ArticlePDF Available

A Historical Exploration of Pandemics of Some Selected Diseases in the World

Authors:
Janmejaya Samal at SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Janmejaya Samal
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract

A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale which crosses international boundaries, usually affecting a large number of people. In a simple way a pandemic is an epidemic with higher magnitude in terms of geographical area, number of cases and days of suffering resulting in disabilities or deaths. Human population have suffered from many pandemics throughout history be it the earlier form of smallpox or tuberculosis or the recent incidence of HIV/AIDS or H1N1. It has created catastrophic damage in many different forms. Public health around the globe is improving by leaps and bound but the occurrence of a pandemic is not always unexpected. The epidemiological transition in different form may be one of the important factors for such incidents in and around the globe. In this paper an attempt has been made to explore historically some calendar of events of some selected pandemics around the globe.
Content uploaded by Janmejaya Samal
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Janmejaya Samal on Oct 07, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 165
Vol.4; Issue: 2; February 2014
International Journal of Health Sciences and Research
www.ijhsr.org ISSN: 2249-9571
Review Article
A Historical Exploration of Pandemics of Some Selected Diseases in the World
Janmejaya Samal
Former District Epidemiologist, Gadchiroli, Maharashtra, Presently MPH Scholar, Padmashree School of Public
Health (under RGUHS), Nagarbhavi Circle, Nagarbhavi, Bangalore, India.
Received: 12/12//2013 Revised: 08/01/2014 Accepted: 08/01/2014
ABSTRACT
A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale which crosses international boundaries, usually affecting
a large number of people. In a simple way a pandemic is an epidemic with higher magnitude in terms of
geographical area, number of cases and days of suffering resulting in disabilities or deaths. Human
population have suffered from many pandemics throughout history be it the earlier form of smallpox or
tuberculosis or the recent incidence of HIV/AIDS or H1N1. It has created catastrophic damage in many
different forms. Public health around the globe is improving by leaps and bound but the occurrence of a
pandemic is not always unexpected. The epidemiological transition in different form may be one of the
important factors for such incidents in and around the globe. In this paper an attempt has been made to
explore historically some calendar of events of some selected pandemics around the globe.
Key Words: Pandemic, Selected Disease, World
INTRODUCTION
Pandemic is the form of epidemic
that spreads through human population
affecting large number of people, major part
of a nation, entire nation, a continent or a
part of the entire world.(1) A disease or
condition is not a pandemic merely because
it is widespread or kills many people; it must
also be infectious. For instance, cancer is
responsible for many deaths but is not
considered a pandemic because the disease
is not infectious or contagious. Human
population have suffered from many
pandemics throughout history be it the
earlier form of smallpox or tuberculosis or
the recent incidence of HIV/AIDS or H1N1.
It has created catastrophic damage in many
different forms. While planning for a
possible influenza pandemic, the WHO
published a document on pandemic
preparedness guidance in 1999, revised in
2005 and in February 2009, defining phases
and appropriate actions for each phase. The
2009 revision, including definitions of a
pandemic and the phases leading to its
declaration, were finalized in February
2009. The pandemic H1N1 2009 virus was
neither on the horizon at that time nor
mentioned in the document.(2) All versions
of this document refer to influenza. The
phases are defined by the spread of the
disease; virulence and mortality are not
mentioned in the current WHO definition,
although these factors have previously been
included.(3) The changing patterns of
infectious disease such as: (1)Antibiotic
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 166
Vol.4; Issue: 2; February 2014
resistance (2) Emerging and reemerging
infectious disease (3)Change of niche such
as from animal to human (4) Non infectious
diseases are getting discovered with an
infectious origin and the epidemiological
transitions contribute a lot to several forms
of epidemics.
HIV/AIDS: AIDS is the end result that
occurs after several years of infection with
HIV. The disease was first detected in 1981
and the name AIDS was coined in the next
year. New HIV infections have been
reduced by 17% over the past eight years.
