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Engaging or Distracting: Children's Tablet Computer Use in Education
Abstract and Figures
Communications studies and psychology offer analytical and methodological tools that when combined have the potential to bring novel perspectives on human interaction with technologies. In this study of children using simple and complex mathematics applications on tablet computers, cognitive load theory is used to answer the question: how successful are tablet computer educational applications at directing children's attention towards intrinsic and germane content? An eye tracker collected gaze data and cognitive tasks were performed to assess memory and attention. The results show that simple applications are able to direct a child's attention to intrinsic and germane content, regardless of the child's cognitive ability. Children assessed as high executive functioning found the germane content of the complex applications helpful whereas children assessed as lower executive functioning did not take advantage of the germane content. Claims that the cognitive structure of the individual is intimately linked to the forms or systems of communication used were partially supported. The research showed that tablet computers and their applications offer a learning experience that appears to be inherently highly interactive—thereby introducing challenges to the cognitive load of children as users.
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... Mathematics education (5) Lin and Lin (2014) Investigation of eye movements during geometry problem-solving that involved simultaneously viewing and writing processes and the switching in between McEwen and Dubé (2015) Effects of using mobile simple vs. complex mathematics applications on cognitive engagement Shayan et al. (2015) Attentional anchor coordination of eye movements in a task during mathematics proportional reasoning in a mobile-assisted learning task Abrahamson et al. (2016) Attentional anchor coordination of eye movements in a task during mathematics proportional reasoning in a mobile-assisted learning task Investigation of eye movements during geometry problem-solving that involved simultaneously viewing and writing processes and the switching in between Special education (3) Schneps et al. (2013) Comparisons of mobile media and their setup in oculomotor behaviours during reading in dyslexia Ikeshita et al. (2018) Relationships between readability and text highlighting in a mobile-assisted reading task with audio support Paletta et al. (2018) Playful multimodal training using a tablet PC with eye tracking device for executive functions-based decision support ...
... This suggests that the content in those areas holds greater importance and significance for learners, thereby suggesting increased effort or depth of processing. For example, McEwen and Dubé (2015) found that even young learners, irrespective of their cognitive abilities, directed their attentional focus to intrinsic and germane content in simple mathematics applications as reflected by longer fixation durations and increased fixation counts. ...
... Eye tracking technology also contributes to instructional design and strategies aimed at guiding students' attention to key learning content. McEwen and Dubé (2015) investigated the effectiveness of mobile applications, whether ...
Background
Recent research has demonstrated the potential of mobile‐assisted learning to enhance learners' learning outcomes. In contrast, the learning processes in this regard are much less explored using eye tracking technology.
Objective
This systematic review study aims to synthesise the relevant work to reflect the current state of eye tracking use in mobile‐assisted learning research over the past 20 years.
Method
Fifty‐two articles were identified using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analysis approach, and analysed based on the technology‐based learning model in five key dimensions: publication information, research domains, technologies, methods, and eye tracking‐related subdimensions.
Results and Discussion
The findings indicate a growth in eye tracking studies from 2004 to 2023, with visual and cognitive science and educational technology being the most studied domains. Tablets were the most utilised medium, along with a usage shift towards tracking glasses. Experiment durations, participant numbers, and education levels varied across studies, but reading tasks were common. Questionnaires and tests were the main additional data collection methods, and fixation was the most frequently used category of eye tracking measures. Most studies provided no information on their defined interest areas, from which they extracted eye tracking data, and employed parametric or non‐parametric procedures to compare group means for data analysis. The studies primarily explored task performance, learning strategies, and learning tools, while multimedia learning, linguistic processing, and emotion received limited attention.
Implications
The systematic review highlights research limitations of current practices for attention and suggests potential avenues for future eye tracking efforts in mobile‐assisted learning.
... According to Blignaut and Wium, some African and Caucasian people have narrow clefts in their eyes, but not all Asians do. However, only eight studies have stated the ethnic details of the participants, making it difficult to assess the quality of eye-tracking in terms of ethnicity [4,7,37,38,54,57,63,87]. ...
