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Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (61)
The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate:
An inquest into the Background History of the 1804
Jihad in Hausa Land, 210 years After
Dr. Arshad Munir
Godwin Onuh Odeh
January first 2014, Nigeria became one hundred years after the popular
1914 amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates by Sir
Fredrick Lord Lugard. The centenary commemoration of the Nigerian State
generated very serious scholarly attention than any other issues in the
annals of Nigerian history. While scholars channels energy in writing on the
1914 episode or epoch, very little attention have been given to the 1804
Jihad of Sheikh Shehu Usman Danfodiyo which brought the Sokoto
Caliphate in to existence, and which was at the same time the headquarters
of the Northern Nigerian region whose historical union with the southern
protectorate occurred in 1914. Though some scholars uses the Jihad as a
background to the discussion on amalgamation, the phenomenon is not given
sufficient attention pointing its historical relevance to the emergence of
Nigerian State in the centenary commemoration programme. The attempt
to bridge this emerging lacuna in contemporary Nigerian historiography
serves as the basis and the foremost objective of this paper. The paper
discovers that the Jihad of Shehu Usman Danfodiyo in 1804, in Hausa land
created the caliphate system that the British came to formalized, and the
system, which still condition the state of affairs in modern Nigeria. Arising
from this background, the essay upholds that the background history of
the caliphate demands serious attention and critical reflection in 2014
given the historical relevance of the caliphate in the foundation of modern
Nigerian state.
Introduction
The Sokoto Jihad of 1804 that culminated into the historic
establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate remained a defining and
reference point in West African history and Nigeria in particular as
it created among other things the biggest Islamic empire in the sub-
region in the 19th century. Though one may not said the revolution
in Hausa land was a holistic success, but its legacies or imprints
has remained indelible in the historic edifice of Nigerian State 210,
years after.
Arising from the significance of the 1804, famous revolution in
scheme of things and, the historic relevance of 2014, because of
the epic 1914 amalgamation of the southern and northern
protectorates that brought Nigerian state into existence, we
Department of Arabic & Islamic Studies, Sokoto State University, Sokoto.
Department of History, Sokoto State University, Sokoto.
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (62)
consider it very necessary to revisit and interrogates the forces that
informed and formed the creation of the Sokoto Caliphate. The
Sokoto Caliphate as it was later became pivotal as it served as the
headquarters of the entire Northern protectorate during the period
of the British colonialism. For format purpose, the paper is
structured into the followings: the introduction, which is ongoing
already, conceptual/theoretical issues, the background history of
the Sokoto Jihad/the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate,
Danfodiyo’s works in Gobir, his Hijra and the organization and
course of the Jihad, the emergence of the Sokoto Caliphate/Sokoto
State Nigeria, the significance/legacies of the Sokoto Jihad/the
Caliphate and finally, the conclusion.
Conceptual/Theoretical Issues
The issues that beg for clarification and theoretical exploration in
this paper are Caliphate and the Jihad respectively. This is because
they are the main concepts that underlined the discourse.
Caliphate
The term Caliphate is derived from the word Caliph or Khalifa –
the later meaning, successor of Mohammed (SAW) the prophet
and the head of the Muslim theocratic state1. Deducing from this
conceptualization therefore, caliphate simply mean a theocratic
state i.e. a state governed by the practices, stipulations and conduct
of Qur’an. It may be equally view as a territorial jurisdiction of a
Caliph. Consequent upon the conquest of the entire Hausa land by
1810 or so, Sheikh Usmanu Danfodiyo, the leader of the 1804
Sokoto Jihad institutionalized the Caliphate system in Northern
Nigeria with Sokoto being the administrative headquarters of the
western part and Gwandu Kebbi, being the headquarters of the
eastern section. Their various head are known as Sultan. From
1804, to date, Sokoto Caliphate has had twenty successive Sultans.
This we shall see subsequently in the analysis that we shall do in
the paper.
Jihad
The concept of Jihad is equally derived from the Arabic word,
Jahada or Al-harb2 – meaning to exert or struggle in attempt to
live up to the standard and expectations of the Almighty Allah, so
that one could be a good Muslim. It is also refers to as Holy War.
There are two kinds of Jihad; the major and the minor or what may
be called internal and external Jihad respectively3. the major or
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (63)
internal Jihad connotes struggling against evil or sin, while the
external or minor Jihad mean employing all kinds of methods such
as; economic, political, legal, diplomatic and arm conflagration at
the final analysis to protect Islamic faith and establish the will of
Allah. It is when all peaceful means of reconciling issues has failed
that Islam encouraged force. However, this does not mean Islam is
all about violent, but peace with God4. In a situation where force is
to be apply when other peaceful means has failed, there are strict
rules that have to be obeyed or followed. The innocents such as;
women, children, or invalids must never be harmed; any peaceful
attempt at negotiation from the purported enemy must be accepted.
