Material included in this manuscript has been excerpted from the following sources:
Cuseo, J., et al. (2013). Thriving in College & Beyond: Research-based Strategies for Academic Success
and Personal Development. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
Thompson, A., & Cuseo, J. (2014). Diversity & The College Experience. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
Teaching with and for Diversity:
Effective Instructional Strategies
Joe Cuseo
The effectiveness of diversity education depends not only on the content of the
curriculum, but also on the instructional methods used to deliver the content. As much
thought should be given to what teaching strategies will be employed as to what material
will be covered; in other words, process is as important as content.
Student-centered teaching starts with and focuses on the learner; it puts the student at
the center of the learning process by focusing on the learner and what the learner is
doing, rather than focusing on what the teacher is covering in class. The goals of
effective, student-centered teaching are to meet the learning needs of the student,
facilitate the learning process and, ultimately, achieve positive learning outcomes
(American College Personnel Association, 1994; Angelo, 1997; Barr & Tagg, 1995). The
experiences of students are integrated into the teaching process and the learning process
becomes more active, interactive, and engaging (EdChange Multicultural Pavilion, 2009).
Student-centered learning also embodies the principles of democratic education by
allowing students to take action during the learning process and take personal
responsibility for their own learning (Gutmann, 1999).
“All aspects of teaching and learning in school must be refocused on, and rededicated to, the students themselves.”
—EdChange Multicultural Pavilion
The intended learning outcomes of diversity education simply cannot be realized
without use of engaging, student-centered teaching, which research indicates is a core
characteristic of culturally competent teachers (Slavin & Madden, 2001; Tharp, et al.,
2000). For example, studies show that the success of Hispanic students is compromised
by instruction that does not engage students in the learning process (Haberman, 1991).
Thus, culturally competent teaching not only relies on selecting content that is inclusive
and allows students from diverse backgrounds to see themselves and their experiences in
the curriculum; it also involves reliance on a process of learning that engages students
from diverse backgrounds.
Among the intended learning outcomes of diversity education is to promoting attitude
change, and research repeatedly shows that trying to change people’s attitudes or
opinions by lecturing or presenting information to them is a very ineffective strategy
(Bligh, 2000). The positive impact of diversity education rests heavily on the process of
enabling students to directly experience and appreciate human differences, and less on
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the content of teacher’s lectures about why students should value differences. “Lectures
are relatively ineffective for teaching values associated with subject matter. Sermons
rarely convince agnostics, but they give solidarity to the faithful. Similarly, lectures are
ineffective in changing people’s values, but they may reinforce those that are already
accepted” (Bligh, 2000, p. 12).
Furthermore, when teachers rely exclusively on the method of lecturing students about
diversity rather than actively involving students in the learning process, they fail to model
the democratic process, civic involvement, and political self-efficacy. Instead, they may
reinforce an authoritarian approach to learning and decision making that serve to oppress,
rather than empower students. As Paulo Freire, Brazilian educator argues in his classic
book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed:
Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically
the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns them into ‘containers,’ into ‘receptacles’ to be
“filled” by the teacher. The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a
teacher she is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the
better students they are. Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the
students are to memorize mechanically the narrated content. This is the ‘banking’
concept of education, in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends
only as far as receiving, filing, and storing the deposits. In the banking concept of
education, knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves
knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting an
absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates
education and knowledge as processes of inquiry. The banking concept maintains
attitudes and practices, which mirror oppressive society as a whole: the teacher is the
Subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects (1970, pp. 71-73).
One way to convert the philosophy of student-centered teaching into a practical action
plan is for teachers to focus on creating three key, student connections in the classroom:
(1) the student-teacher connection: establishing rapport with the class
(2) the student-subject connection: engaging students’ with the subject matter
(3) the student-student (peer-to-peer) connection: creating a sense of community among
classmates
Consistent with the philosophy of student-centered teaching, each of these connections
begins with and centers on the student as the key agent in the learning process. These
three student-connection points will be used as a general framework for organizing the
specific teaching strategies discussed in this chapter.
MAKING THE STUDENT- TEACHER CONNECTION:
Establishing Rapport with the Class
Teacher-student rapport may be viewed as a precondition or prerequisite for active
student involvement and engagement in the learning process. If students feel comfortable
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relating to their teacher, they will be more responsive to the teacher’s attempt to interact
with them and to engage them in the learning process.
On the first day of class, make an intentional effort to learn students’ names and
something personal about them. Taking time to get to know your students, and allowing
students the time to get to know, should precede any attempts to cover curricular content
(i.e., people before paper). Before diving into coverage of course content, teachers should
establish personal connections with students.
Learning the names of students as quickly as possible is probably most effective way
that teachers can establish early rapport with the class and generate a positive first among
students. It can lay the foundation for a classroom environment in which students feel
comfortable interacting with their teacher and begin to become actively involved in the
class. Furthermore, learning student names and calling on them by name is a very
effective way to convey high expectations for each and every student in class, regardless
of what their particular cultural background happens to be. As Forsyth and McMillan
point out: “High expectations are communicated as teachers learn students’ names and
call on them by name” (1991, p. 58).
Carl Rogers, renowned humanistic psychologist, artfully expresses the value of
knowing your students: “I think of it as prizing the learner, prizing his [her] feelings, his
opinions, his person. It is a caring for the learner. It is an acceptance of this other
individual as a separate person, a respect for him as having worth in his own right”
(Rogers, 1975, p. 107). Teaching effectiveness depends not only on technical teaching
skills, such as organization and communication, but also on personal characteristics of the
teacher that serve to humanize the classroom environment and promote student feelings
of self-worth (Jones, 1989). Said in another way, effective teachers are not only well
organized and effective communicators, they also provide students with personal
validation. When students feel personally validated, they feel valued as a human being,
are recognized as unique individuals, and sense that their teacher cares about them and
their personal development (Rendón, 1994). When students feel validated, they relate
more easily and openly to the teacher, feel more comfortable about asking questions, and
are more likely to be honest about seeking advice or assistance from the teacher on
personal issues that are affecting their academic performance.
An effective way to learn relevant personal information about students, as well as to
help learn students’ names, is by having students complete a student-information sheet.
This practice involves having students respond to questions about themselves on a sheet
of paper in class while the teacher responds to the same questions by recording
information about herself on the board. The Student Information Sheet can be used to
learn more about your students on the first day of class (e.g., their backgrounds, goals,
and interests). The student-information sheet can be used to initiate individual
conversations with you students, which, in turn, may increase their willingness to
contribute their experiences in class. The Student Information Sheet can also be a
valuable tool for helping you identify forms of diversity that may not be clearly visible
(e.g., students’ geographical background, current living situation, or whether they are
first-generation college students). You can then capitalize on this information to create
heterogeneous learning groups that expose students to these “invisible” forms of
diversity.
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Allow students an opportunity to share their personal histories.
To appreciate diverse cultural experiences, students must first hear about them, and
ideally, they should hear about them from people who have had different experiences.
One way to enable students to capitalize on the diverse experiences of students in your
class is to ask them to write a short, autobiographical story about their personal journeys.
To give students some direction and focus for this writing assignment, they could relate
their personal stories to such topics as: (a) turning points in their life, (b) past experiences
or decisions made that continue to affect their life (positively or negatively), and (c) role
models or sources of inspiration in their life.
