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Female Sport Participation In South African Rural Schools: Analysis Of Socio-Cultural Constraints

June 2015
European Review Of Applied Sociology 8(10)

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This study was carried out to examine constraints to sport participation among female secondary school students in Hlanganani rural area, Limpopo Province, South Africa. A total of 101 female students aged 17–24 years from four secondary schools were recruited to participate in the study. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. Results indicated that the dress code, lack of energy, lack of family support and family commitment were identified as major constraints to sport participation among female students. The results of this study provide practical implications for promoting and developing female sports programmes in rural schools. This study suggests that stakeholders such as parents, peers, and teachers should motivate and encourage female students to participate in school sport. Additionally, the study recommended that in order to promote sport participation in rural areas, the values, norms, beliefs, attitudes and customs that restrict females from participating in sport and physical activity should be dissented.

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European Review of Applied Sociology

Vol. 8, No. 10, Year 2015

ISSN: 2286-2102

E-ISSN: 2286-2552

FEMALE SPORT PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN

RURAL SCHOOLS: ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL

CONSTRAINTS

Ntwanano Alliance KUBAYI

Department of Sport, Rehabilitation and Dental Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680,

Pretoria, 0001, South Africa

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)

DOI: 10.1515/eras-2015-0001

Abstract

This study was carried out to examine constraints to sport participation among female secondary school students

in Hlanganani rural area, Limpopo Province, South Africa. A total of 101 female students aged 17–24 years from

four secondary schools were recruited to participate in the study. A self-administered questionnaire was used to

collect data. Results indicated that the dress code, lack of energy, lack of family support and family commitment

were identified as major constraints to sport participation among female students. The results of this study provide

practical implications for promoting and developing female sports programmes in rural schools. This study

suggests that stakeholders such as parents, peers, and teachers should motivate and encourage female students to

participate in school sport. Additionally, the study recommended that in order to promote sport participation in

rural areas, the values, norms, beliefs, attitudes and customs that restrict females from participating in sport and

physical activity should be dissented.

Keywords: female, students, sport, participation, constraints

1. Introduction

Sport provides young females with self-esteem thereby enhancing experiences by equipping

them with skills and knowledge that are necessary to organise and manage their lives in a

responsible manner (van Deventer, 1998). Furthermore, participation in sport provides students

with the opportunity to socialise with their peers, promotes students’ health, improves physical

fitness, increases academic performance and improves their sense of relaxation (Malan & van

Deventer, 2013; Ongong’a, Okwara & Okello, 2010; van Hout, Young, Bassett & Hooft,

2013). In spite of these benefits, sport participation peaks between the ages of 10 and 13 years,

and then consistently declines till the age of 18 years (Ewing & Seefeldt, 1989). Research has

shown that participation in sport is influenced by several constraints which according to

Crawford and Godbey (1987) are classified as structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal

constraints. Structural constraints refer to factors such as lack of facilities, time constraints,

financial resources, etc. Intrapersonal constraints refer to the psychological states of individuals.

Interpersonal constraints are those constraints such as lack of partners or friends. A model

proposed by Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991) suggests that intrapersonal constraints are

encountered first and are then followed by interpersonal and structural constraints.

Another study conducted by Amusa, Toriola, Onyewadume and Dhaliwal (2008), reported

aptitude (personal, physical skills, knowledge, body image, illness and fitness), social-cultural

(societal norms, values of the sport, customs, beliefs and peer pressure), community awareness

(awareness of sport facilities, knowledge of sport facilities and use of sport facilities), socio-

economic (time, finance, equipment and cost of public transport) and environmental constraints

(access to facilities, proximity to facilities, motivation, safety and weather conditions) as other

major constraints to sport participation. Research has shown that females are more affected by

the socio-cultural factors because of their gender roles (Abbasi, 2014).