Since 2001, when the United Nations
Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS
was signed, the number of new infections in
sub-Saharan Africa is approximately 15%
lower, which are about 400 000 fewer
infections in 2008. In East Asia HIV
incidence has declined by nearly 25% and in
South and South East Asia by 10% in the
same time period. In Eastern Europe, after a
dramatic increase in new infections among
injecting drug users, the epidemic has
leveled off considerably. However, in some
countries there are signs that HIV incidence
is rising again.(4)
Plague: Plague is a zoonotic infection
primarily affecting the rodents caused by a
gram negative rod like cocco-bacillus called
Yersinia pestis. It is transmitted to house rats
from wild rodents such as marmots in
Mongolia and Siberia, ground squirrels in
California and field rodents such as
Bandicoot, gunomyskok, Tatera indica and
Rattus norvegicus in India. The common
vectors responsible for the spread of the
disease include Xenopsylla cheopis, X. astia,
X. braziliensis and Nasopsylla fasciatus. The
control of Plague involves Notification,
Isolation, Quarantine, Diagnosis, Treatment,
Disinfection, Immunization, Health
Education and International measures.
Epidemics or pandemics of plague could be
disastrous as had happened in India in 1994
which was not an incidence by chance rather
favored by all epidemiological features such
as reservoir in the form of wild rats, vector
in the form of fleas, nonimmune population
etc.(5) The following table shows a list of
pandemic events occurred worldwide:
Table No1, Calendar of Plague and disease Pandemic Events Occurred Worldwide.
Sl No.
Name of the Pandemic event
Year of the Event
Place of the Event
Catastrophe
PLAGUE AND OTHER DISEASES
1(6)
Plague of Athens(Typhoid
Fever)
430 BC
A quarter of the Athenian troops and
a quarter of the population over four years.
2 (7)
Antonine Plague (Small pox)
165-180
Killed a quarter of those infected, and
up to five million in all.
3(8)
Plague of Cyprian
252-256
5,000 people a day were said to be dying
4(8)
Plague of Justinian
(Bubonic Plague)
541-750
10,000 a day at its height, and perhaps
40% of the city's inhabitants
5 (9)
Black Death
14th Century
75 million people died
6(10)
Third Pandemic (Plague)
19th Century
10 Million People died in India only.
Smallpox: Smallpox was one of the major
killers of mankind and was responsible for
the death of one out of every five children
below five years of age till the vaccine could
be discovered. This disease is no more a
public health problem and has been
eradicated from the world by October 1979
as declared by WHO. The epidemiological
basis of smallpox eradication is as follows:
Absence of an animal reservoir.
Absence of human carrier stage.
Absence of subclinical cases.
Rarity of second attack.
Easy clinical identification.
Slow transmission which helps in
containment.
Availability of a potent, safe and
effective vaccine.
International cooperation.(5)
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 167
Vol.4; Issue: 2; February 2014
The following table shows a list of
pandemics events of Smallpox occurred
worldwide:
Table No.2, Calendar of Smallpox Pandemic Events Occurred Worldwide.
Sl
No.
Name of the
Pandemic event
Year of the Event
Place of the Event
Catastrophe
SMALLPOX
1(11)
Smallpox
1518
Hispaniola (Dominican
Republic and Haiti)
Half of native population
if Hispaniola
2(11)
Smallpox
1520
Mexico
Killed 150,000 in Tenochtitlan
alone including the Emperor
3(11)
Smallpox
1618-1619
Massachusetts Bay
90% Native Americans
4(11)
Smallpox
1770
Pacific Northwest
30% of Native Americans
5(11)
Smallpox
1780-1782 &
1837-1838
Indians
Drastic Depopulation
Cholera: Cholera is water borne disease
caused by Vibrio cholera characterized by
three classical clinical stages, such as stage
of profuse watery evacuations, stage of
collapse, stage of recovery or death. The
prevention and control measures include
Verification, Notification, Isolation,
Diagnosis, Treatment, Disinfection, Antifly
measures, Immunization, Health education,
personal protection and Surveillance. The
incidence of cholera around the world has
been divided in to three phases and the first
phase (pre-1817) was limited to India
especially to Bengal. The second phase
(1817-1823), known as pandemic phase,
witnessed six pandemics, all of which
started in India and disseminated to several
continents including South East Asia, China,
Middle East, USSR, Europe and Africa. The
third phase which started in 1923 was again
confined to India and East. The fourth phase
of cholera pandemic started in 1961 and
continued with the seventh phase of
pandemic. The seventh phase of the
pandemic was started in 1961 from an
endemic focus on an island in Indonesia.