... Calibration method [44] 13-point calibration [63] 3-point calibration [57] 4-point calibration [67] 5-point calibration [20,100] 9-point calibration [98] Six gesture calibration Therefore, it is vital to consider the eye-tracking accuracy while wearing glasses or contact lenses. ...
... Also, the number of calibration points will depend on the size of the screen. A few other studies have also used point-to-point calibration such as 3-point calibration [63], 4-point calibration [57], 5-point calibration [67], and 9-point calibration [20,100]. ...
Eye-tracking provides invaluable insight into the cognitive activities underlying a wide range of human behaviours. Identifying cognitive activities provide valuable perceptions of human learning patterns and signs of cognitive diseases like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, autism. Also, mobile devices have changed the way that we experience daily life and become a pervasive part. This systematic review provides a detailed analysis of mobile device eye-tracking technology reported in 36 studies published in high ranked scientific journals from 2010 to 2020 (September), along with several reports from grey literature. The review provides in-depth analysis on algorithms, additional apparatus, calibration methods, computational systems, and metrics applied to measure the performance of the proposed solutions. Also, the review presents a comprehensive classification of mobile device eye-tracking applications used across various domains such as healthcare, education, road safety, news and human authentication. We have outlined the shortcomings identified in the literature and the limitations of the current mobile device eye-tracking technologies, such as using the front-facing mobile camera. Further, we have proposed an edge computing driven eye tracking solution to achieve the real-time eye tracking experience. Based on the findings, the paper outlines various research gaps and future opportunities that are expected to be of significant value for improving the work in the eye-tracking domain.
... prominent part of pedagogical practice in schools, which has both benefited and challenged teachers and students (McEwen & Dube, 2015;Otterborn et al., 2019). However, the availability of digital tools does not guarantee good learning outcomes (Spiezia, 2010;Swedish National Agency for Education, 2015). ...
... Considering the insights of McEwen and Dube (2015), who highlighted tablets as effective learning tools for some pupils, it is imperative to delve deeper into the disparities that exist. Specifically, understanding why tablets may not be as beneficial for certain pupils, often those considered academically weaker, becomes paramount (McEwen & Dube, 2015). Future research should focus on unraveling the potential stratification of learning experiences within classrooms and offering insights into the diverse outcomes of tablet usage among pupils. ...
As educational institutions navigate the complexities of digital transformation, understanding the factors that drive successful technology integration is essential. The implementation of digital tablets in schools is becoming increasingly common. Through the application of the digital maturity framework, a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis was conducted to construct a digital maturity model for the implementation of digital tablets. The results identified how different factors (i.e. technical support, competence, leadership, and organizational conditions) influence digital learning resources and goal facilitation. The study also considered demographic variables, such as age and gender, revealing nuanced technology adoption and use patterns. The analysis highlighted the significance of factors such as competence and organizational conditions. Furthermore, an interesting finding was that leadership did not have a significant effect on the implementation of tablets. These findings challenge preconceived notions about the centrality of leadership in digital integration, and suggest the need for a reevaluation of the roles and support mechanisms that facilitate the advancement of digital learning environments.
... Tablets introduce challenges to the cognitive load of children; they have been found to offer a highly interactive learning experience (McEwen & Dubé, 2015). As acknowledged by OECD (2019), "active interaction with touchscreens can generate dynamic stimulation, and, if used appropriately, may be as engaging and cognitively stimulating as traditional toys or books" (p. ...
... Due to the increased usage of smart mobile devices (i.e., smart phones or tablets), researchers have developed many mobile applications (mobile apps) in order to use them for educating children of different ages (Donner, 2008). Further, researchers have started studying the influence of these devices on children from the social interaction and learning perspectives (e.g.: Jian et al., 2015;Lee and Wei, 2013;McEwen and Dubé, 2015). These mobile devices and apps, targeted at educating children, advance the emerging field of Child-Computer Interaction, which involves the design, development, and evaluation of interactive computer applications or systems (Hourcade, 2015) to be used by children. ...