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Ntwanano Alliance Kubay, Female Sport Participation in South African Rural Schools: Analysis of Socio-Cultural Constraints

DOI: 10.1515/eras-2015-0001

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Several studies have been carried out to assess constraints to sport participation among

secondary school students in townships and urban areas in South Africa. They include studies

conducted by Mchunu and Le Roux (2010), Kubayi, Toriola and Monyeki, (2013), and Pule,

Kubayi, Toriola and Amusa (2013). These studies indicated that participation in school sports

is mainly influenced by factors such as time constraint, lack of parental support, conflict from

other interests, lack of sport facilities and equipment, restricted sport programmes and

unqualified sport coaches. However, none of these studies were carried out in rural areas. The

few available studies undertaken in rural areas include those by Kubayi, Goon, Coopoo and

Amusa (2013), which reported that male students participate in sport more than female students.

However, the constraints that deterred female students’ from sport participation were not

assessed in these studies. Therefore, the present study attempts to extend Kubayi et al.’s (2013)

study by examining the constraints to sport participation among female students in Hlanganani

rural area of Limpopo in South Africa.

2. Methodology

2.1 Sample

A total of 101 female students aged 17 to 24 years attending four high schools in Hlanganani

rural area, Limpopo province of South Africa, volunteered to participate in this study. This age

group was chosen because students in this age group, in particular Tsonga people, have the

ability to write and read English. Therefore it was feasible for them to fill in the questionnaires

without any difficulties. A convenient sampling method was used to recruit the participants to

participate in the study. A convenient sampling method was chosen because it is the best way

of getting some basic information quickly and efficiently (Sekeran, 2003).

2.2 Research instrument

A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. The instrument comprised two

sections. Section A comprised questions which sought information on the participants'

demographic profile. Section B elicited 10 closed ended items which were scored on a 7-point

Likert scale ranging from 1(Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). The questionnaire was

designed based on interviews conducted with female students in schools. A Cronbach alpha

coefficient of 0.578 was obtained for this study. Although the alpha value of the questionnaire

fell below the benchmark of 0.7 recommended by Nunally (1978); however, according to Kim

and Kim (1995), a coefficient of 0.5 to 0.6 is sufficient to conclude the extracted dimensions as

reliable.

2.3 Ethical consideration and procedure

Prior to data collection, the permission to conduct the study was granted by the Department

of Education at Vhembe district, Thohoyandou and Hlanganani circuit office, at Hlanganani

rural area, Limpopo Province. Data collection was undertaken by the principal researcher. The

principal researcher met with the students, explained the purpose of the study and outlined the

data collection procedure to them. Signed informed consents were obtained from all students

who participated in the study and they were informed that their participation was voluntary and

were assured of anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. To avoid disruption of school

lessons, data was collected after school hours. Participants were guided to fill in the

questionnaires independently which took them approximately 5 minutes to complete.

2.4 Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS

– Version 21). Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to analyse the

data.

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Ntwanano Alliance Kubay, Female Sport Participation in South African Rural Schools: Analysis of Socio-Cultural Constraints

DOI: 10.1515/eras-2015-0001

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3. Results

Of the 180 questionnaires that were distributed, 101 questionnaires were returned

representing a questionnaire return rate of 56 %. A low response rate among students in this

study could be supported by the words of Couper (2000) who stated that “not all people included

in the sample are willing or able to complete the survey” (p. 473). However, according to Babbie

(1990), a 50% response rate is adequate. Table 1 summarises the constraints on sport

participation encountered by female students in rural areas.

Table 1. Constraints to sport participation among female students

Constraints Rank Mean Standard deviation

Lack of time 10 2.42 1.85

Lack of sport facilities 8 3.09 2.15

Family commitments 4 3.79 2.28

Lack of motivation 9 2.89 2.29

No interest 6 3.22 2.24

Lack of energy 2 4.35 2.16

Lack of family support 3 3.81 2.28

I don’t like the dress code 1 4.36 2.45

Sport is not important 7 3.11 2.29

Not in my culture 5 3.70 2.43

The five most likely barriers to sport participation perceived by the female students were, “I

don’t like the dress code” (M=4.36), “lack of energy” (M= 4.35), “lack of family support” (M=

3.81), “family commitments” (M=3.79), “not in my culture” (M= 3.70), whereas the least

barriers were, “No interest” (M=3.22), “sport is not important” (M=3.11), “lack of sport

facilities” (M=3.09), “lack of motivation” (M= 2.89) and “lack of time” (M=2.42).