Students could share their written histories in small, intentionally formed groups
containing members from diverse backgrounds. Allowing students from a variety of
students to share their personal stories may enable them to see that others have had very
different personal journeys and experienced different challenges to overcome major
obstacles to get where they are now. In addition to (or in lieu of) sharing their stories in
person, stories may be shared online. Sometimes, the absence of eye contact during
online communication can reduce student fear or embarrassment about sharing personal
information on sensitive subjects. The absence of face-to-face contact can provide
reticent students with a greater sense of privacy or anonymity, which may allow them to
share personal information in a less defensive and more forthright manner.
Have students bring an artifact to class that reflects their cultural background (e.g.,
food, clothing, music, art), and ask them to briefly describe its role or significance in
their life. This may be a non-threatening, nonverbal way to initiate discussion of
students’ personal stories and cultural experiences. It also helps create a classroom
atmosphere that reflects and respects cultural differences, which is one hallmark of
effective multicultural education (NCSS Task Force, 1991).
Once you have learned your students’ names, continue to refer to them by name. It is
important to learn your students’ names, but it may be even more important to show them
that you know them by regularly using their names.
Personalize the classroom experience by learning and remembering information
about your individual students. Teachers who go beyond knowing who their students are
to knowing something about their students sends a strong message of personal validation
to each and every student in class. An effective way to learn relevant personal
information about students, as well as to help learn students’ names, is by having students
complete a student-information sheet. This practice involves having students respond to
questions about themselves on a sheet of paper in class while the teacher responds to the
same questions by recording information about herself on the board. The Student
Information Sheet can be used to learn more about your students on the first day of class
(e.g., their backgrounds, goals, and interests). The student-information sheet can be used
to initiate individual conversations with you students, which, in turn, may increase their
willingness to contribute their experiences in class. The Student Information Sheet can
also be a valuable tool for helping you identify forms of diversity that may not be clearly
visible (e.g., students’ geographical background, current living situation, or whether they
5
are first-generation college students). You can then capitalize on this information to
create heterogeneous learning groups that expose students to these “invisible” forms of
diversity.
Interact with students in a personable and empathic manner. Specific
recommendations for behaving personably toward students include the following
practices:
- Greet students when you enter class and when you see them on campus.
- Welcome back students back after a weekend or semester break.
- Acknowledge the return of an absent student (e.g., “Glad to see you’re back, we missed
you last class”).
- Wish students good luck on a forthcoming exam.
- Express concern to students who are not doing well or to those students who have been
excessively absent (e.g., “Everything okay?” “Anything I can do to help?”).
- Acknowledge emotions expressed by students in class (e.g., “You seem excited about
this topic.” “I sense that you’re feeling tired, so let’s take a short break from this task.”).
Provide personalized feedback to students. Feedback is more likely to be attended to
and responded to in a non-defensive manner if it is delivered in a personalized fashion.
Personalized feedback may be delivered by such practices as (a) addressing the student
by name in your written and spoken remarks, (b) comparing students’ present
performance with their previous work and noting areas of personal improvement, and (c)
signing your name at the end of written comments so your feedback is delivered in a form
similar to a personal letter.
Though it may be may be too time-consuming to write a personal note to all students
on every returned assignment or exam, personal notes may be written to a smaller subset
of students (e.g., students with last names A-M in your grade book). On the next
assignment, a different subgroup of students may be selected to receive personal notes.
For students who are struggling in class, write a personal note on returned
assignments or exams that invites, requests, or requires them to see you outside of
class. This written note could be reinforced by a private verbal comment before or after
class. The importance of reaching out to under-performing or low-achieving students is
supported by research indicating these students are often the least likely to initiate or seek
extra help their own (Knapp & Karabenick, 1988).
Consider refraining from the ritualistic use of red ink to correct student errors on
exams and assignments. No research evidence can be provided to support this
suggestion; it is based on the intuitive feeling that students may associate this color with
apprehension (“red flag” or “red alert”) or humiliation (“red-faced”). These are the very
feelings that a culturally competent teacher wants no student to experience when being
evaluated because it may cause that student to react emotionally and defensively to the
feedback provided (rather than rationally and constructively). Perhaps delivering written
6
feedback to students in a color that has a less negative history than the corrective color,
red, may partially reduce the risk that feedback will be perceived as self-threatening.
Provide students with personal recognition and reinforcement for their efforts and
achievements. Be on the lookout for opportunities to recognize or compliment students’
efforts, achievements, or improvements (e.g., thank students for their questions and
participation in class). Reinforcing effort and providing recognition is one practice that
characterizes effective K-12 teachers who generate the greatest gains in student
achievement (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Such recognition and reinforcement
serves to provide students, particularly underrepresented students, with a strong sense of
personal validation (Rendón & Garza, 1996). It also prevents teacher from falling into the
“criticism trap”—i.e., only paying attention to students who are misbehaving, and the
“dependency trap”—only paying attention to students who need to be helped.
Engage in self-disclosure by sharing your personal experiences about material
discussed in class. Sharing personal anecdotes to illustrate a concept is a teaching
practice that shows students their teacher is human and a person with whom they can
identify. Furthermore, by sharing their experiences, teachers model the very behavior that
they hope their students will engage in during the learning process. Modeling self-
disclosure serves to increase the likelihood that students will emulate and reciprocate by
engaging in the same honest self-disclosure that the teacher has modeled.
Lastly, personal anecdotes effectively promote student learning by providing students
with real, “human” examples that concretely illustrate course concepts and bring them to
life (literally). Peter Elbow (1986) eloquently articulates the advantages of such practices,
“We should reveal our own position, particularly our doubts, ambivalences, and biases.
We should show we are still learning, still willing to look at things in new ways, still
sometimes uncertain or even stuck . . . We can increase the chances of our students being
willing to undergo the necessary anxiety involved in change if they see we are willing to
undergo it” (p. 150).
Maintain and share your sense of humor. Fear of being perceived as “unprofessional”
or “losing control” of the class may inhibit some teachers from incorporating content-
relevant and socially-appropriate humor in the classroom. Something funny is not
necessarily something frivolous. If teachers have a humorous personal anecdote that
relates to, or helps drive home the concept under discussion, they should not hesitate to
share it.
Using content-relevant cartoons is another effective way to command immediate
student attention to the concept being taught and provides students with a visual and
emotionally-stimulating illustration of the concept, which serves to strengthen its
retention. Cartoons can be easily converted into overhead or Power-point slides and may
be used to:
(a) “punctuate” class presentations with content-relevant humor that maintains or
regains student attention, and
(b) provide an attention-grabbing prompt as students enter the classroom, which can
create a positive first impression of the class session, inducing a pleasant
mood and anticipatory interest.
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Adorning an office door with educationally relevant cartoons and witty sayings may also
reduce student trepidation about seeking contact with teachers outside the classroom.
MAKING THE STUDENT- COURSE (SUBJECT) CONNECTION:
Engaging Students with the Subject Matter
The need for teachers to make use of engaging instruction that actively involves students
with the subject matter is strongly suggested by research indicating that students are
entering college are reporting high levels of academic disengagement in high school; for
example, they more frequently report “feeling bored” in class, missing class, and
spending little time on their studies outside of class (Sax, et al., 2005).
