure and cortisol AUC by race (all p’s > .05). These preliminary findings suggest exposure to community violence may act to exacerbate autonomic dysregulation in African American adolescents with overweight/obesity. Longitudinal studies are needed to confirm the mechanisms by which community violence exposure differentially impacts stress responses by race.
Article
The purpose of this study was to examine the link between neighborhood risk and adolescent antisocial behavior and whether this association was moderated by parent and peer relationships and characteristics. We also explored whether the moderating effects varied by age. The sample consisted of 206 adolescents (ages 10–18 years) from predominantly low-income, ethnic minority families. Results indicated that high levels of neighborhood violence and neighborhood danger were significantly related to high levels of antisocial behavior. The findings also showed that high levels of peer (but not parent) prosocial behavior and emotion regulation attenuated the links between neighborhood violence and antisocial behavior. Moreover, parent-adolescent (but not peer-adolescent) relationship quality served as a protective factor in the face of neighborhood violence and danger. In addition, little evidence of age differences in the moderating effects of parents and peers was found. Implications regarding the role of interpersonal relationships in the context of risk are discussed.
Chapter
Resilience represents positive patterns of adaptation in the context of past or present adversity. From the standpoint of positive psychology, factors that affect resilience are positive personal, family, and/or environmental psychosocial characteristics of the individual. This study aimed to investigate the interplay of stress, personal, and social assets of children in the verge of adolescence with positive adaptation in Greece and Cyprus. A total of 248 male and female participants (158 from Greece and 90 from Cyprus) who attended the 5th and 6th grade of primary school completed a questionnaire battery. The battery comprised scales on life events, social support from the family, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and mental health problems. The results revealed distinct patterns of interconnections among the above variables in the two countries. In general, preadolescent children reporting actual negative life events seemed to draw on personal and social resources available to them, such as self-efficacy and support from their family, in order to maintain their sense of self-esteem and to avoid mental health problems. Nevertheless, age, gender, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement differences were also found to affect the manifestation of resilience under adversity in each country. The repercussions of the above findings for the study of resilience, as well as for parents, educators, mental health providers, and social policy makers, are significant.
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In diesem Kapitel werden die Chancen, aber auch die Risiken referiert, die die Gemeinde („community“) für die Entwicklung ihrer Mitglieder darstellt. Ausgehend von entsprechenden empirischen Befunden, werden Kennzeichen positiver, resilienzförderlicher Nachbarschaft herausgearbeitet und Grundprinzipen der Resilienzförderung in der Gemeinde abgeleitet. Drei positive Beispiele – ein systematisches Präventionskonzept auf kommunaler Ebene, die multimodale Resilienzförderung im Setting Kindertageseinrichtung und Mentorenprogramme – zeigen, wie gesunde Entwicklung im Zusammenhang von Gemeinde und Nachbarschaft gefördert werden kann. – Ein besonderer Dank geht an Dr. Maike Rönnau-Böse für die Unterstützung bei der Recherche und bei der Korrektur dieses Beitrags.
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The Edutainment Violence Intervention/Prevention Model (EVIP) is an exciting intervention to be used with Black adolescents who have been or will be exposed to the trauma of police brutality. Since such exposure to violence is associated with a diversity of negative consequences in developing adolescents, social workers need interventions to help Black adolescents acquire skills to navigate police interactions and to make sense of the brutality they witness. This article delineates the conceptual rationale, needed skills, and steps for implementing EVIP. EVIP incorporates the Centers for Disease Control’s best practices for violence prevention programs and is congruent with Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy. EVIP uses media, such as live theater, to give educational messages in an entertaining format. A pilot study has indicated that this intervention has promise. Furthermore, it is engaging and enables participants to explore multiple perspectives. This intervention can be seamlessly embedded by social workers in schools, churches, community centers, and other settings.
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Since its introduction to the scientific literature in the mid-1990s, developmental science has seen incremental refinements in research on resilience, which is a process or phenomenon reflecting positive child adjustment despite conditions of risk. In this chapter, we describe accumulated evidence on this construct in the field of developmental psychopathology and appraise critical directions for future work. We begin by briefly describing the history of work in this area through contemporary times, defining core constructs, and summarizing major findings on factors associated with resilience. In the second half of the chapter, we examine commonalities and differences between the resilience framework and a related, relatively new area of scientific inquiry: positive psychology. Our objective is to elucidate ways in which progress in each of these areas might most usefully inform efforts in the other, collectively maximizing the promotion of well-being among individuals, families, and society.