The military action as the only means of Jihad is very rare. It is
documented that, Prophet Mohammed (SAW) told his followers on
returning from military expedition that, “this day we have returned from
the minor Jihad to the major Jihad”5. This connotes returning from
physical arm battle to the life of self-control, which is one of the
essential elements of the major Jihad. The difference between the
two Jihads is like questions posed before a student; in which one of
the questions attracts 1 or 2 marks (minor), and the other attracts
20 marks (major). If the student spent all of his time in attempting
the question that carried only 1 or 2 marks instead of directing his
effort at the one that would have earned him 20 marks, the student
will be regarded as an unwise student. If the difference in the
reward of the Jihads are like this why concentrating on the minor?
Theoretical Framework
There are many theories seeking to explain the origins of the
Sokoto Jihad. One of such is the religion-ethnic theory advanced
by European historiographers and writers with Eurocentric
background like Lord Lugard, Henrich Bath, M.G. Smith, Murray
Last, J.E. Arnett, H.A.S Johnston6, etc. These writers contends that
religion at the outbreak of the Sokoto Jihad was used to canvass for
support, but when this strategy could not receive the desired
results, the leaders changed approach and it became a Fulani-
Hausa business. This theory seems to offer easy target explanations
by excusing itself from the pains to a marshal out realities on
ground in Hausa land before the eruption of the 1804 Jihad. In
short, it is an attempt to imposed stereotyped European
explanations of African history.
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (64)
Rather than pitches tents with the racist or religio-ethnic theory,
the paper uses R.A Adeleye’s7 perspectives which sees the Jihad as
a holistic and profound revolution unprecedented in scope and
intensity in West African history as it touches every facets of life.
Other events of monumental significance in African history similar
to the Sokoto Jihad was the Mfecane in Southern Africa and the
demised and emergence of polities in the 18th, 19th and 20th
centuries. In brief, the Jihad of Usman Danfodiyo fall within the
purview of the overall macro changes African States underwent in
the 19th century. The perspective of this paper will be significantly
appreciated when one knows and agrees that changes in any
society at any time are necessitated by inherent contradictions on
ground. The contradictions connote clashes between the old and
the new forces and ideas, forces of progression and retrogression
are basic ingredients that triggered revolution. The Sokoto Jihad
must necessarily be seen as an intensification of the inherent
contradictions in Hausa land before and during 1804 as we shall
see subsequently in the essay.
The Background History of the Sokoto Jihad/the
Establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate
There were very serious socio-economic issues or contradictions in
Hausa land in between 1750 – 1800 begging for radical
transformations or reorganization of the society around a new
social core. In his book Kitabal-Farq and many other works, the
Sheik was held to have complained bitterly of the general societal
degeneration8 which includes among other things; oppression,
corruption, self-indulgence and frivolity, arbitrary exercise of
power without natural and religious respect to the rule of Law. The
Jihad was therefore, a reaction to the hypertensive materialistic
individualism prevalent in Hausa land in the 18th century9.
Besides the socio-economic conditions in Hausa Land, it is
important to note that Islam as a religion was not practiced in its
purest sense within the period under review. Islam as conceived
and confessed was not only an individual relationship with his
creator but also, a system of living. It is therefore not difficult to
see how the leadership of the Jihad scheme revolution against the
backdrop of the Islamic philosophy which was not religiously
observed in Hausa Land. Islamic knowledge at the time under
discourse was well advanced. As a result, Islam was transformed
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (65)
from a mere belief to a faith based on awareness of the stipulations
of the Qur’an and other sources that regulates its conducts and
practices10. Arising from this, a search light was turned on the
society in Hausa Land with all its polytheism and other social
vices. Revolution amidst this kind of condition is highly
predictable and inevitable.
More so, there was large number of Jamaa alongside Ulama who
were found almost everywhere in Hausa Land and elsewhere in
Sudan by the second half of the 18th century. The presence of the
Ulama and Jamaa was very crucial in the eruption of the Jihad.
Abba11, was of the opinion that the ideological unity of the
scholars and preachers on issues made Ulamas both the messenger
and the message concurrently. As a result, they inspired and led the
revolution. Aside conscientising the people, the social roles they
played in the lives of the people in towns and villages was
overwhelming and thus, constituted a vehicle that galvanised
religious and political support.