Educational research suggests that the following practices are effective strategies for
promoting active student involvement in the learning process.
Pose thought-provoking questions regularly during class presentations that call for
student reaction to the information presented. Research indicates that frequent use of
questions is one characteristic of teachers whose students make the highest achievement
gains (Rosenshine, 1971; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). Questions can create temporary
states of doubt or puzzlement in students’ minds that can motivate them to resolve the
doubt and seek answers. Infusing thought-provoking questions into instructional
presentations creates a climate of intellectual curiosity, while serving to model and
encourages students to ask their own questions in class.
Careful forethought needs to be given to the process of posing questions because how a
question is framed or phrased affects whether it will successfully stimulate student
involvement. As one instructional development specialist suggests: “You must highlight
them [questions] in your outline. You should know exactly what questions, word for
word, you are going to ask” (Welty, 1989, p. 42). Research indicates that the types of
questions that are most likely to elicit student involvement are open-ended questions,
which call for more than one correct or acceptable answer. Such questions invite multiple
responses, welcome a diversity of perspectives, and encourage divergent thinking, i.e.,
expansive thinking that does not force students to “converge” on one (and only one)
correct answer (Cuseo, 2005).
Listed below are other features of teacher-posed questions that are more likely to
trigger student involvement:
* Conditionally-phrased questions (e.g., “What might be . . . .” “What could be . . . ?”
“What may be . . . ?”). Such conditional phrasing sends students a clear verbal
signal that a diversity of answers is possible and acceptable, which encourages
creativity and reduces fear or embarrassment about failing to provide “the”
correct answer that the teacher (authority figure) is “looking for.” This is a
very reasonable student fear because if there is one and only one correct answer, and
an almost limitless number of unacceptable responses, the odds are clearly against
the student who is thinking about answering the question.
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* Higher-Order questions that ask for thinking at a level that is higher than rote recall
of factual information, such as questions that call for critical thinking (e.g., What
might be strengths and weakness of this idea?) or creative thinking (e.g., What may
be another way to solve this problem?)
* Focused questions that are tied to, or focus on, a specific concept or issue.
For example, “What do you think might account for these male-female differences in
communication style?” is a focused question. In contrast to an unfocused query,
such as: “Does anybody have any questions or comments?”).
* Personalized questions that situate students in a relevant, real-life context and
ask them how they would respond in this situation, thereby inviting them to apply
the concept under discussion to their personal lives.
Such questions implement the effective principle of “situated learning,” i.e., learning
that situates or places in a relevant and meaningful context (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 1999). For instance, in an FYS course, if the topic under discussion is test-
taking skills, students could be asked the following question: “Suppose you were just
about to take a major exam and you started to experience symptoms of test anxiety.
What could you do right then and there to reduce your tension and regain self-control?”
* Questions that involve all students to respond simultaneously by asking for a
nonverbal response.
For example, a simple show of hands to questions such as: “How many of you
agree with the following statement . . . ?” or “How many of you had an experience
similar to . . . ?” Other ways in which students can respond nonverbally include:
(a) having students vote with their feet by taking a position represented by
one of four corners in the room—with each corner representing one of four choices:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree; or
(b) asking students to move to either side of the room, depending on their position with
respect to an issue or debate, using the center aisle as a dividing line—for example:
Where do you stand (literally) on the issue of whether or not schools should have a
dress code?
Such nonverbal exercises serve to involve all students in class at the same
time; not just the most verbally assertive or impulsive thinkers who raise their
hand first out an answer faster than any of their classmates. Nonverbal exercises
can also serve as a prelude to provoke subsequent verbal discussion. For
instance, students could be asked why they ended up occupying a particular
place or space, or students could be allowed to change their places after a class
discussion, then asked why they decided to change.
During class discussions, intentionally seek responses from members of diverse
groups whose ideas have yet to be heard. For example, “I haven’t heard the
perspective of females on this issue. May I ask some of the women in class to share their
ideas?”).
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Interrupt or “punctuate” teacher presentations with activities that promote student
involvement at three key times during the presentation: before, during, and after.
* Pre-Presentation Involvement Strategies: students become actively involved before a
presentation by activating their pre-existing knowledge, feelings, and/or misconceptions
about the to-be-presented information. Any of the following practices may be used for
this purpose.
- Pre-Tests: giving students a short, non-graded assessment of their knowledge
or skills with respect to the upcoming topic (e.g., a short series of true-false
questions).
- Background Knowledge Probes: students jot down what they already know—
or think they know—about an upcoming topic, and how they got to know it
(i.e., the source of their knowledge).
- Background Interest Probes: students are asked what they would like to
know, or what questions they would like answered about the upcoming topic
(Cross & Angelo, 1989).
- Verbal “Whips”: in rapid succession, students take turns verbalizing the first
thought that comes to mind in response to the topic to be covered in class.
- “Shared Presentation”: students first share what they think they know about the
day’s topic and record their ideas on the board. After students have shared
their ideas, share your ideas by first noting those that your students have
already mentioned—e.g., by underlining (and validating) them on the
board; then add any unmentioned ideas from your lecture notes to create a
jointly-produced composite or “master list,” which represents the shared
efforts of both students and their teacher.
These practices draw students into the learning process by drawing out their prior
knowledge (and misconceptions) about the topic to be covered. By so doing, they
implement a practice used by K-12 teachers who generate the greatest gains in student
achievement: Activating students’ prior knowledge and experiences before beginning a
lesson and using it as a baseline for addressing students’ needs and interests during the
lesson (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
* Within-Presentation Involvement Strategies: during a presentation, the teacher pauses
and has students engage in an active-learning exercise with respect to the information that
has been presented thus far. This practice serves to punctuate and attenuate the mounting
“attention drift” that normally occurs after listening to verbally-presented information for
than 5-10 minutes (Bligh, 2000). Research on effective teachers indicates that they teach
new material in small steps; they present small parts of new material at a time and after
the material is presented, students are given the opportunity to respond to it and practice
it (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). For instance, it’s been found that if teachers provide
10
periodic pauses in their presentations to allow students a minute or two to discuss and
rework their notes, student performance on recall quizzes and comprehension tests
improves significantly (Ruhl, Hughes, & Schloss, 1987).
Any of the following strategies may be used to punctuate a teacher’s lesson with active
learning experiences.
- Pauses for Reflection: students write a short, reflective response to a focused
question intended to promote higher-level thinking about the material
presented.
- “Writing-to-Discuss” Exercises: students engage in a short, thought-provoking
writing exercise and then use their written responses as a springboard for class
discussion. This strategy not only punctuates the lecture, it can also enhance the
quality of class discussions because asking students to write before they talk
serves to slow down and focus their thinking and allows them time to formulate and
organize their ideas prior to discussing them orally. Writing before discussing may
be an especially effective practice for promoting the involvement of students whose
cultural backgrounds emphasize reflection and silence in the presence of a teacher,
rather than assertive or impulsive expression of their ideas
- Problem-Solving Presentations: students listen to a series of short presentations
(e.g., 5-10 minutes) that expose them to a succession of focused problems, each of
which is followed by student discussion of possible solutions to the problem
presented (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). This strategy can be repeated throughout the
entire class period, alternating between teacher delivery of “mini-presentations” that
present a series of thought-provoking problems or issues, followed by class
discussion on how best to solve or resolve them.