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine constraints to sport participation among female

high school students in Hlanganani rural area of Limpopo Province, South Africa. This study

found that “dress code” was a major constraint to sport participation among girls in rural areas.

Consistent with a previous study conducted by Walter and Du Randt (2011) among Xhosa

women, there is also a perception among Tsonga women that wearing sport attire such as

trousers or shorts is not acceptable in their culture. This finding also corroborates those of

previous studies undertaken in other African countries. For example, in Egypt, Walseth and

Fasting (2003) found that women wearing the krimar (which covers hair and chest) or nikab

(also the face) found it more difficult to play sport compared to those wearing the hijab (which

covers hair only). A recent study conducted by Frantz and Ngambare (2013) in Rwanda, found

that women in the Rwandan culture who are mothers, are obliged to wear special dresses which

cover their body. Therefore, this study suggests that policy makers should accommodate female

students where their cultures restrict them from participating in sport due to dress code. This

could be achieved by letting them participate in sport with long skirts with their heads also

covered. The present finding in which female students reported lack of energy as a major barrier

to sport participation is consistent with those of a previous study (Allison, Dwyer & Makin,

1999). Lack of energy may be attributed to the reduction of physical activity participation in

physical education/life orientation lessons in schools. In an attempt to motivate female students

to participate in sport, teachers and sport coaches should therefore incorporate strategies that

promote fun, and enjoyment, which allow students to interact with others. Furthermore, lack of

family support was also perceived as a major barrier to sport participation. A similar finding

has been reported by Pule, Kubayi, Toriola and Amusa (2013) who found that females were not

supported and encouraged to participate in school sports. Thus, this study suggests that parents,

peers and other stakeholders such as sport coaches, teachers, and people from the community

should play an integral part in supporting females to participate in sport. Interestingly, lack of

time was found as the least barrier to sport participation. This finding is surprising and

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Ntwanano Alliance Kubay, Female Sport Participation in South African Rural Schools: Analysis of Socio-Cultural Constraints

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unexpected as previous studies (e.g. Robbins, Pender, & Kazanis, 2003; Saxena, Borzekowski,

& Rickert, 2002) have reported lack of time as a major barrier to sport and physical activity

participation. Therefore, it is possible that, the so-called lack of time reported in previous

studies may be used as an excuse for physical inactivity. This view is supported by Weinberg

and Gould (2011) who stated that: “people often cite time constraints for not exercising, but

such constraints are more perceived than real and often reveal a person’s priorities”.

5. Limitations and implications for future research

The results of this study provide baseline information in the current literature on socio-

cultural constraints to sport participation among female students in rural areas. However, the

study has several limitations. Firstly, the sample of the study was too small. It is desirable to

collect the data on larger samples of female students in rural areas in order to draw an

informative conclusion. Secondly, this research was carried out in one small rural area,

therefore the results may not be generalised to all South African rural areas. However, it may

be interesting to replicate the study in other rural areas and compare the findings.

6. Conclusion

The results of this study indicated that dress code, lack of energy, lack of family support and

family commitment were the major barriers to sport participation among high school female

students in Hlanganani rural area of Limpopo Province in South Africa. Notwithstanding these

constraints, it is recommended that in order to promote sport participation in rural areas, the

values, norms, beliefs, attitudes and customs that restrict females from participation in sport

and physical activity should be dissented.