The worst part of this pandemic was that it
affected some portions of all the continents
except America in 1970. From 1948
onwards 98% of all cases of cholera were
occurred in Indian subcontinent such as
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The
classical more sever forms of cholera are
now uncommon and are usually present with
diarrhea as a presenting feature.(5,12)
Table No.3, Calendar of Cholera Pandemic Events Occurred Worldwide.
Sl
No.
Name of the
Pandemic event
Year of
the Event
Place of the Event
Catastrophe
CHOLERA
1(12)
1st Cholera Pandemic
1816–1826
Started in Indian Subcontinent, later
spread to China, Indonesia and Caspian Sea
10,000 British troops and countless Indians died
2(12)
2nd Cholera Pandemic
1829–1851
Russia, Hungary, Germany, London, France,
Canada, US, Pacific coast of North America
Hungary (about 100,000 deaths), more than 55,000
persons died in the UK and many more in different
parts of the globe.
3(12)
3rd Cholera Pandemic
1852–1860
Mainly Russia
over a million deaths
4(12)
4th Cholera Pandemic
1863–1875
Mostly in Europe and Africa
At least 30,000 of the 90,000 Mecca pilgrims fell
victim to the disease
5(12)
An Outbreak of Cholera
1866
North America
50,000 Americans were died
6(12)
5th Cholera Pandemic
1881–1896
Europe, America, Russia, Spain,
Japan, Persia
250,000 lives in Europe, at least 50,000 in Americas,
267,890 lives in Russia, 120,000 in Spain, 90,000 in
Japan, 60,000 in Persia were lost
7(12)
6th Cholera Pandemic
1899–1923
Russia
more than 500,000 people died of cholera during the
first quarter of the 20th century
8(12)
7th Cholera Pandemic
1962–66
Indonesia, Bangladesh, India, USSR
-----
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 168
Vol.4; Issue: 2; February 2014
Influenza: Influenza is an infectious disease
of birds and mammals caused by RNA
viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae. The
most common symptoms are chills, fever,
runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains,
headache (often severe), and coughing,
weakness/fatigue and general discomfort.
The 2009 pandemic of H1N1 is a real
scourge. The recent estimate of global
mortality published in Lancet shows a death
of 151,700 to 575,400 people in the world.
This study estimated that 80% of 2009
H1N1 deaths were in people younger than
65 years of age which differs from typical
seasonal influenza epidemics during which
80-90% of deaths are estimated to occur in
people 65 years of age and older. To
illustrate the impact of the shift in the age
distribution of influenza deaths to younger
age groups during the pandemic, researchers
calculated the number of years of life lost
due to 2009 H1N1-associated deaths. They
estimated that 3 times as many years of life
were lost during the first year of 2009 H1N1
virus circulation than would have occurred
for the same number of deaths during a
typical influenza season.(13) Development
strategies for mitigating new influenza
pandemic is a top global public heath
priority.(14) Influenza prevention and
containment strategies can be considered
under the broad categories of antiviral,
vaccine and nonpharmaceutical (case
isolation, household quarantine, school or
workplace closure, restrictions on travel)
measures.(15)
Table No.4, Calendar of Influe nza Pandemic Events Occurred Worldwide.
Sl
No.
Name of the
Pandemic event
Year of the
Event
Place of the Event
Catastrophe
INFLUENZA
1(17)
Russian Flu
1889-1890
Uzbekistan and other parts of North America
About 1 million people died in this pandemic
2(18)
Spanish Flue
1918-1919
Worldwide pandemic of all continents
500 million people were affected
3(19)
Asian Flue
1957-1958
Started in China and then other parts
of the globe including US
2 million deaths globally
4(20)
Hong Kong Flue
1968-1969
First detected in Hong Kong and then
disseminated to other parts of the globe
Killed one million people worldwide
5(13)
H1N1
2009
Many parts of the globe
151,700 to 575,400 people perished from
world and a disproportionate number of deaths
occurred in Southeast Asia and Africa
CONCLUSION
Exploring history of pandemic is a
hard-hitting job as the same cannot be easily
reproduced in a short article. Many
researchers believe that the 1918 influenza
pandemic is the mother of all pandemics.
Though the world has progressed
substantially in mitigating many epidemics
from time to time owing to the improved
public health measures but the occurrence of
an epidemic in a large scale cannot be
denied fully. This is because of the changing
pattern of infectious diseases and the
epidemiological transition. Many controlled
diseases are getting reemerged and new
emerging infectious diseases are evolving
creating challenge among the global public
health intelligencia. The recent pandemic of
influenza is a wake up slap to the public
health realm and development of strategies
for mitigating new influenza pandemic is a
top global public heath priority. Proper
surveillance is one of the key factors behind
mitigating some of the important scourges
besides the disease specific strategies.