Infusing pauses such as these periodically throughout a class period also allow the
teacher to implement a practice that has been found to promote high gains in student
achievement: Providing all students with frequent opportunities for active practice
(Rosenshine, 1971, Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). It is important that all students respond
to a learning activity. Studies show that ineffective teacher often ask a question, call on
one student to answer it and then move on to the next topic. In contrast, the most
effective teachers provide opportunities for all students to respond before proceeding
(Rosenshine, 1997).
* Post-Presentation Involvement Strategies: following the completion of a presentation,
students engage in activities designed to involve them in retrospection (reflective review)
and consolidation (“locking in”) of information received during the presentation.
The one-minute paper is an effective tool promoting student reflection after the
completion of teacher presentations. The one-minute paper may be defined as a short,
focused writing exercise (taking one minute or less to complete) designed to encourage
students to reflect on the meaning or personal significance of the day’s lesson. For
example, any of the following questions may serve as prompts for a one-minute paper:
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- What do you think was the major purpose or objective of today’s class?
- What do you think was the most important point discussed today?
- Without looking at your highlighting or notes, what stands out in your mind or
what do you recall most vividly about today’s class?
- Looking back at your notes, what would you say was the most interesting idea or
most useful strategy discussed in today’s class?
- Could you relate personally to anything discussed in today’s class?
- Did you see any connections between what was discussed in today’s class and
what is being covered in any of your other classes?
- What was the most surprising and/or unexpected idea expressed in today’s class
session?
- What do you think was the most puzzling, confusing, or disturbing idea that
surfaced in today’s class?
- What helped and/or hindered your understanding of today’s presentation?
- What questions remain unanswered about the content covered in today’s class?
- What was the most enlightening example or most powerful image used in today’s class?
- What was the most convincing argument (or counterargument) you heard in class
today?
- During today’s class, what idea(s) struck you as things that could be immediately
useful to you?
- Do you see any way(s) that the material covered in today’s class relates to your future?
In sum, whenever a teacher presentation is made, it may be best to divide it into a
learning sequence that has an identifiable beginning, middle, and end. This sequence may
be created by intentionally planning to actively involve students at three key junctures:
(1) at the start of the presentation—to activate students’ pre-existing ideas about the
topic;
(2) during the presentation—to punctuate teacher-delivered information with activities
that intercept attention loss or “drift” when students process information for a
continuous stretch of time; and
(3) after the presentation—to consolidate the information presented and promote closure
by having students reflect on it and connect with it (i.e., relate it to their personal life).
Writing-to-Learn Exercises
Students can become actively involved with the subject matter by writing about it.
Writing in school doesn’t always have to involve formal writing, such as essays and
reports. Writing can also take the form of a variety of “writing-to-learn” activities, which
differ from formal writing assignments in three major ways: (a) they are shorter,
requiring less amount of student time to complete. (b) they are written primarily for the
benefit of the writer—as an aid to thinking and learning; and (c) they do not require
extensive teacher commentary, correction, or grading (Tchudi, 1986). These
characteristics of writing-to-learn exercises allow them to be used not only as out-of-class
assignments, but also as in-class activities. For example, a small portion of class time can
be allotted for students to write a one-minute paper in response to a class presentation or
group discussion.
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Writing-to-learn activities are particularly well-suited for younger students because
they require less writing experience and skill refinement than formal writing. Students
can write to learn even though they’re still learning to write.
Freewriting: students quickly record their thoughts, feelings, or free associations
on a topic or subject which are generated with little regard for mechanics. For example,
students quickly record their initial thoughts or feelings about an upcoming course topic.
Learning Logs: extended reflective-writing assignments that have students record their
personal learning experiences over an extended period of time. For instance, students
write ongoing entries in learning logs about (a) what they believe they’re learning, (b)
how they’re learning (the process), and (c) how they feel about the learning experience.
Journals: written reflections on, or reactions to, personal experiences over an extended
period of time, which provide students with a chronological record of thoughts and
feelings that can be later reviewed to detect patterns of personal continuity or change over
time. Journals may be assigned as: (a) “free” journals, in which students have complete
freedom to write about any personal issue they would like, or (b) “prompted” journals,
which ask students to write in response to a specific, teacher-posed prompt (e.g., “My
first impression of this topic is . . .). Students may also be given a prompt that asks them
to review their previous journal entries to detect patterns of personal consistency or
variation that may have occurred across time.
If teachers respond regularly or even periodically respond to student journals, they can
carry on a written dialogue or conversation with students on an individual basis, which
can help build teacher rapport with the class. This student-teacher dialogue may take
place on paper or online—in the form of an electronic journal.
* Report the different viewpoints and perspectives shared by members of diverse groups
on writing assignments, such as one-minute papers or personal reflections written in
response to class experiences. (Naturally, permission should be sought from any student
whose written comments you’d like to share with the class.)
Role Playing: active involvement may be generated in class via dramatic enactments
of scenarios involving characters with whom students can identify. Drama can be
used as a stimulus to provoke active student involvement in class by having students
serve as actors in the skit, or as reactors to the skit. Students can play the role of
themselves, or they can assume the role of other people to gain an alternative perspective
(e.g., a majority student plays the role of an under-represented student). Student actors
could also reverse roles during the skit.
“Role playing of various ethnic and cultural experiences should be interspersed throughout the curriculum to
encourage understanding of what it means to belong to various ethnic groups.”
—NCSS
One strategy for getting the entire class involved in the role play is to have all students
assume the same role—that of an advisory committee or group of experts who interact
with the teacher—who adopts the role of novice (Erickson & Strommer, 1991). For
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example, the teacher could play the role of a shy student who has just moved into the
school district and the class serves as a social advisory committee whose role is to
suggest specific strategies for meeting new people and getting involved in school life.
Research clearly supports the fact that role plays are more effective teacher presentations
for promoting attitudinal change, particularly with respect to diversity-related issues. As
Bligh (2000) notes, “Sermons rarely convince agnostics, but they give solidarity to the
faithful. Similarly, lectures are ineffective in changing people’s values, but they may
reinforce those that are already accepted” (p. 12).
Scripts: An active involvement strategy similar to role plays—the only difference being
that characters’ read their parts, rather than enact them from memory. Students take on
different characters in a script, or they may be asked to improvise and complete an
unfinished script as if they were one of characters.
Simulations: active-involvement exercises that immerse students in an environment that
simulates (approximates) a real-life experience. For instance, BaFa’-BaFa’ is a popular
intercultural simulation, whereby students assume membership in either the Alpha or
Beta culture, each which has its own set of cultural values, expectations, customs and
language). Members of each “culture” visit, observe, and interact with the other “foreign”
culture, thereby simulating the experience of what it is like to function effectively in a
culture that differs radically from one’s own. The key intended learning outcomes of the
simulation is to reduce ethnocentrism and increase empathy for those who must adapt to,
and become assimilated into, an unfamiliar culture.
Strategies for Stimulating Students Intrinsic Motivation & Interest in the
Subject Matter
The following practices are offered as instructional strategies for generating student
interest in learning for its own sake (intrinsic motivation), rather than learning just to earn
a good grade or recognition from others.