Finally, the tradition of prophecies for the coming of Mahdi
provided the necessary platform for the Sheik’s support. Within the
period under consideration there were prophecies concerning the
coming of Mahdi who was believed to appear from the East amidst
social chaos. At the time of the outburst of the Jihad, the leadership
further strengthened these prophecies proclaimed by Sheik.
Mohammed Bello was held to uphold that the Jihad would not be
over until the appearance of Mahdi and truly as Mahdism started or
began, scholars continued to move towards the Eastern emirates in
expectation of the Mahdi12. These among others were the state of
affairs in Hausa Land in between 1750 to 1800 thus, fertilising the
ground for the outbreak of the Jihad and guaranteeing its
successes.
Dandofiyo’s Works in Gobir, his Hijra and the Organisation
and Course of the Jihad
By the late 1770, Sheikh Usmanu Danfodiyo had gotten
considerable recognition and followers, and already by this time,
there were enough symptoms of strain in his relationship with the
rulers of Gobir. It was on record that in 1788 – 1789, the Sarkin
Gobir, Bawa, called on all the Muslim scholars in his jurisdiction
to perform the Eid prayers. The essence of this was to kill
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (66)
Danfodiyo as it was alleged. He refused having obtained
concessions from Bawa. The following were the concession;
a) To allow Sheikh to call people to Allah in Gobir,
b) Not to stop or hinder those who intend to respond to the call,
c) To treat with absolute respect any man with turban,
d) To free all political prisoners,
e) And, not to burden the people with taxes and levies13.
That Bawa accepted the concessions demonstrates the extent to
which he attempted to avert problem and the degree of the treat
Fodiyo posed to Gobirawa authorities. By 1790s, the idea of Jihad
has taken serious shape in the mind of Usman Danfodiyo and by
1795, he told his disciples to arm themselves. When Nafata
succeeded Bawa in 1796, he repudiated all the clauses of the
concessions given to the Sheikh, and Yunfa who took over from
his father Naafata, created further restrictions to limit Sheikh’s
power14.
The above developments coupled with the clash with Abdal-Salam
generated a crisis of relevance that triggered or occasioned the
Sheikh and his family to move from Gobir to Gudu in February
1804. This historic movement also known as Hijra was like the
experience of Prophet Mohammad (SAW) flight from Medina to
Mecca in September 622AD15. At this point, the rubber band of
their relationship was drawn to its elastic limit and only Jihad
could follow.
In June 1804, the first epic clash between the Gobirawa forces and
that of Sheikh took place at the battle of Takbin Kwotto.
Notwithstanding the superiority of the Gobirawa army in terms of
equipment and numerical strength, Fodiyo’s forces won the day by
the reason of their superior morale and determination.
Consequently, in few years, Fodiyo’s forces got practical control
of the entire Hausa land and parts of the present day Republic of
Niger and southward up to Ilorin and Nupe land, and part of Jukun
land was brought under Sheikh’s dominion16.
The Emergence of the Sokoto Caliphate/Sokoto State Nigeria
The forces that led to the creation of the Sokoto Caliphate and the
modern Sokoto State are both ties together by the history and the
forces of the Jihad of 1804 in Hausa land itself. In other words as
stated earlier, unlike most states and towns in the Federal Republic
of Nigeria today which owe their origins to activities of the
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (67)
colonialists, Sokoto State was unique in a sense as it owe its origin
to the forces that culminated into the establishment of the
Caliphate itself before the advent of the British colonialism.
The history of the Sokoto Jihad that led to the historic foundation
of the Caliphate will not be rehearsed here again. What is
significant to note is that by 1810 or so, Danfodiyo and his
lieutenants had practically gained absolute control of the entire
Hausa States. After his withdrawal from active conduct of the
affairs of the newly gained empire, the Sheikh balkanises it into
two; placing the Eastern part with Gwandu as its headquarters
under his brother Abdullahi Fodiyo and the Western part with
Sokoto as its headquarters under his son, Mohammed Bello17. The
dual administration of the empire continued under the descendants
of these personalities until 1903, when the entire northern Nigeria
and Nigerian region was declared the British protectorate
consequent upon the death of Sultan Attahiru. Till date as we have
noted already, Sokoto Caliphate have had twenty successive
Sultans and, these are demonstrated in the table below.