REFERENCES
1. Muthu VK. A Short Handbook of Public
Health. Jaypee Brothers Med. Publishers
(P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2005.
2. World Health Organization.
http://www.who.int/influenza/PIPGuida
nce09.pdf (Accessed on 10/12/13)
3. A Whole Industry is waiting for an
Epidemic.
http://www.spiegel.de/international/worl
d/interview-with-epidemiologist-tom-
International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 169
Vol.4; Issue: 2; February 2014
jefferson-a-whole-industry-is-waiting-
for-a-pandemic-a-637119.html
(Accessed on 11/12/13)
4. World Health Organization, Media
Center 24 November 2009.
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/r
eleases/2009/hiv_aids_20091124/en/ind
ex.html (Accessed on 10/12/13)
5. Gupta MC and Mahajan BK. Textbook
of Preventive and Social Medicine,
Third Ed. Jaypee Brothers Med.
Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2003.
6. David Biello. Ancient Athenian Plague
proves to be Typhoid. Scientific
American. Jan. 25, 2006.
7. Verity Murphy. Past Pandemics that
Ravaged Europe.BBC News, 7th Nov.
2005.
8. Lester K Little. Plague and the End of
Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541:750.
Cambridge University Press, Jan.2008.
9. National Geographic Society. Plague:
The Black Death.
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/sc
ience/health-and-human-body/human-
diseases/plague-article.html (Accessed
on 10/12/13)
10. Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, Atlanta, USA.
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mm
wrhtml/00026077.htm (Accessed on
11/12/13)
11. Colette Flight. Smallpox: Eradicating
the Scourge. BBC (History), 17th Feb.
2011.
12. Pal SC et al: In Ahuja MMS (Ed).
Progress in Clinical Medicine, Series 1,
2nd Ed. Arnold Heinemann, Delhi, 1981.
13. Center for Disease Control and
Prevention. First Global Estimate of
2009 H1N1 Pandemic Mortality
Released by CDC led Collaboration,
June 25, 2012.
14. Neil M. Ferguson et al. Strategies for
mitigating an Influenza pandemic.
Nature. 2006; 442(27):448-452.
15. World Health Organization. WHO
global influenza preparedness plans.
http://www.who.int/csr/resources/public
ations/influenza/GIP_2005_5Eweb.pdfl
(2005).
16. Center for Infectious Disease Research
and Policy. Pandemic Influenza. (Last
Updated on June 12, 2013)
17. Jeffery K. Taubenberger, David M.
Morens. 1918 Influnza: The Mother of
all Pandemics. Rev Biomed; 17:69-79.
18. Science Daily. Article on Spanish Flue.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/s/s
panish_flu.htm (Accessed on 10/12/13)
19. Q and A: Swine Flu. BBC News, April
27, 2009.
20. World Health Group Issues Alert:
Mexican President tries to isolate those
with Swine Flu. Journal Sentinel. April
25, 2009.
*******************
How to cite this article: Samal J. A historical exploration of pandemics of some selected diseases in
the world. Int J Health Sci Res. 2014;4(2):165-169.
... The ndings emphasize the long-lasting impact of catastrophic events on female , particularly for older populations, who may be less resilient in recovering from such disruptions. (Samal, 2014). Unfortunately, given their timeframe, there is no data, and also, the estimates have considerable uncertainty regarding the recovery in life expectancy. ...
... Research into past pandemic events has focused on describing historical catastrophic epidemics, such as the Black Death, Smallpox, Spanish Flu, Cholera, Since the 17th century and until the 1960s, there have been total of seven Cholera pandemics(Samal, 2014). Notably, the 6th pandemic brought the highest number of deaths, exceeding 500,000 in Russia. ...