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Sports Nutrition Knowledge, Source of Nutrition Information and Dietary Consumption Pattern of Ugandan Endurance Athletes: A cross-sectional study of the Sebei Sub-Region

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Background Athletes’ nutrition knowledge depends on the sources of nutrition information they are exposed to and their social status. Currently, there is a dearth of literature on the nutrition knowledge of Ugandan athletes. This study assessed endurance athletes’ sports nutrition knowledge, sources of nutrition information, and their dietary consumption patterns. Methods A cross-sectional descriptive study including 100 purposively selected (middle and long distance) athletes from four Athletic Management camps was conducted in Kapchorwa district, Uganda. Using an interviewer-administered questionnaire, trained research assistants collected athletes’ demographic information, knowledge, practices, sources of nutrition information and consumption patterns. ANOVA, Independent t-test, Chi-square analysis, and Binary logistic analyses were done using SPSS® software version 23.0. Results Most athletes 74.0% (n = 74) in this study were aged between 15–17 (17.9 ± 4.0) years with at least 2 years’ experience in athletics. Majority 68.0% (n = 68) of the athletes had good sports nutrition knowledge while 32.0% (n = 32) showed poor knowledge. About 88.0% (n = 88) knew that vitamin consumption can enhance recovery after training. Athletic trainers 49.0% (n = 49) and family/parents 28.0% (n = 28) were primary sources of nutrition information, while nutritionists/dietitians 5.0% (n = 5) and the internet 4.0% (n = 4) were less consulted. Cereals were the most consumed food group 72.0% (n = 72), followed by legumes and nuts 67.0% (n = 67) while the least consumed foods were milk/egg 33.0% (n = 33), fish 25.0% (n = 25) and meat/poultry 13.0% (n = 13). Good sports nutrition knowledge was associated with adequate dietary practices (p = 0.009). Sports nutrition knowledge differed significantly with age group (F = 4.566, p = 0.013), and between female and male (F = 21.884, p < 0.000) athletes. Age group was a significant predictor (β = 1.925, Ex(β) = 6.853, C. I = 0.882–36.096, p = 0.023) of sports nutrition knowledge. Conclusions In this study endurance athletes had good sports nutrition knowledge, and relied primarily on their coaches/trainers for sports nutrition information. It is recommended that athletic trainers be offered supplementary training in sports nutrition to ensure proper nutrition knowledge dissemination among athletes.

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Females might be more affected by sociocultural barriers to physical activity because of their gender roles. This review was conducted to examine the available evidence on socioculture barriers to attaining recommended levels of physical activity among females. After thorough review, 34 articles were selected. Childcare, household work, cultural beliefs, social isolation, and unsafe neighborhood environment were leading sociocultural barriers preventing females from attaining recommended levels of physical activity. Lack of social support from family, living in extended families, living in rural areas, absence of culturally appropriate facilities, and, in some countries, past experiences of war were the main barriers. Observations of people in the family and in neighborhood performing physical activity were positively associated with physical activity. Females are a disadvantaged group that lacks social support and have poor control over decisions related to their health. Sociocultural factors act as the main barriers to recommended levels of physical activity.

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Full-text available

Jan 2013

In South Africa, sport unites the country because it transcends race, gender, politics and language groups. Majority of South African youth are in the developmental phase where critical decisions are being taken on key life transitions, including education, work, lifestyle, participation in society, and other psycho-sociological areas. Learners in high school in the previously disadvantaged communities form a crucial part of South Africa's future. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to determine how high school learners in the Theewaterskloof Municipality in South Africa perceived the influence of sport participation on their quality of life. The perceptions of the learners were specified according to six domains: drugs, alcohol and crime; mental health; social contact, culture and safety; happiness and wellbeing; physical health and diseases; and academic achievement. The research was conducted at three high schools located in the Theewaterskloof Municipality, Western Cape Province. A questionnaire was used to collect information from 484 learners aged 13 to 18 years. A significant relationship was noted for variables of each domain, except drugs, alcohol and crime and academic achievement. Learners perceived that increasing sport participation resulted in a significantly positive response of at least one variable for the domains social contact, culture and safety; physical health and diseases; mental health; and happiness and wellbeing.