“The most important attitude that can be formed is that of desire to go on learning.”
—John Dewey, American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer
Maintain instructional flexibility and a willingness to “go with the flow” when
students appear to be captured by or excited about a course issue. For instance, if an
animated class discussion happens to emerge on an unplanned topic that still relates to the
day’s lesson plan, capitalize on this motivational momentum rather than short-circuiting
it to cover everything that was formally scheduled for that day.
Whenever possible, allow students the opportunity to make personal choices about
what they will learn. The following strategies may be used to implement this
recommendation:
* During the first week of class, ask students to rank topics in terms of personal interest
or relevance, and attempt to spend more class time on students’ highly-ranked
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topics.
* When course topics are about to be covered during the term, ask students rate or rank
their interest in different subtopics and attempt to accommodate their preferences.
* When assigning projects or papers, try to provide students with a topic “menu”
from which they may choose a topic that most interests or excites them. Students who
opt for the same topic could be grouped together to complete a team project on their topic
of common interest.
At the start of class sessions, intentionally present a prompt that grabs student
attention and stimulates their anticipatory interest in the day’s topic. An evocative
visual stimulus may be particularly effective for “setting the stage,” capturing student
attention, and sparking student motivation. Visual prompts may be especially effective if
used at the start of class or a new unit of instruction to create a sense of positive
anticipation or a positive “anticipatory set”—a state of heightened curiosity or favorable
expectation about an upcoming learning experience (Hunter, 1994). The following
prompts may be used for this purpose
* a thought-provoking quote (e.g., a “classic quote” chosen from a famous or influential
person)
* a provocative passage (e.g., paragraph or short poem)
* a poignant picture or image (e.g., a hate crime)
* an engaging video vignette (e.g., from a popular movie)
* an intriguing artifact (e.g., relevant historical or cultural object representing a particular
ethnic group)
* a topic-relevant cartoon (e.g., one that visually depicts an element of student life that
relates to the topic being covered).
There is strong research support for the memory-promoting power of a visual image
(Paivio, 1990). This may be due to the fact that is older form of memory that predated the
evolution of human language and verbal memory, visual memory played a more critical
role in the early survival of the human species—e.g., visually recalling where food and
shelter were located (Mildner and Goodale, 1998). Thus, the human brain may be
naturally wired for visual memory. One practice that characterizes effective K-12
teachers who generate the greatest gains in student achievement is use of “nonlinguistic
representations,” i.e., visual representations of concepts covered in class (Marzano,
Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
Induce surprise or incredulity among your students by confronting them with
paradoxes, incongruities, counterintuitive findings, or controversial ideas. Class
may be started with a statement that contradicts logic or common belief; for example: (a)
Women are the “stronger sex.” (c) Memorizing information is not the best way to learn it.
(c) We don’t work better under pressure! Erickson and Strommer (1991) point out that
interesting teacher presentations “open with a problem, question, quandary, or dilemma.
Or they start with something students take for granted and confront them with
information or observations indicating things are not so obvious or certain as they
initially appear. Or they present a list of incongruous facts or statistics and ask, ‘How can
this be’?” (p. 98).
15
Use popular games to stimulate student interest and motivation for learning
factual material.
Games can be an engaging method for delivering factual information to students in a
way that is more exciting and motivating than stand-and-deliver presentations. Students
can learn course-related information via formats similar to those used in TV game shows
—such as “Jeopardy” or “Family Feud.” Learning teams may be created to generate
further excitement via competition between teams and collaboration within teams.
“Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” is a game format is ideal for delivering factual
information in a way that involves the entire class. Students may volunteer to be a
contestant, or they may compete by being the first to respond accurately a “toss up”
question. Incentives to be a contestant can be created by awarding a prize to participating
students that vary in value, depending on the number or nature of the questions they
answer correctly (e.g., gift certificates of varying value). The participating student can
use the game’s “lifeline” supports to involve other members of the class, such as “poll the
audience” (show of hands) or “phone a friend” (ask another student in class). As game-
show moderator, the teacher can make instructional contributions by quickly adding a
few informative comments after a contestant provides a correct or incorrect answer, thus
enabling some collateral learning to take place as the game proceeds.
Build student anticipation with respect to upcoming class sessions by ending class
with an unresolved issue, dilemma, or unanswered question that will be addressed in
the next class session. This strategy may serve to whet student interest in the same way
that a TV sequel ends an episode with an uncertain outcome that viewers will see
resolved only if they witness the next episode.
Expose students to a variety of instructional methods and classroom learning
experiences. Instructional delivery may be varied by using:
(a) different instructional formats (e.g., lectures, large-group discussions, small-
group discussions, paired peer interactions, self-reflection exercises, cases, role
plays, simulations, panels, guest speakers); and
(b) different instructional media (e.g., overhead projections or slides of pictures or
photos,
films, CDs, DVDs, youtube).
The changes in routine produced by such variations in learning formats and media serve
to sustain attention and maintain interest by providing novel sources of sensory and
psychomotor stimulation. Such variations in stimuli and movements generate novelty and
a heightened state of arousal, which can combat the attention loss that normally occurs
when humans are exposed repeatedly to the same stimulus (McGuinness & Pribram,
1980).
Furthermore, in addition to increasing student attention and motivation, diversifying
instructional methods helps the teacher accommodate the different learning styles that are
likely to exist among students in class. Since there is some research suggesting that
students’ learning styles are influenced by their cultural background, being sensitive and
responsive to students’ different learning styles is one major way to be sensitive and
16
responsive to student’s cultural differences. An “equity pedagogy” is created when
teachers use a wide variety of teaching strategies to accommodate the variety of student
learning styles found among various cultural, ethnic, and gender groups (Banks & Banks,
1995).
While it is unrealistic to expect a single teacher to accommodate all students’
individual learning styles simultaneously, if a teacher periodically varies instructional
formats and learning activities, all students with different learning styles will have
periodic opportunities to learn in a way that best matches their learning preferences
(Erickson & Strommer, 2005).
Make intentional attempts to increase the personal and practical relevance of course
material. Studies show that there is a positive relationship between students’ perceived
usefulness of material they are learning and their level of academic achievement with
respect to that material (Jones, cited in Jones & Watson, 1990). It has also been found
that the more relevant the academic content is to students, the more likely they are to
engage in higher-level thinking about it (Roueche & Comstock, 1981). The following
practices are suggested for enhancing the personal and practical relevance of material that
students are learning.
* When introducing a topic, share with students why it has relevance for their lives. One
teaching practice that has been found to result in the greatest gains in student
achievement is setting learning goals or objectives at the beginning of a unit of study
(Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Thus, setting learning goals at the outset of a
lesson that help students sees the relevance of the lesson’s topic to their current or future
life is an effective way to promote both students level of interest or motivation for the
topic and, ultimately, their level of academic achievement with respect to that topic.
* To help guide your selection of examples and illustrations, use ideas, comments, and
questions that students bring up in class or elect to write about in papers and journals.
Consider keeping a “teaching journal” and review it to identify trends or patterns in
course topics that trigger the most student interest. For example, if certain topics trigger
lots of student interest and questions, make note of them, incorporate them into your
future class presentations or use them as focus points to simulate future class discussions.
* Ask students to provide their own examples of course concepts, based on experiences
drawn from their lives.