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This mixed-method study examined adaptive and maladaptive development in 62 children of war in Sri Lanka and 15 caregivers. Participants included war orphans and nonwar orphans from Buddhist and Christian orphanages, and a comparison group of children from intact families. Children's measures included; risk and resilience indices, sand tray analysis (constructions and narrative), Stages of Faith Interview (adapted from Fowler, 198124. Fowler , J. W. 1981 . Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning , San Francisco, CA : Harper & Row . View all references) and a sentence completion task. Adult measures included the adapted Stages of Faith Interview and a sentence completion task. Scoring was completed by three raters, with interrater reliability over 90%. Findings from ANOVA and qualitative analyses found similar indicators of general risk and resilience as in previous research. However, contrary to previous studies, most orphans demonstrated inner peace and resilience after exposure to war. Resilient orphans identified Buddhist and Christian practices used to promote their faith, personal well-being, and sense of belonging. Overall, the children in both Buddhist and Christian orphanages were taught to value peace and compassion, even though they had been exposed to war. Nevertheless, lack of contact with biological parents posed a unique idiom of risk for some orphans.
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In this chapter, we describe the major developments in the field of resilience since its inception more than 40 years ago. The chapter is organized in four sections, the first one presenting a brief history of work on resilience. The second section is devoted to elucidating critical features of research on this construct, highlighting three sets of issues: definitions and operationalization of the two constructs at its core, protective and vulnerability factors; distinctions between the construct of resilience and related constructs, such as competence and ego resiliency; and differences between resilience research and related fields, including risk research, prevention science, and positive psychology. The third section of the chapter is focused on major findings on vulnerability and protective factors. These are discussed not only in terms of the specific factors found to modify risk within three broad categories--attributes of the family, community, and child--but also in terms of factors that exert strong effects across many risk conditions and those more idiosyncratic to specific risk contexts. The final section includes a summary of extant evidence in the field along with major considerations for future work on resilience across the life span. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Witnessing violence is one adverse childhood experience (ACE) associated with living in impoverished Black urban communities. Youth with higher violence avoidance self-efficacy and positive coping are more likely to avoid violence. This study evaluates educational entertainment (edutainment) as an intervention with Black adolescents exposed to community violence. Edutainment has shown success in increasing self-efficacy and positive coping skills in other domains. Self-administered scales were used to measure stress, anxiety, violence avoidance self-efficacy, and coping strategies. Data were collected pre- and nine days post-interventions/no intervention from 20 subjects receiving the edutainment intervention, 19 subjects participating in a group discussion about violence, and 21 subjects receiving no intervention (N = 60). Edutainment and no intervention were more effective than group discussion alone in increasing violence avoidance self-efficacy. Violence avoidance self-efficacy was found to have an intervening relationship between edutainment and the outcome of stress. This study indicates limited but positive effects for edutainment.
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Our empirical understanding of the development of children residing in our country’s inner cities is growing. What is emerging is a grim picture of the level and extent of risk faced by these children and their families. At the same time, there is evidence of strong family functioning that helps mitigate these risks. In addition, it appears that family functioning can be aided by neighborhood networks and growing opportunities and resources to manage normal child development. As we have noted, there are many opportunities for building resilience by building family strengths in these high-risk communities. However, few have explored the potential of these avenues and even fewer have conducted empirical tests of their impact.
