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Veterinary Care and Breeding of Elephants in Nepal

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  • Chitwan National Park, Kasara, Chitwan, Nepal

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27
Short Communication Gajah 37 (2012) 27-30
Veterinary Care and Breeding of Elephants in Nepal
Kamal P. Gairhe
Chitwan National Park, Chitwan District, Nepal
Author’s e-mail: kamalgairhe@hotmail.com
Tuberculosis Control Action Plan, 2011 were
prepared and are being implemented. At the same
time, the government has focused on landscape
level conservation approaches, giving special
attention to mega-herbivores and big cats.
Veterinary care of newborn elephant calves and
the mothers play a signicant role in reducing
calf mortality in captivity as well as in increasing
the efciency of breeding elephants. This paper
describes some common problems and treatment
of captive elephants and their calves in Nepal.
Status of elephants in Nepal
Historically, the forests of the Terai and inner
Terai of Nepal have been the prime habitat
of Asian elephants. These habitats are now
fragmented creating obstacles for the free
movement of elephants. Nepal currently has
four small and isolated groups of resident wild
elephants that are known as the eastern (7-15),
central (25-30), western (60-80) and far western
(15-20) populations (Shrestha & Gairhe 2006).
Presently the wild elephant population in Nepal
is estimated to be between 107-145 individuals
(Pradhan et al. 2011).
Nepal has a long history of captive elephant
management, which however was recorded
only after 1903 (Kharel 2001). There were 31
elephant camps mostly in the lowlands of Nepal
between 1898-1970, housing elephants owned by
various members of the Royal family and other
elite Nepalese (JBK 1985). The Department
of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
(DNPWC) has been the government authority for
the management of domestic elephants in Nepal
since 1978.
Introduction
Elephants were once abundant in the wild but
are now becoming endangered over all of their
range, with Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
being under greater threat than African elephants.
Due to habitat fragmentation and loss, and illegal
killing, elephant numbers have decreased and
many have become limited to small isolated
pockets of protected areas. In addition, the
human elephant conict has also increased in
recent years.
The Asian elephant has long been associated with
humans as a beast of burden, an instrument of
warfare for kings, a symbol of status for wealthy
individuals, a member of cultural functions
and so on (WWF 2003). Thus, the history of
capture, taming and use of elephants is very old.
Currently, captive elephants are used for forest
excursions, tourism activities in the parks and
reserves and by some wildlife biologists, park
managers and eld investigators in research and
management activities. In this context, elephant
camps and breeding centres may play a key role
in conserving these animals through breeding in
captivity reducing our dependency to get them
from the wild.
Elephants, both captive and wild are protected
under the National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Act 2029 (1973) of Nepal. This Act
completely banned capturing elephants from the
wild, which was in practice long ago but nearly
abandoned after 1979. The Nepalese Government
is committed to protecting both captive and wild
elephants. As part of this, an Elephant Breeding
Center has been established and two action
plans namely the Elephant Conservation Action
Plan (DNPWC 2009) and the Nepal Elephant
28
Domestic elephants are now engaged in tourist
and management activities of the Terai National
Parks and Wildlife Reserves. Currently, the
population of domestic elephants in Nepal is 215.
Out of this 94 are owned by the Government and
are managed in ve locations. A small number
(7) are used in the research eld but signicant
numbers of privately owned domestic elephants
(114) are used in the tourism sector. The majority
of the latter are found in and around Chitwan
National Park, which is the third preferred
destination of international visitors to Nepal.
A small number of elephants that are hired by
entrepreneurs are moved between Nepal and
India. Out of the total captive elephant population
36 (16.66%) are males and 179 (83.30%) females
of varying ages.
Elephant Breeding Center
Realizing the need to conserve the declining
population of wild elephants in Nepal, a taskforce
was commissioned to study and recommend
on the management of elephants in captivity in
1984. On the basis of its recommendation, an
Elephant Breeding Centre was established in
Chitwan National Park in 1986. The objectives
of the centre were to start scientic breeding and
research of elephants, recording of management
experiences and to help full the need of elephants
for the management of protected areas. The
breeding centre was established with 20 animals
(16 Indian, 2 Thai and 2 Burmese) (Gopali 2003).
The numbers and sex of captive bred elephants at
the centre are presented in Figure 1.