* Have students apply course concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is
relevant to their life (e.g., “How would you apply this information to a situation in your
life that you’re currently experiencing?”).
* Seek feedback from students on how relevant or useful they find particular
course topics and experiences (e.g., by asking for a one-minute paper at the end of
class).
Accompany class exercises and assignments with a clear rationale indicating why
17
students are being required to complete them. By taking just a little time to justify
assignments and articulate their value, students will be less likely to perceive them as
“busy work” or just another “boring homework assignment.”
Highlight the contemporary social relevance of concepts by relating them to current
events. The following practices are offered strategies for implementing this
recommendation.
* Illustrate course concepts and principles by using examples from popular media (TV,
movies, etc.). Students might be asked at the beginning of the course about what they
read regularly and what programs or movies are their favorites. This can provide the
teacher with insight into students’ special interests and provide additional ideas for
illustrating course concepts in ways that are relevant to students’ current experiences.
Students may also be asked to write letters of protest to media outlets that promote
stereotypes, thereby by encouraging social activism and political self-efficacy.
* Be alert to newsworthy events occurring at school and in the local community (e.g.
events reported in the local newspaper). Using late-breaking, news-making information in
class not only serves to highlight the contemporary relevance of what is being taught in
the classroom; it also models for students the value of keeping up with current events and
relating classroom learning to “real life.”
Use Case Studies
Case studies are “cases” are actual events or scenarios that closely approximate real-
life events, which require students to reach a decision about an ambiguous situation or
problem, for which there is no single correct answer or solution (Christensen & Hansen,
1987). Cases demonstrate to students that real-life problems and problem-solving is often
ambiguous, and one right answer or correct solution is rarely apparent. Cases can
stimulate student motivation because they actively involve students, encouraging them to
take action—to make a decision with respect to a real-life dilemma. Cases are typically
presented in written form, whereby students read them individually and typically join
teams to react to, and work through, the dilemma that comprises the case.
Cases relevant for diversity education including the following:
* diversity-related incidents drawn from national media—for example, TV, movies, or
newspaper articles);
* instances of intergroup conflict that took place on campus or in the local community
* educational documentaries that poignantly capture the experiences of people who have
encountered prejudice or discrimination
* real-life incidents that the teacher experienced personally or professionally
* experiences solicited from students in class—for example, events that they or members
of their family have experienced.
“By providing students with opportunities to use decision-making abilities and social action skills in the resolution of
problems affecting ethnic, racial and cultural groups, schools can contribute to more effective education for democratic
citizenship.”
—NCSS
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Student involvement with cases can be stimulated by posing open-ended questions to
them about the case that focus on:
* possible cause(s) of the incident,
* if and how the incident could have been prevented,
* whether students can identify with the characters in the incident, or
* whether students have had personal experiences similar to those being depicted in the
case.
As Erickson and Strommer (2005) note: “Good case studies promote empathy with the
central characters; students can see themselves in the situation or story” (p. 252) Meyers
& Jones (1993) suggest that the following types of questions, based on approaches taken
by prominent case-study teachers, can be used to promote higher-level thinking in
response to problem-based or issue-centered tasks.
* Analytical/Evaluative Questions (e.g., “What particular action is at the root of this
problem? Which action played the most pivotal role?”)
* Implication Questions (e.g., “If events like this continue, what might be the
consequences?”)
* Predictive/Hypothetical Questions (e.g., “If the roles of the main characters were
switched, what would have happened?”).
Allowing student opportunities to predict and test hypotheses about cause and effects is
one practice that characterizes effective K-12 teachers who generate the greatest gains in
student achievement (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
Engage Students in Future Life-Planning Assignments
Students can be given assignments that engage them in the process of thinking about
their future by connecting their current learning experience with their future goals and
life plans. Research on minority students at the college level indicates that they are more
likely to persist to graduation if they are given opportunities to connect their current
academic experience with their future career goals (Richardson, 1989).
Students can devise long-range plans that move beyond educational and vocational
goals to include goals involving personal development, which embrace social, emotional,
ethical, physical, and/or spiritual dimensions of the self. For example, students can be
asked to develop a long-range, personal growth or life-success plan.
Although these assignments may appear to be a bit premature for K-12 students to
undertake, they serve the important purpose of getting students to think ahead and to look
for connections between the present and the future. Making these connections serves to
increase their goal awareness and promotes goal-orientated behavior, which is known to
improve student motivation (Boekaerts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000; Locke & Latham,
1990).
MAKING STUDENT- STUDENT (PEER) CONNECTIONS:
Creating a Sense of Community among Classmates
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In addition to the student-teacher connection, another key interpersonal connection that
affects student learning in the classroom is the connection between students. The first
few class sessions represent a critical period that can shape students’ first impression of
the teachers and their classmates, which, in turn, can shape their attitude toward the
classroom learning experience. As the old saying goes, “You never get a second chance
to make a first impression.”
Thus, building class community should be the first “topic” covered in class. Allowing
students early opportunity to get to know their teacher and their classmates serves to lay
the foundational cornerstones for a successful learning experience. Moreover, creating a
warm social climate in class can foster the formation of interpersonal bonds that promote
students’ willingness o discuss diversity issues openly and honestly.
“Students are likely to learn more from classroom instruction when they feel accepted and valued by their teachers and
peers.”
—Cheryl Bernstein Cohen, Teaching about Ethnic Diversity
Icebreaker activities may be used to “warm up” students to each other and foster an
early sense of class community. One such activity is the “Classmate Scavenger Hunt,”
which involves using information gathered from a student-information sheet (completed
on the first day of class) to construct a list of statements, each of which relates to a
particular student in class. Students are asked to mill around the room and find the person
in class who “matches” (is associated with) each statement. A key advantage of this
exercise it that it enables each student to meet and interact with every other student in
class, and it does so in a non-threatening fashion.
Diversity Bingo is a popular icebreaker activity similar to the classmate scavenger hunt
in which each student is given a bingo game card that contains a grid of squares, with
each square containing a statement or question that will apply to each student in class.
Students take their bingo cards and mingle around the classroom to find the person that
matches the statement and has that person sign the card.
Compared to other icebreaker activities, the key advantage of both the classmate
Scavenger Hunt and Diversity Bingo strategies is that they enable each student to connect
with each and every other student in class, and all students participate equally and
simultaneously— i.e., all students are involved throughout the entire activity because
they’re all either asking a question of a classmate or answering a classmate’s question.
Engage Students in Small-Group Work
Students can become actively involved in the learning process by working either
individually or collaboratively with classmates. Group work may be viewed as a natural,
“brain compatible” form of learning because social interaction and collaboration have
played a key evolutionary role in the survival of the human species (Jensen, 1998). In
fact, brain-imaging studies reveal that more activity occurs in thinking parts of the brain
when people learn through social interaction than when they learn alone (Carter, 1998).
Thus, the human brain may be biologically wired for interpersonal interaction and
collaboration.
Small-group work (2-4 students) allows more opportunity for all students—not just the
most assertive or most verbal—to become more involved with the subject and with each
other. Having students work in pairs (groups of two) is a particularly powerful way to
20
involve all students in class equally. As a general rule, the level of student involvement in
a group is inversely related to the group’s size—i.e., as group size increases, level of
individual involvement decreases. Since a group of two represents the smallest possible
group size, it is most likely to generate the largest amount of face-to-face interaction and
student involvement. Thus, pair work is one way to implement the effective teaching
principle of “time on task,” i.e., the amount of time during a learning activity in which
students are actively engaged in the learning process (McLeod, Fisher, & Hoover, 2003).