Life expectancy loss and recovery by age and sex following catastrophic events in Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Following catastrophic events, such as pandemics or wars, a systematic loss in life expectancy at birth ( e0\:{e}_{0}) can be observed. We aimed to estimate the time required for  e0\:{e}_{0} to recover after mortality crises and identify which age groups either contribute to the decline or assist in restoring pre-crisis levels. We focused exclusively on analyzing the largest European pandemics and wars of the 19th and 20th centuries, using data from the Human Mortality Database (HMD). To achieve this, we employed Arriaga's decomposition to examine two specific  e0′ \:{e}_{0}{\prime\:}s: one just before the most substantial decline during the mortality crisis, marking the deepest drop, and another at the point where recovery is observed. The events were categorized into pandemics and non-pandemics and further stratified by sex. Various statistical tests were conducted to enable valid comparisons. Our findings reveal that World Wars caused the most significant declines in  e0\:{e}_{0}. Statistical analyses indicate no significant disparities based on the type of event or sex. Notably, youth and children emerge as the primary age group contributing to the decline and recovery of  e0\:{e}_{0} following both catastrophic events. However, not all of them fully recover to the mortality levels observed before the crisis.
View
... Nevertheless, this is more sophisticated and common in crises and pandemics (Dewey et al., 2020;Greenberg et al., 2020). Epidemics and pandemics, such as global crises have always exerted a huge impact on humans and aected the lives of those involved (Samal, 2014). Pandemics (e.g., do aect individuals in all aspects of their lives (economically, physically, mentally, and behaviorally) (Tran, et al., 2022a;Uysal et al., 2020). ...
Examining the key determinants of subjective well-being among hotel employees: The moderating role of psychological resilience
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Drawing upon the theory of displacement, the job-demands resources (JD-R) theory, and the conservation of resources (COR) theory, the current study seeks to develop an integrated model investigating the factors determining subjective well-being among hotel employees, considering the mediating impact of work-family conict as well as the moderating role of psychological resilience. This paper applied a quantitative method relying on a self-administered questionnaire to gather primary data from the sta of 5-star hotels in North Cyprus. Performing PLS-SEM, the empirical ndings indicated that job insecurity signicantly impacts both work-family conict and employees' subjective well-being. Work-family conict has a positive impact on emotional exhaustion, which in turn negatively inuen-ces subjective well-being. Work-family conict also signicantly mediates the link between employees' job insecurity and their emotional exhaustion. Psychological resilience signicantly moderates the link between job insecurity and subjective well-being. This study provides various theoretical and practical implications for scholars and administrators.
View
... For instance, Qiu et al identifies wide geographical extension, disease movement, novelty, severity, high attack rates and explosiveness, minimal population immunity, infectiousness and contagiousness as features that describe a pandemic. However, Samal (2014) explains what a pandemic is not, despite all the features identified of a pandemic. According to him, "a disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. ...
Music as a tool of information dissemination in time of pandemic
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2020
This article investigates the use of music as a tool for information dissemination during the Coronavirus pandemic in Nigeria. The coronavirus pandemic broke out in Wuhan, China towards the end of 2019. It later spread around the world, forcing a decline in interpersonal relationships among humans, thereby dictating a new normal in social, entertainment and sporting activities. Purposive sampling was employed in selecting “We Go Win” by Cobhams Asuquo and “Together We Can Beat It” by Sunny Neji. Being anchored on the theory of persuasion and emotionalism, content analysis was utilized in analyzing the lyrical content of the selected songs. The two songs serve the dual functions of entertainment as well as that of information concerning the novel coronavirus. The two musicians leveraged their social status as popular musicians to persuade the Nigerian populace of the need to take personal responsibility in the fight against the spread of Coronavirus. The use of light instrumental accompaniment in both songs facilitates the uninterrupted delivery of the message intended by both singers. The music of Cobhams Asuquo and Sunny Neji has therefore proved to be effective communicative tools in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. If properly harnessed, the potential of music to help in communicating health directives during disease outbreaks, and also serve as a coping mechanism as health professionals continue to find medical solutions.
View
... The term or concept of a pandemic is a disease that spreads over a large area, country, continent and globe, and can be transmitted from human to human (Samal, 2014). A pandemic is characterised by a high rate of attack causing social and economic disruption. ...