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Although the devastation was immediately apparent, the effects of Hurricane Katrina on the behavior of youth are just now being revealed. Much post-disaster research targets adjustment of adults, but ample evidence indicates that youth experience a variety of psychological symptoms following a disaster, including depressive symptoms, aggression, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress. The aim of the current study was to determine whether hurricane exposure serves as a risk factor for developing conduct problems among violence-exposed youth. Results indicate that hurricane exposure had differential effects on the relations between conduct problems and community violence versus corporal punishment in the home. Though not statistically significant, there was an unexpected trend for youth with high hurricane exposure to show decreased conduct problems and those with low hurricane exposure to show increased conduct problems as violence exposure increased. Hurricane exposure played the predicted role in the relation between corporal punishment and conduct problems, such that high levels of hurricane exposure predicted increased conduct problems among youth experiencing high levels of corporal punishment, but not among those experiencing low levels of corporal punishment. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
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To retrospectively analyze the rate of multi-type abuse in childhood and the effects of childhood abuse and type of coping strategies on the psychological adaptation of young adults in a sample form the student population of the University of Mostar. The study was conducted on a convenience sample of 233 students from the University of Mostar (196 female and 37 male), with a median age of 20 (interquartile range, 2). Exposure to abuse was determined using the Child Maltreatment Scales for Adults, which assesses emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, and witnessing family violence. Psychological adaptation was explored by the Trauma Symptom Checklist, which assesses anxiety/depression, sexual problems, trauma symptoms, and somatic symptoms. Strategies of coping with stress were explored by the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations. Multi-type abuse in childhood was experienced by 172 participants (74%) and all types of abuse by 11 (5%) participants. Emotional and physical maltreatment were the most frequent types of abuse and mostly occurred together with other types of abuse. Significant association was found between all types of abuse (r=0.436-0.778, P<0.050). Exposure to sexual abuse in childhood and coping strategies were significant predictors of anxiety/depression (R(2)=0.3553), traumatic symptoms (R(2)=0.2299), somatic symptoms (R(2)=0.2173), and sexual problems (R(2)=0.1550, P<0.001). Exposure to multi-type abuse in childhood is a traumatic experience with long-term negative effects. Problem-oriented coping strategies ensure a better psychosocial adaptation than emotion-oriented strategies.
Article
This article describes the development and evaluation of an after-school curriculum designed to prepare adolescents to prevent violence through community change. This curriculum, part of the Youth Empowerment Solutions for Peaceful Communities (YES) program, is guided by empowerment and ecological theories within a positive youth development context. YES is designed to enhance the capacity of adolescents and adults to work together to plan and implement community change projects. The youth curriculum is organized around six themed units: (a) Youth as Leaders, (b) Learning about Our Community, (c) Improving Our Community, (d) Building Intergenerational Partnerships, (e) Planning for Change, and (f) Action and Reflection. The curriculum was developed through an iterative process. Initially, program staff members documented their activities with youth. These outlines were formalized as curriculum sessions. Each session was reviewed by the program and research staff and revised based on underlying theory and practical application. The curriculum process evaluation includes staff and youth feedback. This theoretically based, field-tested curriculum is designed to be easily adapted and implemented in a diverse range of communities.
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This article discusses how adolescents become violent from the perspective of human development, in which the process of formation of the child and the youth depends on diverse biological, psychological e social variables that constitute the context of life of these individuals. The ecological perspective of human development opposes simple cause-effect relations between antisocial adversities and behaviors and believes that factors such as gender, temperament, cognitive ability, age, family, social environment and culture combine in a complex way influencing the behavior of the child and the adolescent. Some conclusions point to the fact that violence in adolescence usually starts from a combination of early difficulties in relationships associated with a combination of temperamental difficulties. It is concluded that the young seem to be as bad as the social environment surrounding them.
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Meta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the effects of exposure to community violence on mental health outcomes across 114 studies. Community violence had its strongest effects on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and externalizing problems and smallest impact on other internalizing symptoms. Victimization by community violence most predicted symptomatology compared to witnessing or hearing about community violence. Witnessing community violence had a greater effect than hearing about violence on externalizing problems, but both types of exposure had an equal impact on other internalizing problems. PTSD symptoms were equally predicted by victimization, witnessing, or hearing about community violence. Compared to children, adolescents reported a stronger relationship between externalizing behaviors and exposure, whereas children exhibited greater internalizing problems than did adolescents.
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Developmental challenges faced by the children growing up in situations of chronic danger linked to community violence and communal conflict are reviewed. The concept of post-traumatic stress disorder is expanded to include situations of chronic and on-going traumatic stress associated with dangerous environments—war zones and inner city neighborhoods plagued by violence and crime. Of particular importance is the impact of chronic stress and danger on the child's world view, the child's social map, and the child's moral development. On the basis of field work in 5 war zones, the article points to the importance of adult-led “processing” of the young child's experience to his or her psychological coping and moral development. Some of the contradictions operating in such environments are explored—for example, that “fanatical” ideology may provide short-term support for adults and children but also may serve to prolong communal conflict, impede the necessary processing of experience, and increase vulnerability in the long run.
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Assessed the occurrence of three types of stressful life events among African- American and Hispanic children living in urban neighborhoods, and examined the concurrent and prospective relations between stressful life events and adjustment. Younger children and children living in the most disadvantaged neighborhoods experienced more stressful life events. Stressful life events were significantly related to higher concurrent levels of aggression and predicted increases in aggression P year later. Life transitions and exposure to violence predicted concurrent aggression, but circumscribed events served as the strongest predictor of aggression 1 year later. Total number of stressful events and exposure to violence significantly interacted with neighborhood disadvantage, such that effects were only apparent under conditions of high neighborhood disadvantage.