Breeding management
Breeding elephant bulls are difcult to manage
in captivity due to their seasonal musth. Mahouts
in Nepal have gradually become more fearful
over time of bulls. The food and grazing of
non-breeding bulls, is controlled by mahouts
so that they do not attain musth. Just one bull
named Birendra Prasad from Thailand was used
as the stud bull in the past. Due to its elevated
aggressiveness, the diet and grazing time was
reduced which degraded his health, and it got
tuberculosis and died in 2007 before treatment
was instituted.
In view of breeding elephants, several biological
aspects of elephants need to be considered. One
should decide how many cows should be bred,
because raising elephant calves is very expensive
in terms of food, medicines and withdrawing the
mothers from regular work for several years. The
increase in staff to take care of newborn calves is
also an important consideration.
Oestrous and mating
An experienced elephant keeper can suspect
the possible period of heat by regular checking.
Analysis of blood progesterone concentrations
has proved that the average oestrus cycle
length is approximately 16 weeks. The cycle
is composed of an approximate 11 week luteal
phase and a ve week follicular phase with a
three day oestrus period. Thus, a female that
is not impregnated may be fertile three to four
times a year. Typically a female will not show
any obvious signs of oestrus so one is dependent
either on hormonal analysis or on the behaviour
of a bull to detect it.
Striking the genitalia by an experienced mahout
with a stick in the early hours of the day is a local
technique to detect heat. Upon being struck,
cyclers spread their hind legs apart or if in peak
heat, urinate and lift their tail horizontally. Those
not in heat, shrink their legs and tend to hide the
genitalia. Growling and squeaking sounds may
be produced by females in heat to invite bull
elephants. Mating should be allowed in a peaceful
environment. Noises and fun-making by people
Figure 1. Elephant births in the Elephant
Breeding Center, Chitwan National Park..
29
may be very dangerous and we have records of
attacks in our centre upon such incidents.
Recent elephant breeding in Nepal was initiated
by a semi wild elephant bull in Koshi Tappu
Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) popularly known
as Ganesh in the 1980s. He mated with several
captive cow elephants and produced eleven
calves. Of them, three died at early ages- one
being killed by the mother, one suffering from a
paralytic disorder after 6 years of birth and one
from enteritis.
Dominant wild bulls in musth usually visit the
Elephant Breeding Center and mate with female
elephants. The same has occurred in other
elephant camps such as Shuklaphanta Wildlife
Reserve (SWR), Bardia National Park (BNP), and
Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR) and Koshitappu
Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) as well as in private
elephant camps of jungle lodges and hotels.
Veterinary care of parturient elephants and their
calves
Elephants have been bred at the Elephant
Breeding Center since 1987. A number of issues
have been observed.
Primiparous cows often did not produce live
calves. However, in such cases delivery was
assisted with calcium, glucose and oxytocin
injections to save the mother. One Government
elephant (Mangolakali) and one private elephant
of Machan Wildlife Resort died of dystocia.
After calving, the parturient elephants are injected
oxytocin (100 to 150 i.u.) intramuscularly every
24 hours for 72 hours. On many occasions inner
vulvar mucosal tears occur due to passage of
calves. These are treated by antiseptic washes.
Ventral edema may develop soon after or before
parturition. Sometimes this can be very serious,
extending towards the sternal area and abdomen
almost touching the ground. This has successfully
been treated by injecting frusemide (Ridema®,
50 mg/ml, Wockhardt Ltd., India) @ 40 ml (2 g
total) per elephant once daily for 3-4 days.
A very common concern after birth is the
detachment of a tissue block from the umbilicus
leaving a deep sore in the newborn calf. This
probably occurs due to a strong umbilical cord
not breaking off during the fall of the calf. Though
tincture of iodine has been applied on the wound,
infection frequently occurs and there have been
several instances of swelling, oozing of serum
and in extreme cases maggot infestation. A 2.5
g vial of penicillin and streptomycin (Dicrysticin
LD, Sarabhai Chemicals, India) for 3-5 days
and antiseptic powder such as Nebanol (Square
Pharmaceuticals, Bangladesh) or Nebasulf
(Pzer India Ltd.) or Neosporin (Glenmark
Pharmaceuticals, India) and a maggotticide
(Negasunt® dusting powder, Bayer HealthCare,
Germany) has been very useful in treating such
cases.
Parturient elephants are vaccinated after
calving with 4 ml (0.5 ml ampoules) of Tetanus
toxoid® adsorbed I.P. (Serum Institute of India
Ltd.). The elephant cows are fed with a special
diet composed of rice cooked with molasses.
Calcium (Ostovet®-Virbac India,) and vitamin
supplements (Vimeral®Virbac, India) are added
to this meal for increasing milk production.