COVID-19 PANDEMIC AS A THREAT TO AFRICAN SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT: INSIGHTS FROM NIGERIA
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Disease outbreak or any form of pandemic is not strange to the global community. However, it is the management techniques and control that mostly concern the international community, especially the World Health Organization (WHO). The coronavirus (COVID-19) which began in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China in late 2019 spread to every continent on the globe. The pandemic did not just cause disruption in the global order, it also had a profound impact on economy, peace and security across the globe. This paper seeks to examine the impact of COVID-19 on Africa's security and development, with Nigeria as a case study. The paper argues that the outbreak of the pandemic exposed Africa's unpreparedness in managing emergencies, which the pandemic exemplified. While most of the developed countries had in place policy measures to control the spread of the virus, Africa as a vulnerable continent with poor health sector and limited economic resources was unable to roll out effective preventive measures. Africa was initially presumed to be immune to the COVID-19, but the upsurge in the number of those who tested positive and the number of casualties became worrisome. For Nigeria, the pandemic has impacted negatively leading to criminal activities, insecurity, economic crisis, unemployment, job cuttings, food crisis and high cost of living. The lockdown measures imposed by Nigeria further disrupted the educational system where access to virtual learning is really non-existent. The paper concludes that the COVID-19 pandemic should be a lesson for Africa, including Nigeria. Therefore, Africa needs to promote local research initiative, home grown management strategy and investment in local technology in order to combat or control future outbreak of global pandemics.
View
... Throughout history, various pandemics have occurred, including smallpox, tuberculosis, cholera, and AIDS [1]. Among these, the Black Death (also known as the Black Plague) stands out as one of the most devastating, which killed 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia and Africa in the 14th century, making it possibly the deadliest pandemic in human history [2]. ...
Determining Community Attitudes toward Various Aspects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Using the Social Profile Ratio Technique
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
  • JHEHP
Abstract: Background: Assessing the changes in public attitudes toward pandemics is crucial in adapting public health strategies to changing circumstances. This study aims to assess the community’s attitude toward the COVID-19 pandemic using the Social Profile Ratio (SPR) method among different occupational groups in Ardabil province. Methods: Employing a cross-sectional survey design, this research assessed the attitudes of 230 respondents toward the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020. Then, the standard SPR method, along with the Index of Resolution (IR), was utilized to analyze the SPR scores, considering different aspects (prevention, control, treatment, and impacts) of the pandemic. Results: According to the SPR values, the occupational groups had different points of view. The highest life expectancy (30 years) was attributed to employees, students, collegians, and instructors. Notably, employees and university professors had the highest SPR and IR values (9.343 and 1) for the prevention indicator. Regarding the control indicator, the unemployed and university professors had SPR and IR values of 5.36 and 0.733, respectively. The highest SPR value of 44.11 in terms of treatment was attributed to employees, while students had the highest SPR value of 10.03 in terms of impact indicator. Conclusion: The study identified employees, university professors, and the unemployed as the most effective groups across prevention, control, treatment, and impact indicators.
View
... A pandemic is an epidemic that spreads globally, crosses international boundaries, and affects large number of people. Numerous pandemics have occurred throughout the history of mankind (10,11). The deadliest pandemics were the Plague of Justinian, the Black Death, and the Spanish Flu. ...
Interactions between COVID-19 infection and diabetes
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused a major pandemic affecting human health and economy around the world since the beginning of 2020. The virus responsible for the disease is “severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2” (SARS-CoV-2). It invades the target cells by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). ACE2 is expressed in several organs including endocrine glands. Multiple endocrine and metabolic systems including the endocrine pancreas have been impacted by COVID-19 infection/pandemic. COVID-19 pandemic can promote obesity through alterations in lifestyle (e.g., unhealthy diet and reduced physical activity due to confinement and isolation) leading to type 2 diabetes and/or can directly impair the function of the endocrine pancreas particularly through a cytokine storm, promoting or aggravating type 1 or type 2 diabetes. The increased ACE2 receptors of high adiposity commonly associated with type 2 diabetes and the chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes with its negative impact on the immune system can increase the risk of COVID-19 infection and its morbidity/mortality. In conclusion, there are bidirectional interactions between COVID-19 pandemic and diabetes (e.g., COVID-19 infection can impact diabetes and diabetes can impact COVID-19 infection). The services offered by healthcare systems for the management of diabetes have been adapted accordingly.