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Operation Ceasefire is a problem-oriented policing intervention aimed at reducing youth homicide and youth firearms violence in Boston. It represented an innovative partnership between researchers and practitioners to assess the city's youth homicide problem and implement an intervention designed to have a substantial near-term impact on the problem. Operation Ceasefire was based on the “pulling levers” deterrence strategy that focused criminal justice attention on a small number of chronically offending gang-involved youth responsible for much of Boston's youth homicide problem. Our impact evaluation suggests that the Ceasefire intervention was associated with significant reductions in youth homicide victimization, shots-fired calls for service, and gun assault incidents in Boston. A comparative analysis of youth homicide trends in Boston relative to youth homicide trends in other major U.S. and New England cities also supports a unique program effect associated with the Ceasefire intervention.
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The relationship between family influences and participation in violent and nonviolent delinquent behavior was examined among a sample of 362 African American and Latino male adolescents living in the inner city. Participants were classified into three groups: (a) nonoffenders, (b) nonviolent offenders, and (c) violent offenders. Families in the violent delinquent group reported poorer discipline, less cohesion, and less involvement than the other two groups. These results were consistent across ethnic groups. However, the factor Beliefs About Family related to violence risk in opposite directions for African American and Latino families. These results highlight the need to look at ethnic group differences when constructing models of risk.
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The purpose of this chapter is to present a parsimonious explanatory framework for the complex body of knowledge on risk and protective factors for adolescent drug abuse. This explanatory framework is described as Structural Ecosystems Theory (SET; J. Szapocznik and R. A.Williams, 1999). First, the authors describe general trends and qualitative reorganizations in the risk and protective factors literature. The risk and protective factors of adolescent drug abuse are emphasized. Second, SET as a framework for organizing the literature on risk and protective factors for adolescent drug abuse is offered. Third utility of the framework in organizing the existing body of empirical findings is illustrated with examples from various research programs examining risk and protective factors in the development of adolescent substance use and other behavior problems. Lastly, the authors discuss the implications of the SET framework for formulating theory-driven preventive interventions that encompass the complexity of findings of risk and protective processes across social domains and life span development and the usefulness of the SET framework in avoiding iatrogenic effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The maintenance of high social competence despite stress was examined in a 6-month prospective study of 138 inner-city ninth-grade students. The purpose was to provide a replication and extension of findings derived from previous cross-sectional research involving a comparable sample of children. Specifically, goals were to examine the extent to which high-stress children with superior functioning on one or more aspects of school-based social competence could evade significant difficulties in (a) other spheres of competence at school and (b) emotional adjustment. Measurements of stress were based on uncontrollable negative life events. Competence was assessed via behavioral indices including school grades, teacher ratings, and peer ratings, and emotional distress was measured via self-reports. Results indicated that high-stress children who showed impressive behavioral competence were highly vulnerable to emotional distress over time. Furthermore, almost 85% of the high-stress children who seemed resilient based on at least one domain of social competence at Time 1 had significant difficulties in one or more domains examined when assessed at both Time 1 and Time 2. Findings are discussed in terms of conceptual and empirical issues in resilience research.
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Data are presented concerning the early predictors of adaptational success and failure among 72 children attending their 1st years of elementary school in a violent Washington, D.C., neighborhood. Adaptational failures were defined as those children who were doing poorly or failing in school and rated by their parents as suffering clinically significant levels of behavior problems. Adaptational successes were defined as children whose performance as students was rated in the average to excellent range and whose parent-rated levels of behavior problems were within the normal range. Despite the fact that these children were being raised in violent neighborhoods, had been exposed to relatively high levels of violence in the community, and were experiencing associated distress symptoms, community violence exposure levels were not predictive of adaptational failure or success. Instead, adaptational status was systematically related to characteristics of the children's homes. More specifically, the children's chances of adaptational failure rose dramatically as a function of living in unstable and/or unsafe homes. Moreover, it was not the mere accumulation of environmental adversities that gave rise to adaptational failure in these children. Rather, it was only when such adversities contaminated or eroded the stability and/or safety levels of the children's homes that the odds of their adaptational failure increased. We argue that this erosion of the quality of the child's microsystem (i.e., family) by adversities and pressures in the exosystem (i.e., community) is not an inevitable process. Although not yet well understood, it is a process over which families have and must exercise control. The implications of these data for improving children's chances of physical, psychological, and academic survival in violent neighborhoods are considered.