As Kagan (1998) argues, two simple but powerful principles should be considered when
choosing a teaching practice that effectively promotes involvement and equity: (a) “The
Simultaneity Principle: What percentage of our students are overtly active at any one
moment?” and (b) “The Equality Principle: How equal is the participation among
students?” (p. 9)
Besides maximizing time on task for all students, pair work has the practical advantage
of being amenable to quick and easy formation (e.g., forming pairs by having students
turn to the person on the right/left or front/back) without requiring movement of desks or
movement of bodies (students).
Intentionally form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds.
Create heterogeneous groups comprised of students with different demographic or
cultural characteristics, such as: (a) ethnicity/race (e.g., Anglo-American and under-
represented students), (b) national citizenship (e.g., domestic and international students),
or (c) age (e.g., traditionally-aged and adult re-entry students). This practice implements
two cardinal recommendations found in the scholarly literature on teaching that
effectively promotes critical thinking, namely: (a) students should “collaborate to
‘stretch’ their understanding by encountering divergent views” (Kurfiss, 1988, p. 2), and
(b) teachers should intentionally create an “atmosphere of disequilibrium so that students
can change, rework, or reconstruct their thinking processes” (Meyers, 1986, p. 14).
Forming heterogeneous discussion groups is also an effective way to convert social
constructivist theory into pedagogical practice by enabling individual students to build
(“construct”) personal knowledge by promoting opportunities for social interactions that
enable them to converse with, and learn from, others whose diverse perspectives differ
significantly from their own.
One caveat should be heeded when forming small learning groups with diverse
composition: Do not spread out individual students from under-represented populations
across groups in a way that isolates or marginalizes them (Rosser, 1988). For instance, if
there are four international students in your class, it may be tempting to distribute them so
that each one of them is a member of a different group in order to maximize the diversity
of the learning groups. However, it may be more advisable to place these four
international students in only two groups, one pair per group, because they may feel more
comfortable contributing their ideas if there is at least one other international student in
the group with them. In subsequent group discussions, new groups can be formed in such
a fashion that the majority students who were not initially exposed to the international
students’ perspective in their previous group experience may now be grouped with a pair
of international students.
Also, be sure that underrepresented students in all groups are given the opportunity
and expectation to participate. One effective procedure for ensuring equal participation
21
among all group members on this task (or any other group-learning task) is the use of
“Talking Chips” (Kagan, 1992). This procedure involves the following steps:
1. Each team member is given a symbolic “talking chip” (e.g., a checker, coin, or playing
card).
2. Teammates are instructed to place the chip in the center of the team’s workspace when
he or she makes an individual verbal contribution to the team’s discussion.
3. Teammates can speak in any order, but they cannot speak again until all chips are in
the center—an indication that every team member has spoken.
4. After all chips have been placed in the center, team members retrieve their respective
chips for a second round of discussion, which follows the same rules of equal
participation.
When to Use Small Group Work
Small group work may be most effectively implemented in the FYS by introducing it
at the following key times during a class period.
* At the start of class: to activate students’ interest and prior knowledge. For example, a
class session can begin by using a group activity known as “active knowledge sharing.”
This involves providing students with a list of questions relating to the subject matter to
be covered (e.g., words to define, people to identify, or a pretest). Students then pair-up
to answer the questions as best as they can, after which they dialogue with other pairs
who may have answers to questions they were unable to answer.
Small-group group may also be introduced before beginning a whole-class discussion.
For example, students may formulate questions in small groups that they would like to
see addressed in the upcoming class discussion
* At points during class to intercept attention drift and interject active involvement. For
example, small-group work may be introduced at some point during a class session, such
as stopping at a critical point during a teacher presentation to ask small groups to
compare notes or generate specific examples of concepts that have been covered in class.
Group work may also take place after a class discussion; for example, group members
could be asked to identify positions or issues that they think were overlooked during the
discussion, or to discuss whether their viewpoints were changed or strengthened as a
result of the discussion.
* At the end of class, to create closure and consolidate retention of key information
covered in the day’s lesson. For example, a class can be ended by having students work
in pairs to “share and compare” their class notes to check for accuracy and completeness.
Strategies for Improving the Quality of Small-Group Work
The quality of small-group work may be strengthened by use of the following
strategies.
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* Allow students some time to gather their thoughts individually, prior to discussing
them in small groups. For example, think-pair-share groups may be formed, whereby
each student pairs up with a partner to share their initial ideas on the topic for 2-3 minutes
before discussion in 4-member groups.
Providing students with personal reflection time prior to interpersonal interaction can
enrich the quality and depth of the ideas exchanged. It may also increase the likelihood
that shy or verbally apprehensive students contribute their ideas because research
suggests that such students are more likely to participate in class discussion if they have
thought about the topic in advance (Neer, 1987).
* Have groups keep a visible record of the ideas they generate. If possible, provide each
group with a flip chart or transparency on which their ideas can be recorded and
displayed. This serves to help keep group members “on task” by holding them
accountable for creating a concrete, final product.
* Notify students that any member of the group may be called on to report their group’s
ideas. This serves as an incentive for all members to listen actively to the ideas shared by
their teammates and conveys high expectations for all students.
* Have small groups to come to the front of class to report their work (e.g., as a
student panel). This practice holds students more accountable for the quality of their
group work because they are asked to present it to the entire class. It may also reduce
students’ fear of public speaking by allowing them to speak within the context of a small,
supportive group. This may serve as a baby step or “scaffold” to help desensitize their
fear of speaking on their own.
* Occasionally structure small-group work so that it moves beyond discussion to
collaboration. The key feature that differentiates a discussion group from a collaborative
learning group is that the latter does not simply generate ideas; instead, they attempt to
reach consensus or a unified group decision with respect to the ideas that they generate.
The key to converting a discussion group into a collaborative group is to choose an action
verb for the group task that signals to students that they are to make a group decision
with respect the ideas they generate, rather than just list them. For example, rather than
simply compiling their ideas, a collaborative group takes it further by attempting to reach
agreement on how best to categorize or prioritize their ideas.
* Implement the key features of cooperative learning to transform group work into
teamwork. Cooperative learning (CL) may be defined as a structured form of
collaborative learning that converts group work into teamwork. Succinctly described, CL
is a collaborative learning process in which small, intentionally selected groups of
students work collectively and interdependently (promoting social responsibility); at the
same time, each student is held individually accountable for his or her own performance
(promoting personal responsibility). During the learning process, the teacher typically
serves as an in obtrusive facilitator, coach, or consultant to the learning groups (Cuseo,
1992).
23
CL is designed to foster teamwork by means of the following seven procedural
features:
1) Positive Interdependence among Group Members (Social Responsibility)
2) Individual Accountability (Personal Responsibility)
3) Intentional Group Formation
4) Intentional Team Building
5) Explicit Attention Paid to the Development of Students’ Social Intelligence &
Interpersonal Skills
6) Teacher Assumes the Role as Facilitator and Consultant during the Group
Learning Process
7) Students Process (Reflect on) the Quality of their Teamwork following Completion of
the Group Task
CL implements the philosophy of democratic education (Curren, 2007) by empowering
students with skills in group decision making and negotiation, which are hallmarks of
effective citizenship in a democracy.