View
Identifikasi Spesies, Kepadatan, dan Pinjal pada Tikus di Area Parkir dan UC-Walk Universitas Ciputra Surabaya
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2025
Tikus dapat menjadi inang bagi patogen penyebab penyakit. Leptospirosis dapat ditularkan melalui air liur dan urin tikus, sementara gigitan pinjal pada tubuh tikus dapat menyebabkan wabah pes. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi spesies tikus, indeks populasi tikus, dan pinjal pada tikus di area parkir dan UC-walk. Penelitian dilakukan di lokasi-lokasi tersebut karena memiliki potensi untuk menjadi habitat bagi tikus. Penelitian ini merupakan studi observasional deskriptif dengan desain potong lintang, yang dilaksanakan dari September 2024 hingga Oktober 2024. Perangkap dipasang antara pukul 18:00-19:00 WIB, dengan total 10 perangkap hidup yang ditempatkan di titik-titik yang sudah ditentukan di setiap lokasi. Analisis kepadatan tikus menggunakan rumus indeks populasi tikus, yakni memenuhi syarat jika nilai indeks populasi tikus <1. Bulu tikus disisir untuk mencari pinjal. Pinjal diamati di bawah mikroskop, dan identifikasi spesies dilakukan. Identifikasi tikus dilakukan di lembaga BRIN. Hasil penelitian didapatkan enam tikus dengan spesies Rattus tanezumi dan Rattus norvegicus dengan trap success sebesar 0,6 dan 0. Hasil dari trap success yang didapat jika dibandingkan dengan standar baku mutu maka masih memenuhi standar. Hasil dari penyisiran pinjal terdapat satu pinjal dengan jenis Xenopsylla cheopis. Penelitian ini menunjukan rendahnya angka keberadaan tikus pada Universitas Ciputra sehingga kebersihan dan sanitasi pada Universitas Ciputra terjaga.
View
Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizers Used for COVID-19 Prevention in the Informal Settlements of Cape Town
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Citation: Dalasile, S.; Itoba Tombo, E.; Madonsela, B.S.; Mpungose, P.P.; Mshicileli, N.; Menziwa, M. Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic and other infectious diseases continue to threaten public health, particularly in densely populated informal settlements. Effective hand hygiene, supported by alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS), plays a critical role in preventing disease transmission. This study assessed the quality, safety, and compliance of ABHS used in informal settlements around Cape Town. A total of 78 samples were collected from spaza shops, with 72 analyzed using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. The results showed that 76% of ethanol-based sanitizers met compliance standards, while 24% did not. Isopropanol compliance (≥70%) was only observed in 36% of samples, with 64% failing to meet Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines. Overall, 74% of hand sanitizers complied with recommended alcohol concentrations by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and CDC, while 26% posed a health risk due to non-compliance. These findings emphasize the urgent need for stricter regulation and public education to ensure effective hand sanitizers are used, thereby reducing infection risks in vulnerable populations. The study aims to inform public health policies and improve regulatory standards.
View
Sinta 5 Albion - Navigating The Spectrum of Humanity Exploring Feelings, Values, and Hope in As Bright As Heaven by Susan Meissner
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
This research aims to analyze the social situations and interpret quotes that express the social conditions and human value as reflected in the novel" As Bright as Heaven" amid the pandemic and World War 1. In this research, the writer used a qualitative method with a sociological approach. The primary data was collected from the novel, and the secondary sources were journals, e-books, and internet references. This research concludes that" As Bright as Heaven” is a novel exploring seven social situations. There were feelings, human values, hope and hopelessness, romance, death, moving, and after the pandemic. In each chapter, Meissner describes social situations based on their respective characters. Susan Meissner creates an emotionally rich and exciting story in this novel that highlights the strength of human beings in the face of tragedy through the characters' experiences and emotions.
View
Modelling the spatial varying relationships between socioeconomic inequalities and COVID-19 mortality in the African subregion
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
Infectious diseases continue to be a global health menace to society. Admittedly, there have been improvements in public health infrastructure and structural response to these diseases, however, a lot more needs to be done to have a firm grip. This study applied the geographically weighted poisson regression (GWPR) model to study the spatial variations in the effects of socioeconomic factors on COVID-19 Mortality in the African subregion. The performance of the GWPR model was compared to the conventional Poisson regression model. The results suggest that accounting for the spatial heterogeneity through the GWPR model (RMSE = 100.604, MAE = 70.582, Pseudo R² = 0.773) improves the modelling performance compared to the conventional Poisson regression model (RMSE = 118.574, MAE = 83.054, Pseudo R² = 0.530). In addition, the effects of all the socioeconomic variables considered (i.e., educational index, unemployment rates, income index, gross domestic product, and forest area) on COVID-19 mortality were found to be spatial non-stational across the subregion. These results highlight the need to draw preventive and response policies applicable to infectious diseases with greater consideration of the different geographical points on the continent.