... While several studies found that the adoption of the tablet PC in education fosters students' learning (e.g., Beal & Rosenblum, 2018;Butcher, 2016;H. Y. Chang et al., 2013;Couse & Chen, 2010;Görhan, 2014;Henderson et al., 2013;Van De Bogart & Wichadee, 2016), other studies concluded that it introduces challenges to students' learning and teachers' instruction (e.g., Alenezi, 2018;Duran & Aytaç, 2016;McEwen & Dubé, 2015;Montrieux et al., 2015;Venkatesh et al., 2003). These findings, however, are not generalizable across participants' contexts (Pirhonen & Rousi, 2018). ...
Aim/Purpose: This study was designed to examine the extent to which high school teachers intend to continue using the tablet PC in their teaching within the context of the Tablet Project initiative in Kuwait. It explores what drives their adoption intention. Background: Blended learning offers teachers the potential to adopt IT to augment their instructions and refocus their content, target group, context, and ethical facets; explore new modes of education and consider effective methods to educate students; and experience more flexibility in both course design and delivery method. To reap the potential benefits of integrating IT in education, the Ministry of Education in Kuwait introduced the “Tablet Project” in public high schools during the 2015–2016 academic year; three years later, it was unclear whether the teachers would continue using the tablet PCs in their teaching. Methodology: The research model adapts constructs from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and the Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) models. It includes facilitating conditions (FC), social influence (SI), and teaching efficacy (TE) as predictors of teachers’ behavioral intentions (BI) to continue using the tablet PC in future teaching. The model also proposes a moderating effect of gender, age, and tablet PC experience on BI. To test the research hypotheses, a data set was collected from 206 teachers and analyzed using the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) method. Contribution: This study provides empirical evidence on important predictors of continuous IT adoption in teaching activities and identifies lessons that could guide initiatives aimed to embed IT in the pre-college education system in Kuwait as well as other similar systems. It contributes results to advance theories and models aimed to explain and predict sustainable IT adoption in education systems across cultures. Findings: While TE arises as a non-significant predictor of BI, SI emerges as the strongest predictor of BI. FC is the second significant predictor of BI, although its direct effect on BI is non-significant. Gender, age, and tablet PC experience have non-significant moderating effects on BI. These results provide significant statistical support for the predictive power of the model, as it explains approximately 50% of the variance in BI. Recommendations for Practitioners: Since this research is directly connected to the reality of IT adoption in teaching in the Kuwaiti high school system, the findings should be of value for the Kuwaiti educational system and future teachers’ professional development initiatives. They should inform future actions and strategies aimed at successfully integrating IT in pre-college education in Kuwait and other similar countries. Recommendation for Researchers: The findings add to the ongoing research effort aimed to develop a better understanding of the intention to continue using IT in instruction and its influential factors across cultures (e.g., Arabian culture), especially since most earlier TPACK studies were carried out in Asian countries and the US. Our findings also confirm the value of UTAUT constructs (i.e., SI and FC) in explaining and predicting the intention to continue using IT by high school teachers, as the research model explains approximately 50% of the variance in the teachers’ BI. Impact on Society: This research offers empirical evidence that adds much-needed nuance to the discourse on teachers’ IT adoption intention and behavior and informs policies and strategies in support of initiatives aimed to integrate IT into education. The provision of a technical and organizational ecosystem that is conducive to sustainable IT integration in the Kuwaiti education system must be part of a more comprehensive initiative to digitize the entire education system. Education policy makers should embrace a digital mindset to adopt IT and transform the teaching, learning, and managerial processes in the system. Future Research: Future research could replicate this study and compare the results, employ other research methods (e.g., focus-group discussions and observations) to investigate teachers’ IT adoption in various educational contexts, adapt research models that include other predictors, and investigate and produce results on students’ perspectives regarding their initial and continuous adoption of the tablet PC within the Tablet Project context.