When small-group work is conducted with the majority of these seven procedural
elements in place, research indicates that CL has significant cognitive, social, and
affective benefits for students (Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1990). One practice
that characterizes effective K-12 teachers who generate the greatest gains in student
achievement is use of cooperative learning procedures in which each student has defined
purpose and role to play (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). There is evidence that
cooperative learning methods have particularly positive impact on the academic
achievement of Hispanic and African American students (Aronson & Gonzalez, 1988;
Posner & Markstein, 1994).
Cooperative learning also has great potential for reducing prejudice and promoting
harmonious inter-ethnic relationships. The mere presence of ethnic minority students in
the same school or classroom campus will not automatically result in less prejudice and
positive interaction between minority- and majority-group members. Studies of forced or
mandated school integration indicate that mere exposure to, or incidental contact with,
between students of different racial groups does not automatically improve interracial
relations (Stephan, 1978) because minority and majority students still remain segregated
within the school setting (Gerard & Miller, 1975; Rogers, et al., 1984). Furthermore, one
comprehensive, 30-year review of multiple school-desegregation studies showed that
racial prejudice in forcefully desegregated school actually increased rather than decreased
(Stephan, 1980). These results are not surprising when viewed in light of other research
indicating that many children come to school with misconceptions and negative views
about different racial and ethnic groups (Phinney & Rotheram, 1987). The findings of
school integration research are further supported by experiments in social psychology,
which indicate that continued exposure to an unfamiliar or initially-disliked person under
conditions of competition and conflict will intensify dislike of that person (Burgess &
Sales, 1977; Swap, 1977).
What all these findings strongly suggest is that something more than mere exposure of
different groups to each other must occur in order to stimulate intercultural contact and
multicultural appreciation. As Hill (1991) puts it,
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Meaningful multi-culturalism transforms the curriculum. While the presence of
persons of other cultures and subcultures is a virtual prerequisite to that
transformation, their ‘mere presence’ is primarily a political achievement, not an
intellectual or educational achievement. Real educational progress will be made when
multi-culturalism becomes interculturalism (p. 41) (italics added).
This type of “inter-culturalism” can be realized when students from different cultural
backgrounds work interdependently with complementary roles to achieve a common
goal. This is the essence of good teamwork and may explain why interethnic friendships
form among athletic teammates. The same features of inter-ethnic teamwork can be
achieved by implementing the following features of cooperative learning:
(a) intentional formation of learning groups comprised of student from diverse cultural
backgrounds, which ensures that students from diverse backgrounds do not self-
segregate;
(b) assigning interdependent roles to team members, which ensures that they all have
equal status and equal opportunity to participate, and
(c) all team members pursue a shared or common goal, which ensures that students are
reward for collaborating with (not competing against) each other.
Research has shown that when members of different groups engage in cooperative
activities with common goals, equal status between group members (e.g., equally
important, interdependent roles), and support for contact by authorities (e.g., teachers or
principals) have positive impact on reducing prejudice and promoting interracial
friendships among elementary and secondary school students (Aronson, et al., 1978;
Banks, 1995; Slavin, 1980), college students (Nagda, Gurin, Soresen, & Zúñiga, 2009;
Worchel, 1979), and (c) employees in business settings (Blake & Mouton, 1979).
Furthermore, by creating learning teams with diverse membership, cooperative learning
has the potential to capitalize on the rising demographic wave of student diversity,
allowing instructors to access and harness its educational power by intentionally exposing
students to diverse perspectives and dialogue within the supportive social context of a
small group of interdependent peers. In this fashion, student themselves become another
classroom resource for diversity education (EdChange Multicultural Pavilion, 2009).
“Intercultural dialogue is a process that comprises an open and respectful exchange of view between individuals and
groups with different ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds and heritage.”
—Council of Europe
When discussing diversity, remain mindful of encouraging students to identify
patterns of human unity that transcend group differences.
Visible human differences are readily detectable and attention-grabbing, so discussing
these differences can often heighten students’ focus on human differences and divert their
attention from the commonalities we share. Without attention to the unity that exists
amidst diversity, repeated attempts to promote discussion of diversity may inadvertently
promote group divisiveness or separatism. In fact, some research indicates that when
diversity education initiatives focus on differences alone, disenfranchised groups are
likely to feel even more isolated (Smith, 1997). To minimize this risk, remind students
25
that whenever they discuss diversity—the variations on the theme of our shared
humanity, they should dig deeper to uncover their commonalities—the universal
experiences that unite them as human beings. It may be better to have students begin their
discussions of diversity by identifying their commonalities—before they launch students
into a discussion of their differences. For example, before beginning a discussion of
cultural differences, students might first discuss the common elements of all cultures
(e.g., language, family, artistic expression, rituals). Initially identifying similarities may
serve to defuse defensiveness or divisiveness by providing a common ground upon which
an open, honest discussion of diversity can be subsequently built. Focus points that that
may be used for building a common ground for discussion of universal human themes
include common dimensions of culture.
The following instructional strategies may also be effective for realizing the twin
objectives of appreciating human differences (diversity) while embracing our
commonalities (humanity).
* Form heterogeneous groups of students who differ with respect to one particular
demographic characteristic, but who are similar with respect to another (e.g., students the
same gender who differ with respect to their race, ethnicity, or age).
This practice can serve to increase student awareness that members of different groups
can, at the same time, be members of the same group—with similar experiences, needs,
and concerns.
* Create heterogeneous discussion groups comprised of students with different
demographic characteristics, and at the conclusion of these discussions, build in
reflection time for students to think about both the dimensions of diversity and unity that
emerged during the group process. This practice serves to implement one of the standards
for effective multicultural education identified by the National Council for the Social
Studies (1991): “Does the curriculum help students participate in cross-ethnic and cross-
cultural experiences and reflect upon them?” (p. 39). Reflection gives the brain time to
“process” new ideas and store them in long-term memory (Rosenshine, 1997). Students
could write a one-minute paper designed specifically to promote reflection on both the
differences and similarities in the experiences reported during the group’s discussion. For
example, students may write reflections to such questions as: (a) What major differences
in perspectives did you detect among group members during your discussion? (b) Were
differences discussed sensitively and constructively? (c) What major similarities in
viewpoints or background experiences did all group members share? (d) Were there
particular topics or issues raised during your discussion that proved important or relevant
for all members of your group?
“The multicultural curriculum should help student develop the skills necessary for effective interpersonal, interethnic,
and intercultural group interactions.”
—NCSS
* Form homogeneous groups with students who share the same demographic
characteristic (e.g., same-gender groups or same-race/ethnicity groups), and have them
share their personal views or experiences with respect to a diversity-related issue (e.g.,
26
how prevalent they think prejudice and discrimination is). Ask groups to record their
main ideas and then have representatives from each group form a panel to report their
group’s ideas and respond to questions from the audience. The teacher can serve as a
moderator who identifies key differences and common themes that emerge across
different groups. Or, the role of moderator may be assumed by a student who is not on
the panel.
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