List of Sultans of Sokoto from 1804 – 2014
S/N
NAME
FROM
TO
LINEAGE
1 Usman Danfodiyo 1804 1815 -
2 Muhammed Bello 1817 1837 Son of Danfodiyo
3 Abubakar 1 Atiku 1837 1842 Son of Danfodiyo
4 Ali Babba bin Bello 1842 1859 Son of Muhammed Bello
5 Ahmadu Atiku 1859 1866 Son of Abubakar Atiku
6 Aliyu Karami 1866 1867 Son of Muhammed Bello
7 Ahmadu Rufai 1867 1873 Son of Danfodiyo
8 Abubakar II Atiku Mairaba 1873 1877 Son of Muhammed Bello
9 Muazu Dan Bello 1877 1881 Son of Muhammed Bello
10 Umaru bin Ali 1881 1891 Son of Ali Babba bin Bello
11 Abdulrahman Dan Atiku 1891 1902 Son of Abubakar Atiku
12 Muhammadu Attahiru I 1902 1903 Son of Ahmadu Atiku
13 Muhammadu Attahiru II 1903 1915 Son of Ali Babba bin Bello
14 Muhammadu Dan Ahmadu
Maiturare
1915 1924 -
15 Muhammadu Dan
Muhammadu Tambari
1924 1931 -
16 Hassan Dan Mu’azu
Ahmadu
1931 1938 -
17 Sadiq Abubakar III 1938 1988 Grandson of Mu’azu
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (68)
18 Alhaji (Dr) Ibrahim Dasuki 1988 1996
Deposed
Great-great grandson of
Danfodiyo
19 Alhaji (Dr) Muhammadu
Maccido
1996 2006 Son of Sadiq Abubakar III
20 Alhaji (Dr) Muhammad
Sa’ad Abubakar III
2006 Present
(2014)
Son of Sadiq Abubakar III
Source:
Waziri Junaidu, History and Culture Bureau Archives, Sokoto,
Sokoto State.
J. A. Burdon, “Sokoto History: Tables of Dates and Genealogy ” in
Journal of the Royal African Society, Vol 6, N 24. n.d.
List of Sultan of Sokoto available at: Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia,en.wikipedia.org/wiki/listofsultan.
The Significance/Legacies of the Sokoto Jihad/Sokoto Caliphate
The Jihad has left behind indelible imprints in the social, economic,
political, religious and cultural strata of the western and central
Sudan’s societies. The following are its significance and legacies;
firstly, the Jihad succeeded in creating a very large multi-ethnic
state reminiscent of the later Zulu empire after the Mfecane in
Southern Africa18.
Purdah system introduced for women and some un-Islamic
practices were banned. The taking of concubines encouraged by
the Sheikh culminated into population growth, which was
considered a healthy development for growth and expansion of
Jamma19.
The intellectual correspondence of the Islamic Scholars boosted
scholarship during and after the wars. Thus, education was
specifically encouraged in the caliphate. Both women and Children
were encouraged to go to school. Primary education in some
Fulani houses were left in the hands of elderly women20.
Though the mode of surplus appropriation remained feudal, there
were some fundamental changes in the economic confines of the
society. There was the growth of market, free enterprise that was
complemented by policy and laws fixing prices, weigh and
measures21.
Urbanization in Hausa land got a very serious boost and new towns
like Yola, Bauchi, Bida, Gombe, Kontagora, Keffi, Nasarawa, etc.
emerged22.
In addition to the above significance and legacies of the Jihad, the
social and political structures erected by Danfodiyo’s Jihad formed
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (69)
the basis of the British administration that is, the much eulogised
Lord Lugard’s indirect rule system of government. The same
structure provided the needed institutional framework for modern
local government administration in Nigeria, and this defined the
centrality of Sokoto in contemporary Nigerian history. Modern
northern Nigeria and Nigeria in part has continued to be
conditioned by the consequences of the Jihad of 180423.
The Jihad under consideration created the structure in which the
modern day Sokoto State derived its title, “Seat of the Caliphate”.
Given this background, one may not be erroneous to theorise that
“no Caliphate, no northern Nigeria and Sokoto State”. Sokoto State
was created on February 3rd, 1976 during the regime of Late
General Murtala Ramat Mohammed. Sokoto State occupies a
geographical expanse of about 25,973 square kilometers, a total
population of over four million people according to 2006 census
and twenty three (23) local government area councils24. The Sultan
of Sokoto is a direct descendant of Danfodiyo and he is the
spiritual head of all Muslims in Nigeria.
Conclusion
The history of the Sokoto Caliphate has come a very long way in
the development of knowledge. Arising from the historical
significance of the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria’s developments
and west-central Sudanese’s history, we made serious attempt for
its history to be remembered 210 years after the Jihad of 1804. It
was never our intention in this paper to praise Sokoto State/the
Caliphate or compared it with other Nigeria’s city States, neither
was it the intention of the paper to eulogized the state against the
backdrop of its privilege history. Rather, the paper is concerned
with historicizing issues that led to the establishment of the
Caliphate. This becomes more compelling now that the country is
celebrating her centenary as a result of the historic 1914
amalgamation of the northern and southern protectorates, and more
so, that Sokoto Caliphate happened to be located in the north and
the headquarters of the entire region whose historical marriage
with the south occurred in 1914.