Kid Eats is a free app for iPad encouraging children and parents to cook together at home using fruits and vegetables. A preliminary study with parents and children showed children enjoyed using the app and that it provided useful information to support children’s involvement in the kitchen, including guidance around safety concerns. Every family in the study voluntarily completed at least one of the recipes with their child at least once following the in-person activity. Parents reported that their children actively asked to cook the recipes from the app and felt the app helped increase their time spent cooking with their children.
This study aims to provide a systematic review of recent eye-tracking studies conducted with children and adolescents in learning settings, as well as a scoping review of the technologies and machine learning approaches used for eye-tracking. To this end, 68 empirical studies containing 78 experiments were analyzed. Eye-tracking devices as well as the ever-evolving mechanisms of gaze prediction endorsed in the prior and current research were identified. The review results indicated a set of salient patterns governing the employment of eye-tracking measures and the inferred cognitive constructs in learning, along with the common practices in analyzing and presenting the eye-tracking data. Eye-tracking has been used to track engagement, learning interactions, and learning-relevant cognitive activities mainly in a research lab or a highly-controlled learning setting. The mechanisms of gaze capturing and prediction with learners in a dynamic and authentic learning environment are evolving.
The aim of this research is to determine the effects of teaching the "Solar System and Beyond" unit with learning technique-based activities at stations enriched with science toys on the academic achievement, motivational strategies for learning, reflective thinking, curiosity and interest levels about space sciences, and their views on scientific toys. The study group of this research consists of 72 students studying at the 7th grade level in a public secondary school in Istanbul in the 2019-2020 academic year. Quantitative data collection tools used in this study are "Solar System and Beyond Achievement Test", "Motivational Strategies for Learning Scale", "Reflective Thinking Scale", "Space Sciences Curiosity and Interest Scale" and "Science Toys Opinion Scale". The qualitative data collection tool used in this study is interview data. The application lasted for 12 lesson. As a result of this study, the teaching of the "Solar System and Beyond" unit with learning technique-based activities at stations enriched with science toys; It has been found that secondary school seventh grade students have a positive effect on academic achievement, motivational strategies for learning, reflective thinking, curiosity and interest levels about space sciences, and their views on science toys. In addition to this, it was determined that the qualitative data supported the quantitative data.
In this study the importance of research concerning orality and oral traditions for a variety of pressing current issues related to social history, cultural studies, education and science of religion is stressed. It is necessary to take into account the full range of language use as it is spoken and listened to, read and written, to improve our descriptions and analyses of ways of communicating and consequently to uncover the inter-relatedness of language and culture.
Educational material often includes engaging perceptual information. However, this perceptual information is often extraneous and may compete with the deeper to-be-learned structure, consequently hindering either the learning of relevant structure or its transfer to new situations. This hypothesis was tested in 4 experiments in which 6- to 8-year-old children learned to read simple bar graphs. In some conditions, the bars were monochromatic (i.e., No Extraneous Information), whereas in other conditions, the bars consisted of columns of discrete countable objects (i.e., Extraneous Information). Results demonstrated that the presence of extraneous information substantially attenuated learning; participants tended to count the objects and failed to acquire the appropriate strategy. The interference effects decreased with age. These findings present evidence of how extraneous information affects learning of new mathematical knowledge. Broader implications of these findings for understanding the development of the ability to filter task-irrelevant information and for educational practice are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Using Luhmann's communication framework, we examine the interaction implications of kindergarten to Grade 2 students using mathematics applications on 4 types of tablet computers. Research questions included what content is communicated between the child and the tablet computer and how engaged are children in the child-tablet interaction. We found that mathematics applications developers have focused on creating appli-cations for the practice of a priori knowledge, rather than on creating instructional applications. Results show pre-liminary evidence that child-tablet communication is generally successful, but this success comes at the cost of richer, multimodal interactions. Tablet computer application developers are being cautious in offering a variety of options for children to interact with the devices, and we suggest that there is the scope for a broadening of the communicative interaction modes.