Abnormal behaviour by parturient elephants
has been observed after delivery of the calf on a
number of occasions. A calf born at KTWR was
killed by the mother (Tribhuwankali) in 1986
while another was badly attacked at NTNC,
Chitwan (Mankali) in 2001. Identifying elephants
with such behavior and quickly removing the
newly born calf from the stable can save the calf.
Some cows are found with poor lactogenic
activity, which necessitates bottle feeding. Bottle
feeding has mostly resulted in death of elephant
calves, due probably to E. coli or Salmonella
infection, (Dhirendrakali’s calf at KTWR and
Rupkali’s 3 consecutive calves at SWR) formula
intolerance and enteritis.
Currently, 23% of Nepalese elephants are
infected with elephant tuberculosis. Regular
testing, segregation of test positive elephants and
treatment is progressing.
30
A new disease named elephant endotheliotrophic
herpes virus EEHV was detected in Nepalese
captive elephants and may be a challenge for
bringing up the captive born elephants (Nolen
2011; Gairhe 2011).
Deworming of both adults and calves is done with
Fenbendazole (Panacur®, Intervet India Pvt. Ltd.)
twice a year @ 5-10 mg/kg body weight (Tiwari
& Rao 1996). Fasciola and Paramphistomum
spp. are controlled by oral administration of
Triclabendazole (Fascinex®900 mg bolus @ 7.5
mg/kg bodyweight, Novartis Animal Health Inc.)
or Oxyclozanide (Distodin®, Pzer India Ltd.)
boluses at recommended doses once every year
before monsoon season.
Elephant lice (Haematomyzus elephantis) are
controlled by feeding injectable Ivermectin
(Ivomec® Merial Limited, USA) @ 0.15 mg/kg
live weight (Karesh & Robinson 1985).
Benzathene penicillin (48 lac vials x10), Strepto-
penicillin 2.5 g vials x10 and Ceftriaxone
(Ocef®/Ceftriax®, Karnataka Antibiotics and
Pharmaceuticals, India)) injections @ 5 mg/
kg body weight are frequently used in adult
females to control bacterial infections while any
types of colic is treated with Hyoscine butyl
bromide (Buscopan®, 20 mg/ml ampoules, 10-
12 ampoules, 200-240 mg) injections.
Elephants while in the forest may be stinged
by hornets and bees for which injections of
Triamcinolone (Vetalog®, 3-6 vials, 90-180 mg;
Zydus Animal Health, India) or Antihistamines
(Anistamin®, Intas Pharmaceuticals Ltd., India,
40-60 ml/adult) have been used.
Acknowledgements
I sincerely acknowledge the help of Mr. Chitra
Bahadur Khadka, Chitwan National Park, for
analyzing domestic elephant data and typing this
manuscript.
References
DNPWC (2009) The Elephant Conservation
Action Plan for Nepal. Department of National
Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Government of
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Gairhe KP (2011) Current situation and diseases
of elephants in Nepal. In: Proceedings of the
International Conference on Elephant and
Wildlife Health Management in Asia. Kasetsart
University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Gopali YBR (2003) An overview of elephant
breeding center at Royal Chitwan National Park,
Nepal. Banko Jankari 13(2): 25-33.
JBK (1985) Hatti byabasthapan yojana tarjuma
pratibedan, Jachbujh Kendra, Royal Palace,
Kathmandu.
Karesh WB & Robinson PT (1985) Ivermectin
treatment of lice infestations in two elephant
species. Journal of American Veterinary Medical
Association 187: 1235
Kharel (2001) The challenges of managing
domesticated Asian elephants in Nepal. In: Giants
in Our Hands. Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant.
Bankok, Thialand. pp 103-108.
Nolen RS (2011) Herpes virus claims another
elephant as search for answers continues. Journal
of American Veterinary Medical Association 39:
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Pradhan NMB, Williams AC & Dhakal M (2011)
Current status of Asian elephants in Nepal. Gajah
35: 87-92
Shrestha S & Gairhe KP (2006) Veterinary
problems of geographical concern - Section
VII, Nepal. In: Biology, Medicine and Surgery
of Elephants. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds)
Blackwell Publishing.
Tiwari SP & Rao KNP (1996) Fenbendazole - an
useful dewormer for elephants. Zoo’s Print 9 (4)
WWF (2003) Hattisars, Managing Domesticated
Elephants in Nepal. WWF Nepal Program.