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Person-centered approaches to understanding delinquent and criminal careershave identified several distinct pathways or patterns of delinquent behavior(Gorman-Smith et al., 1998; LeBlanc and Kaspy, in press; Loeber et al.,1991; Loeber et al., 1993). In addition, research suggests that there maybe etiological variations that correspond to these different pathways(Gorman-Smith et al., 1998). That is, there may be different configurationsof risk factors associated with different types of delinquent and criminaloffending. If this is so, understanding these relations can have importantimplications for intervention and prevention. However, there have been fewstudies that examine how the configuration of risk factors may vary inrelation to different delinquency pathways. The current study brings aperson-centered analysis to examine how patterns of family functioningrelate to patterns of offending. In addition, this study contextualizesthese relations by examining how these relations vary as a function ofcommunity setting. This study expands upon previous research that hasidentified four basic patterns of delinquent behavior among a sample ofminority male adolescents living in poor urban neighborhoods (Gorman-Smithet al., 1998).
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While research has well documented that urban youth are exposed to increasing rates of community violence, little is known about what increases risk for violence exposure, what protects children from exposure to violence, and what factors reduce the most negative outcomes associated with witnessing violence. This study expands on current research by evaluating the relations between exposure to violence, family relationship characteristics and parenting practices, and aggression and depression symptoms. Data were drawn from a sample of 245 African-American and Latino boys and their caregivers from economically disadvantaged inner-city neighborhoods in Chicago. Rates of exposure could not be predicted from family relationship and parenting characteristics, although there was a trend for discipline to be related. Exposure to community violence was related to increases in aggressive behavior and depression over a 1-year period even after controlling for previous status. Future studies should continue to evaluate the role of exposure to violence on the development of youth among different neighborhoods and communities. Implications for intervention and policy are discussed.
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Factors that allow children to maintain socially competent behaviors despite stress were examined among 144 inner-city ninth-grade students with a mean age of 15.3 years. Stress was operationalized by scores on a negative life events scale, and definitions of social competence were based on peer ratings, teacher ratings, and school grades. Moderator variables examined included intelligence, internal locus of control, social skills, ego development, and positive life events. Following theoretical models by Garmezy and Rutter, distinctions were made between compensatory factors (which are directly related to competence) and protective/vulnerability factors (which interact with stress in influencing competence). Ego development was found to be compensatory against stress. Internality and social skills proved to be protective factors, while intelligence and positive events were involved in vulnerability processes. This study also revealed that children labeled as resilient were significantly more depressed and anxious than were competent children from low stress backgrounds.
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Violence has been characterized as a "public health epidemic" in the United States. At the same time, children's witnessing of violence is frequently overlooked by law enforcement officers, families, and others at the time of a violent incident. Although mothers describe the panic and fear in their children and themselves when violence occurs, little research or clinical attention has focused on the potential impact on children of living under conditions of chronic community violence. The purpose of this article is to present an overview of available research and clinical understanding of the effects of exposure to violence on school-age and younger children. Suggestions for future research and public policy initiatives are offered.
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Distributional properties and correlates of the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) were presented for a sample (n = 221) of low-income, African-American youths between 7 and 18 years of age. The results showed that younger children and those living in a household without their mother reported more depressive symptoms. Regression analyses revealed that victims of violence reported more depressive symptoms. However, chronic exposure to violence, in the form of witnessing violent acts, was not significantly related to depression. On further inspection, it was discovered that witnessing violence had a negative effect on depression. This finding, although somewhat unexpected, may be the result of some youths possessing a set of extraordinary coping mechanisms that help to insulate them from negative environmental experiences.
Chapter
The contributors to this book believe that something can be done to make life in American cities safer, to make growing up in the urban ghettos less risky, and to reduce the violence that so often permeates urban childhoods. They consider why there is so much violence, why some people become violent and others do not, and why violence is more prevalent in some areas. Both biological and psychological characteristics of individuals are considered. The authors also discuss how the urban environment, especially the street culture, affects childhood development. They review a variety of intervention strategies, considering when it would be appropriate to use them and towards whom they should be targeted. Drawing upon ethnographic commentary, laboratory experiments, historical reviews, and program descriptions, this book presents a variety of opinions on the causes of urban violence and the changes necessary to reduce it.