In an attempt to achieve the aim and objectives of the paper, the
theoretical construct that seek to explain the historical origin of the
1804 revolution in Hausa land has been reviewed. The background
history of the Sokoto Jihad/the establishment of the Sokoto
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (70)
Caliphate has been discussed, Danfodiyo’s works in Gobir, his
Hijra, the organization and course of the Jihad has been analyzed.
The significance and legacies of the Jihad/Sokoto Caliphate in the
sub-region and Nigeria has been assessed too, and the paper
uphold that Sokoto Caliphate and Sokoto State in modern Nigeria
happens to be among the States not only in Nigeria, but in the
whole of Africa whose histories are seriously not limited to the
history of European colonial adventurism.
NOTES & REFERENCES
1. B. V. Rao, World History, India, Sterling Publishers, 1991, p.
145. The free dictionary.com, 10-12-2014. 1:41pm.
2. Islamic Supreme Council.org//understanding – Islamic/legal-
rulings/5-Jihad-a-misunderstood-concept-from-
Islam.html?start=9. 10/12/014. 1.42pm.
3. Islamic Supreme Council.org (used above)
4. B.V. Rao, World History, p.143.
5. Islamic Suppreme Council.org (Op cit).
6. H.A.S. Johnson, The Fulani Empire of Sokoto, London, 1967.
P.52.
7. R.A. Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria,
1804 – 1906, Longman, 1977. P.20.
8. H.A.S. Johnson, The Fulani Empire of Sokoto, London, 1967.
P.52. Y. Abba, “The Jihad in Hausa Land as a Revolution” in
Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate. Y.B. Usman
(ed) ABU, History Department, 1979. P.21.
9. A. Smith, “The Contemporary Significance of the Academic
Ideals of the Sokoto Jihad” in Studies in the History of the
Sokoto Caliphate, Y.B. Usman (ed). P.243.
10. I. Atagher “The Sokoto Jihad Revisited: A Contribution to the
Revolutionary Framework” in Benue Valley Journal of
Humanities. Vol. 6, No.1. A. M. Adejo (ed), Makurdi, Aboki
Publishers, 2004. P. 76.
11. Y. Abba, “The Jihad in Hausa Land as a Revolution” in
Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate. Y.B. Usman
(ed) ABU, History Department, 1979. P. 31.
12. G. O. Odeh, “It all Begins Here”: Historicising the Motto of
the Sokoto State University, Sokoto, Nigeria. (unpublished), P.
4. A. Sa’ad. The Lamibe and Fombina (O.U.P) 1977, PP. 105
& 130.
Al-Qalam December 2014 The Establishment of the Nigerian Sokoto Caliphate (71)
13. G. I. C. Eluwa et al, Africa and the Wider World since
1800AD, Lagos, Africana Fep Publishers, 1996, P. 6.
14. G. I. C. Eluwa et al, Africa and the Wider World since
1800AD. P. 6.
15. B.V. Rao, World History, p.143.
16. R. A. Adeleye, “The Sokoto Caliphate in the 19th Century” in
History of West Africa. Vol. II, Ajayi and Crowther (eds)
London, Longman, 1974, P.60 – 69.
17. I. A. B. Balogun, The Life And Works of Uthman Danfodiyo,
Lagos, Islamic Publisher Bureau, 1975. P49.
18. J.D Omer-Cooper, The Zulu Aftermath: A 19th Century
Revolution in Bantu Africa, London, 1966, pp. 172-4.
19. M. Last, “Reform in West Africa: The Jihad Movements of the
Nineteenth Century” in History of West Africa, Ajayi &
Crowther (eds), Vol. II., Longman, London, 1974. p. 24.
20. Y. Abba, “The Jihad in Hausa Land as a Revolution” Studies
in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate, ABU, History
Department, 1979, P. 24.
21. Y. B. Abba, “The Jihad on Hausa Land as a Revolution” p. 24.
22. I. Atagher “The Sokoto Jihad Revisited: A Contribution to the
Revolutionary Framework, P. 78.
23. G. I. C. Eluwa et al, Africa and the Wider World since
1800AD. P. 6.
G. O. Odeh, A Brief History of the Sokoto State University, Office
of the Vice-Chancellor, Sokoto State University, Sokoto.