... (6)(7)(8)(9) Luego se debe limpiar la herida con solución de iodo povidona en combinación con otros agentes antisépticos, esto se puede complementar con el uso de vendajes y cremas cicatrizantes y/o repelentes, siempre y cuando el animal lo permita. (10) Como última alternativa, se emplea antibióticos por vía sistémica durante no menos de 10 días (generalmente entre 15 y 20 días) (11) , donde lo recomendable es la toma de una muestra con el fin de identificar al agente presente y poder realizar un antibiograma, para determinar la sensibilidad a los diferentes antibióticos. (12) Se conoce como peloides a sedimentos compuestos por diferentes silicatos, roca caliza, fosfatos, carbonatos entre muchos otros componentes, cuya principal característica es que pueden ser aplicados con fines terapéuticos. ...
... Una vez observada la lesión se procedió a realizar las curaciones, por parte del personal a cargo (bajo supervisión del veterinario), con antisépticos tópicos a base de iodo povidona. (10,1,7) La herida evoluciono de forma favorable por un tiempo. Luego de unos días la misma llego a un punto en el cual no disminuía la solución de continuidad, momento en el cual se decide comenzar con pomadas cicatrizantes comerciales que tienen como principio activo vitamina A, diferentes antibióticos tópicos y lidocaína. ...
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The field report on biodiversity i.e. assessment of green sector in the Chitwan area has highlighted the major efforts that the Chitwan area has initiated or the anticipation measures to preserve biodiversity .The report is a confined outcome of the status of the current status of biodiversity of Nepal, approaches set up for conservation, floral and faunal diversity, carbon stock Kumroj community forest ecotourism potential, socio-cultural practices (Indigenous knowledge), and the carbon emission from tourism.The Elephant Breeding Center was found to be successful in breeding elephants in captivity and releasing them into the wild, while the Crocodile Breeding Center served as a sanctuary for endangered crocodile species in Nepal. The center also conducts various programs at the local level to address water pollution, unsustainable fishing, and poaching, in order to safeguard the natural environment. Carbon stock assessments were conducted in the Kumroj Buffer Zone Community Forest using concentric circular sampling. The accumulated total forest carbon stock was determined 160 tC/ha. The Tharu people, who possess rich indigenous knowledge of environmental resource management, have played a crucial role in conserving and sustaining their environment through traditional practices related to agriculture, forestry, and resource management. The ecological significance of the Sauraha area is highlighted by the diverse bird species observed, emphasizing the need for continued monitoring and conservation efforts. The Bishajari tal, with its diverse flora and fauna species, serves as a valuable biological corridor and requires conservation measures. The Chitwan National Park, known for its wildlife, natural beauty, bird and wildlife watching, safaris, and events, is a major tourist attraction, with elephant safaris preferred by 88.5% of Nepali tourists. The emission from food waste in the Sauraha area is minimal, while the emission from jeep safaris serving tourists contributes to CO2 emissions.The emission from jeep safari serving 682 tourists was about 270.68 kg of CO2. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of conservation efforts and sustainable practices in protecting Nepal's natural heritage and promoting environmental sustainability. Keywords: Ex-situ conservation, Indigenous knowledge, Biodiversity, Ecotourism, Carbon Emission.
Article
p> Abstract on the PDF Banko Janakari Vol.13(2) 2003: 25-33 </p
Chapter
IntroductionSection I-AfricaSection II-IndiaSection III-Indochina and BangladeshSection IV-IndonesiaSection V-MalaysiaSection VI-MyanmarSection VII-NepalSection VIII-Sri Lanka
Current situation and diseases of elephants in Nepal
  • K P Gairhe
Gairhe KP (2011) Current situation and diseases of elephants in Nepal. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Elephant and Wildlife Health Management in Asia. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Veterinary problems of geographical concern -Section VII, Nepal. In: Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants
  • S Shrestha
  • Kp Gairhe
Shrestha S & Gairhe KP (2006) Veterinary problems of geographical concern -Section VII, Nepal. In: Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds) Blackwell Publishing.
Fenbendazole -an useful dewormer for elephants
  • S P Tiwari
  • Knp Rao
Tiwari SP & Rao KNP (1996) Fenbendazole -an useful dewormer for elephants. Zoo's Print 9 (4)
Hatti byabasthapan yojana tarjuma pratibedan
JBK (1985) Hatti byabasthapan yojana tarjuma pratibedan, Jachbujh Kendra, Royal Palace, Kathmandu.
The Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Government of Nepal
DNPWC (2009) The Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.