Chapter
Social changes, including women's entry into the labour force and higher rates of divorce and remarriage, dramatically altered family life and raised complex questions about how individuals develop in the ever changing contexts of family, community and society. The goal of this 1989 volume is to enhance our understanding of human development in an evolving social context. Featuring contributions by eminent scholars in developmental, clinical and personality psychology, behavioural genetics and sociology, Persons in Context: Developmental Processes presents advances in theory and research on two central topics: how environments influence individuals in the course of development and how individuals select and shape the very environments that influence their development. The volume assembles a theoretically convergent body of research on how individuals and environments are linked in the course of development, including studies of genetics - environment relations, social interns, social interchanges in family systems, and linkages between the family and other major settings, such as peer groups, communities, and the larger social structure.
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This article summarizes a much lengthier one that appeared in Prevention and Treatment. The earlier article grew out of a project initiated by the Department of Health and Human Services Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. The Positive Youth Development Evaluation project described why policy makers, practitioners, and prevention scientists advocated a shift in approach for how youth issues are addressed in this country. The Positive Youth Development Evaluation project sought to define how youth development programs have been defined in the literature and then to locate, through a structured search, strong evaluations of these programs and summarize the outcomes of these evaluations. In the current article, we explain why prevention has shifted from a single problem focus to a focus on factors that affect both positive and problem youth development, describe what is meant by positive youth development, and summarize what we know about the effectiveness of positive youth develop...
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The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
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The Boston Gun Project is a problem-solving policing initiative aimed at reducing homicide victimization among young people in the city of Boston. It represented an innovative partnership between researchers and practitioners to assess the city's youth homicide problem and implement an intervention intended to have powerful impacts in the near term. In early 1996, a working group representing a variety of law enforcement and social service agencies implemented an intervention that strategically responded to gang violence, focused enforcement efforts on gun trafficking, and emphasized communication of the strategy to generate deterrence. The intervention is associated with a 60% decline in youth homicide victimization (i.e., two fewer victims per month). There are smaller declines in other measures of violence. The decline in youth homicide is sharp and occurs coincident with the introduction of the intervention. Competing hypotheses appear unable to account for the decline.
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Objective. —To examine the extent to which adolescents are exposed to various types of violence as either victims or witnesses, and the association of such exposure with trauma symptoms; specifically, the hypotheses that exposure to violence will have a positive and significant association with depression, anger, anxiety, dissociation, posttraumatic stress, and total trauma symptoms. Design and Setting. —The study employed a survey design using an anonymous self-report questionnaire administered to students (grades 9 through 12) in six public high schools during the 1992-1993 school year. Participants. —Sixty-eight percent of the students attending the participating schools during the survey participated in the study (N=3735). Ages ranged from 14 to 19 years; 52% were female; and 35% were African American, 33% white, and 23% Hispanic. Results. —All hypotheses were supported. Multiple regression analyses of the total sample revealed that violence exposure variables (and to a lesser extent, demographic variables) explained a significant portion of variance in all trauma symptom scores, including depression (R2=.31), anger (R2=.30), anxiety (R2=.30), dissociation (R2=.23), posttraumatic stress (R2=.31), and total trauma (R2=.37). Conclusions. —A significant and consistent association was demonstrated linking violence exposure to trauma symptoms within a diverse sample of high school students. Our findings give evidence of the need to identify and provide trauma-related services for adolescents who have been exposed to violence.(JAMA. 1995;273:477-482)
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To understand the way children develop, Bronfenbrenner believes that it is necessary to observe their behavior in natural settings, while they are interacting with familiar adults over prolonged periods of time. His book offers an important blueprint for constructing a new and ecologically valid psychology of development.
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This paper describes the experiences of children who have witnessed the homicide of a parent and are then legally compelled “to tell what [they] have seen.” The witnessing of a human killing constitutes psychic trauma, and the child may exhibit symptoms of a posttraumatic stress disorder. There may also be a wide range of grief responses. Our focus is on the interplay of the child's grief and traumatic reactions, and the demands of the legal system. The horrifying loss of impulse control in the assailant, the mutilation of the victim, and the helplessness of the victim and witness continue to haunt the child. We review the issues arising from police questioning, qualification procedures, testimony in open court, and defendant sentencing. The child's efforts at mastering the trauma can be either enhanced or impeded by involvement in judicial proceedings. With more complete mastery of traumatic anxiety, the child can become a more effective witness. We argue for the usefulness of having an expert in psychic trauma to assist these young witnesses and outline legal recommendations to provide adequate mental-health consultation.