View
View
1918 Influenza: The mother of all pandemics
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2005
  • EMERG INFECT DIS
8 pages. Describes the 1918 Spanish flu epidemic and its causes. Discusses if such an epidemic could happen again.
View
1918 Influenza: The Mother of All Pandemics
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2006
  • EMERG INFECT DIS
The "Spanish" influenza pandemic of 1918-1919, which caused approximately 50 million deaths worldwide, remains an ominous warning to public health. Many questions about its origins, its unusual epidemiologic features, and the basis of its pathogenicity remain unanswered. The public health implications of the pandemic therefore remain in doubt even as we now grapple with the feared emergence of a pandemic caused by H5N1 or other virus. However, new information about the 1918 virus is emerging, for example, sequencing of the entire genome from archival autopsy tissues. But, the viral genome alone is unlikely to provide answers to some critical questions. Understanding the 1918 pandemic and its implications for future pandemics requires careful experimentation and in-depth historical analysis.
View
Strategies for mitigating an Influenza pandemic
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2006
  • NATURE
Development of strategies for mitigating the severity of a new influenza pandemic is now a top global public health priority. Influenza prevention and containment strategies can be considered under the broad categories of antiviral, vaccine and non-pharmaceutical (case isolation, household quarantine, school or workplace closure, restrictions on travel) measures. Mathematical models are powerful tools for exploring this complex landscape of intervention strategies and quantifying the potential costs and benefits of different options. Here we use a large-scale epidemic simulation to examine intervention options should initial containment of a novel influenza outbreak fail, using Great Britain and the United States as examples. We find that border restrictions and/or internal travel restrictions are unlikely to delay spread by more than 2-3 weeks unless more than 99% effective. School closure during the peak of a pandemic can reduce peak attack rates by up to 40%, but has little impact on overall attack rates, whereas case isolation or household quarantine could have a significant impact, if feasible. Treatment of clinical cases can reduce transmission, but only if antivirals are given within a day of symptoms starting. Given enough drugs for 50% of the population, household-based prophylaxis coupled with reactive school closure could reduce clinical attack rates by 40-50%. More widespread prophylaxis would be even more logistically challenging but might reduce attack rates by over 75%. Vaccine stockpiled in advance of a pandemic could significantly reduce attack rates even if of low efficacy. Estimates of policy effectiveness will change if the characteristics of a future pandemic strain differ substantially from those seen in past pandemics.
View
View
Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750
Article
  • Jan 2006
Plague was a key factor in the waning of Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. In this volume, the first on the subject, twelve scholars from a variety of disciplines - history, archaeology, epidemiology, and molecular biology - have produced a comprehensive account of the pandemic's origins, spread, and mortality, as well as its economic, social, political, and religious effects. The historians examine written sources in a range of languages, including Arabic, Syriac, Greek, Latin, and Old Irish. Archaeologists analyse burial pits, abandoned villages, and aborted building projects. The epidemiologists use the written sources to track the disease's means and speed of transmission, the mix of vulnerability and resistance it encountered, and the patterns of reappearance over time. Finally, molecular biologists, newcomers to this kind of investigation, have become pioneers of paleopathology, seeking ways to identify pathogens in human remains from the remote past.
View
Handbook of Public Health Jaypee Brothers Med. Publishers (P) Ltd World Health Organization
  • Jan 2005
  • Vk A Muthu
  • Short
Muthu VK. A Short Handbook of Public Health. Jaypee Brothers Med. Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2005. 2. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/influenza/PIPGuida nce09.pdf (Accessed on 10/12/13)
Ancient Athenian Plague proves to be Typhoid. Scientific American
  • Feb 2006
  • David Biello
David Biello. Ancient Athenian Plague proves to be Typhoid. Scientific American. Jan. 25, 2006.
Past Pandemics that Ravaged Europe
  • Nov 2005
  • Verity Murphy
Verity Murphy. Past Pandemics that Ravaged Europe.BBC News, 7 th Nov. 2005.
Progress in Clinical Medicine, Series 1, 2 nd Ed
  • Jan 1981
  • S C Pal
Pal SC et al: In Ahuja MMS (Ed). Progress in Clinical Medicine, Series 1, 2 nd Ed. Arnold Heinemann, Delhi, 1981.