Perceived Barriers To Sport And Recreation Participation In Botswana

Article

Aug 2008

Participation in different forms of recreation and physical activities has beneficial effects on the health and health status of individuals. Physical inactivity has also been identified as a major health problem affecting many people in all regions of the world (World Health Organisation, 2002). Participation in physical recreation activities is influenced by several factors, e.g. time, interest, availability of facilities and accessibility to facilities (Scholtz, 1995; Sayed, Meyer & Monyeki, 2004). In developing countries several factors have been identified as precursors of physical inactivity, e.g. overcrowding, poverty, crime, lack of parks, and sports and recreation facilities (World Health Organisation, 2002). These factors often lead to the development of a number of health problems including hypokinetism, obesity, hypertension, premature mortality and increased prevalence of concomitant social and economic problems. In order to determine perceived barriers to sport and recreation participation in Botswana the modified Crawford, Jackson and Godbey's (1991) constraint assessment questionnaire which focused on five barrier categories, i.e. aptitude, socio-economic, socio-cultural, facility-awareness and facility constraint, was used. Specifically, the study examined the factors that preclude or limit Botswana people's frequency and quality of participation in sports and recreation, and the extent to which the barriers were distributed among the population. From an initial target sample of 2195 residents in six randomly selected communities in Botswana, data based on responses from 1664 (75.8%) correctly completed questionnaires were statistically analysed. Results indicated that the participants were constrained mainly by socio-economic, socio-cultural, facility awareness and facility inaccessibility barriers. These results provide relevant information for planning and delivering sport and recreation services as well as implementing intervention programmes for community health promotion in Botswana.

QUESC: An Instrument for Assessing the Service Quality of Sport Centers in Korea

Article

May 1995

This research study developed an instrument that would serve as an important part of a quality improvement program for sport centers. The developed instrument may be used on an ongoing basis to identify the kinds of services customers want, the level of service they desire, and specific areas requiring managerial attention. An analysis of survey data from sport center users in Korea shows 33 important customer needs that can be classified into 11 distinct dimensions. Using the QUESC instrument, this study found that the performance of Korean sport centers is lagging behind user expectations. Although data was obtained from Korean sport centers, the approach of this Study and most of its findings may be applied to the North American sport center market as well.

Non-participation in sport by black learners with special reference to gender, grades, family income and home environment

Article

Apr 2010

This study was aimed at finding reasons for non-participation in sport by black learners at secondary school level. According to the findings of this research, factors that have the most important influence on non-participation in sport by black secondary learners are (in order of importance), facilities, political factors, social factors , self-image, economic factors and health. In terms of facilities it has been revealed that black township schools do not have adequate equipment, properlyorganized recreational facilities, coaches for the different sport codes and upgraded as well as well-maintained sport fields. Cultural isolation of black players in sport surfaced as an important political factor for non-participation. Through this research it has also emerged that while gender and income do seem to have an influence on non-participation in sport, grades and home environment do not. The results indicate that income as a reason for non-participation in sport is significantly more important for learners from low-income families than for learners from average-income families.

Socio-cultural barriers to physical activity among black isiXhosa speaking professional women in the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality

Article

Sep 2011

Chronic diseases of lifestyle in South Africa are on the increase, as shown by recent studies. Black women, who have the country's highest levels of inactivity, overweight and obesity, are particularly at risk. This study used qualitative methods to investigate barriers to physical activity participation in two generations of Black professional women (teachers, nurses, social workers and public managers). The two generations reflect pre- and post-democracy age groups in South Africa. The older generation (n=20), aged 35 to 45 years, spent their formative years in apartheid South Africa, disadvantaged by racial policies. The younger generation (n=27), aged 18 to 21 years, spent their formative years in post-apartheid South Africa, post-1990, under a constitution which guarantees equality and non-discrimination. In-depth qualitative interviews, utilizing an interview guide, were used to collect data from the participants until data saturation was achieved. Data from the interviews were transcribed, analysed and verified in accordance with Cresswell (2003) and Guba's model of trustworthiness (Krefting, 1991). Three sub-themes were identified relating to barriers to physical activity participation: Personal, environmental and socio-cultural factors. The socio-cultural factors, the focus of this article, included the lack of social support, exercise "not being a part of African culture", traditional gender roles, dress code, exercise associated with the young, exercise associated with undesirable weight loss and "destructive talk" by the community. The findings have highlighted misconceptions about exercise. Conservative socio-cultural barriers will have to be overcome before physical activity is seen as normative behaviour for Black women in a South African context.

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