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Renowned American sociologist William Julius Wilson takes a look at the social transformation of inner city ghettos, offering a sharp evaluation of the convergence of race and poverty. Rejecting both conservative and liberal interpretations of life in the inner city, Wilson offers essential information and a number of solutions to policymakers. The Truly Disadvantaged is a wide-ranging examination, looking at the relationship between race, employment, and education from the 1950s onwards, with surprising and provocative findings. This second edition also includes a new afterword from Wilson himself that brings the book up to date and offers fresh insight into its findings. “ The Truly Disadvantaged should spur critical thinking in many quarters about the causes and possible remedies for inner city poverty. As policymakers grapple with the problems of an enlarged underclass they—as well as community leaders and all concerned Americans of all races—would be advised to examine Mr. Wilson's incisive analysis.”—Robert Greenstein, New York Times Book Review
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Describes the estimated extent of forms of violence to which children are commonly exposed as well as a framework for understanding the posttraumatic and grief responses of children to violent events. The forms of violence discussed include domestic violence, suicide, homicide, rape, juvenile gang violence, and vehicular manslaughter. Symptomatic reactions to violent circumstances can be grouped under posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), grief reactions, separation anxiety symptoms, and exacerbation or renewal of symptoms. Children can be assisted through individual, family, classroom, and community interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research methods and inferential techniques must acknowledge the complexity and heterogeneity of child maltreatment. Empirical investigation of child maltreatment must be guided by sophisticated concepts of development, personality, psychopathology, and family and social systems theory.
Article
The experience, observations, local knowledge, and historical perspective of working police officers and others with routine contact with offenders, communities, and criminal organizations may represent an im-portant underutilized resource for describing, understanding, and crafting interventions aimed at crime problems. Mapping and other information-collecting and -ordering techniques, usually aimed at formal police data, can also be used to good effect to capture and organize these experiential assets. This chapter describes one such exercise carried out as part of a project to apply problem-solving techniques to youth gun violence and gun markets in Boston. A working group comprised of Harvard University re-searchers, police officers from the Boston Police Department's Youth Vio-lence Strike Force, probation officers covering high-risk neighborhoods, and city-employed gang-mediation "street workers": estimated the number and size of the city's gangs; mapped their turf; mapped their antagonisms and alliances; and classified five years of youth victimization events ac-cording to their connection (or lack thereof) to this gang geography. The products of these exercises provide: a "snapshot" of Boston's gang turf; an estimate of gang involvement in high-risk neighborhoods; a sociogram of gang relationships; and an estimate of Boston gangs' direct contribution to youth homicide victimization.
Article
Although research has found that urban youth experience excessive levels of community violence, few studies have focused on the factors that alter the risk of exposure to violence. The current study investigates the relation between neighborhood and violence exposure and between family functioning and risk for exposure to violence in different types of poor, urban neighborhoods. Participants were 249 inner-city African American and Latino males ages 13–17 and their primary caregivers who participated in the Chicago Youth Development Study. The interaction between family functioning and neighborhood type accounted for increased exposure to violence. The greatest increases occurred among struggling families residing in inner-city neighborhoods with high levels of social organization. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Article
Fourteen months after a sniper attack at an elementary school, level of exposure to that event remained the primary predictor of ongoing posttraumatic stress reactions in 100 schoolchildren who were followed up. Guilt feelings and knowing the child who was killed were associated with a greater number of symptoms. Grief reactions occurred independent of degree of exposure to the event. The authors discuss the public health implications of these longitudinal findings.
Article
Two questions concerning the effect of physical abuse in early childhood on the child's development of aggressive behavior are the focus of this article. The first is whether abuse per se has deleterious effects. In earlier studies, in which samples were nonrepresentative and family ecological factors (such as poverty, marital violence, and family instability) and child biological variables (such as early health problems and temperament) were ignored, findings have been ambiguous. Results from a prospective study of a representative sample of 309 children indicated that physical abuse is indeed a risk factor for later aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known. The second question concerns the processes by which antisocial development occurs in abused children. Abused children tended to acquire deviant patterns of processing social information, and these may mediate the development of aggressive behavior.
Article
Homicide perpetrated by an acquaintance or a close family member is the leading cause of death among blacks. Black children adversely affected by these violent occurrences suffer posttraumatic stress disorder. The purpose of this study is to illustrate how damage caused to black children from exposure to violence is reflected in behavior problems and poor school performance.
Article
Based on multiple regression analysis to identify the socioeconomic, demographic, and attitudinal correlates of neighborhood differences in the rate of child abuse and neglect, a pair of neighborhoods matched for socioeconomic level was selected, one high risk, the other low risk. Interviews with expert informants ranging from elementary school principals to mailmen were used to develop neighborhood profiles. Samples of families were drawn from each neighborhood and interviews conducted to identify stresses and supports, with special emphasis on sources of help, social networks, evaluation of the neighborhood, and use of formal family support systems. The results lend support to the concept of neighborhood "risk." Families in the high-risk neighborhood, though socioeconomically similar to families in the low-risk neighborhood, report less positive evaluation of the neighborhood as a context for child and family development. Furthermore, they reveal a general pattern of "social impoverishment" in comparison with families in the low-risk neighborhood.
Article
Trauma and its effects on early intrapsychic development are issues that need to be better understood as young children are exposed to ever increasing levels of violence. In this paper, we have considered trauma from the perspective of its effects on young children in the context of chronic community and family violence. Characteristic features of adults with post traumatic stress disorder have been identified in children under 4 years old who have been exposed to extreme trauma. In understanding trauma and its effects on children, it is important to consider how external events may impact on intrapsychic structure and the development of the self. A case is presented of identical 2 year, 11 month old twin boys who were referred after having witnessed the shooting death of their mother by their father seven months earlier. The course of psychoanalytically informed play psychotherapy is discussed with a major goal of the therapy being to help the children work through the trauma and return to a healthy developmental course. While the twins responded well to treatment and were able to work through traumatic material, systematic follow-up is needed to determine the later developmental course.
Article
To describe the assessments for exposure to violent events and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a population of urban adolescent girls. Seventy-nine urban adolescent girls attending an adolescent medicine clinic were assessed via clinician-assisted self-report measures called the Adolescent Self-Report Trauma Questionnaire. The questionnaire gathered information on demographics, exposure to community and domestic violent events, and PTSD symptoms. The adolescents experienced between 8 and 55 different types of community and domestic violent events, with the mean number of violent events being 28. Hyperarousal cluster symptoms were present in 90%, reexperiencing clusters symptoms in 89%, and avoidance cluster symptoms in 80%, while 67% met symptom criteria for PTSD. Increased number of types of violent events was positively correlated with meeting PTSD criteria (p = .01) and with increased PTSD severity scores (p = .001). These urban adolescent girls have experienced prolonged and repeated exposure to multiple types of community as well as domestic violent events, via multiple modalities of contact, over time. They reported a high percentage of PTSD symptoms across all three symptom clusters. The authors propose the concept of "compounded community trauma" and discuss its marked impact on female adolescent development.
Article
To examine levels of violence exposure and reports of feeling unsafe in relation to psychological and behavioral characteristics for a general population sample of youths from an urban setting. A comprehensive survey of high-risk behaviors, attitudes, indicators of adaptive behavior, and daily involvements was administered to a sample of 2,248 students in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades in an urban public school system. More than 40% of the youths surveyed reported exposure to a shooting or stabbing in the past year, and 74% reported feeling unsafe in one or more common environmental contexts. Multiple regression analyses indicated significant relationships between violence exposure/feeling unsafe and a set of indicators of psychological and behavioral adaptation and expressed attitudes. These results attest to the picture of violence as a common fact of inner-city life and to the demand that is placed on urban youths to accommodate in their psychological development to chronic threat and lack of safety.
Article
This paper reanalyzes data from the Gluecks classic study of 500 delinquents and 500 nondelinquents reared in low-income neighborhoods of central Boston. Based on a general theory of informal social control, we propose a 2-step hypothesis that links structure and process: family poverty inhibits family processes of informal social control, in turn increasing the likelihood of juvenile delinquency. The results support the theory by showing that (1) erratic, threatening, and harsh discipline, (2) low supervision, and (3) weak parent-child attachment mediate the effects of poverty and other structural factors on delinquency. We also address the potential confounding role of parental and childhood disposition. Although difficult children who display early antisocial tendencies do disrupt family management, as do antisocial and unstable parents, mediating processes of informal social control still explain a large share of variance in adolescent delinquency. Overall, the results underscore the indirect effects of structural contexts like family poverty on adolescent delinquency within disadvantaged populations. We note implications for current debates on race, crime, and the "underclass" in urban America.