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Work-Life Balance: A Quality-of-Life Model
M. Joseph Sirgy
1
&Dong-Jin Lee
2
Received: 14 June 2015 / Accepted: 8 July 2015 /Published online: 21 July 2015
#Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht and The International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies
(ISQOLS) 2015
Abstract Based on a thorough review of the literature we identified four research
streams identifying four corresponding factors that play an important in role work-life
balance: (1) balanced role commitment, (2) positive spillover, (3) role conflict, and (4)
social alienation. Based on these four factors, we classified individuals into four work-
life balance groups with differing levels of life satisfaction. We then explained the
psychological dynamics of the model by articulating three principles: satisfaction
spillover across life domains, need satisfaction quota, and satisfaction from basic plus
growth needs. Research and policy implications are also discussed.
Keywords Work-life balance .Work-family conflict .Life satisfaction .Need
satisfaction, and basic and growthneeds .Subjective well-being .Quality of life
What is work-life balance? Let’s start with some popular definitions that seems to have
gained a certain degree of acceptance in the research literature.
&Work-life balance is defined as the extent to which individuals are equally engaged
and satisfied with work and non-work roles (Greenhaus et al. 2003).
&Work-life balance is viewed as an individual’s effectiveness and satisfaction in
work and non-work roles being compatible with the individual’svaluesand
priorities (Greenhaus and Allen 2006). That is, work-life balance is defined as an
overall appraisal of the extent in which the individual’seffectivenessandsatisfac-
tion in work and family roles are consistent with their life values at a given point in
time (Greenhaus and Allen 2011).
Applied Research Quality Life (2016) 11:1059–1082
DOI 10.1007/s11482-015-9419-6
*M. Joseph Sirgy
sirgy@vt.edu
Dong-Jin Lee
djlee91@yonsei.ac.kr
1
Department of Marketing, Pamplin College of Business, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0236, USA
2
Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
&Work-life balance is experienced when the individual is fully engaged in the roles in
various life domains and successfully accomplishing these role-related expectations
(Grzywacz and Carlson 2007).
&Individuals characterized as high on work-life balance devote their time and
psychological energy in balanced ways while deriving much satisfaction from
non-work life domains (Greenhaus et al. 2003).
&Work-life balance results from a high degree role enrichment and with a lower
degree of role conflict (Frone 2003).
Much research has demonstrated that work-life balance leads to high organizational
performance, increased job satisfaction, and stronger organizational commitment (e.g.,
Allen et al. 2000). Research has also demonstrated that work-life balance plays
an important role in individual well-beingsuchashealthsatisfaction,family
satisfaction, and overall life satisfaction (e.g., Keyes 2002; Marks and
MacDermid 1996).
The research in work-life balance is voluminous. The plethora of research on this
topic has generated much complexity in definitions, theoretical approaches, measures,
determinants, and consequences, etc. (see the following literature reviews: Allen et al.
2000; Crosby 1991;DannaandGriffin1999; Edwards and Rothbard 2000; Frone
2003;GreenhausandBeutell1985; Korabik et al. 2008). As such, this area of research
is in desperate need of integration. This is the goal of this paper. We make an attempt to
develop an integrated model of work-life balance guided by the quality-of-life research
literature. More specifically, this major goal can be better understood in terms three
subgoals.
Our first goal is to make an attempt to integrate the research literature by proposing a
model of work-life balance based on four disparate research streams: (1) balanced role
commitment, (2) positive spill over across life domains, (3) low role conflict, and (4)
low social alienation. These four programs of research point to the notion that individ-
uals with work-life balance make a balanced commitment across various life domains
with low levels of role conflict and social alienation.
The second goal of this paper is to further explore the link between work-life balance
and overall life satisfaction (quality of life). Based on four disparate research programs
identified in the literature, we propose to classify individuals into four work-life balance
groups that have varying levels of life satisfaction: (1) the fully engaged individuals (a
high level of balanced commitment across life domains contributing to a high level of
life satisfaction), (2) the partially engaged (a moderate level of balanced commitment
across life domains contributing to a moderate level of life satisfaction), (3) the engaged
but conflicted (unbalanced role commitments across life domains contributing only a
limited amount of life satisfaction), and (4) the disengaged (a low level of commitments
across life domains resulting in low levels of life satisfaction). In other words, we will
argue the fully engaged individuals are likely to experience the highest level of life
satisfaction whereas the disengaged the lowest.
The third goal of this paper is to make an attempt to explain the psychological
dynamics of work-life balance on its effect on overall life satisfaction. Specifically, we
will discuss three psychological principles: (1) satisfaction spillover across life do-
mains, (2) need satisfaction quota, and (3) satisfaction from basic plus growth needs.
Doing so should help build a foundation of a quality-of-life theory of work-life balance.
1060 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
In sum, our hope is that the net result of this effort could provide work-life balance
researchers with a new model that helps integrate the aforementioned disparate streams
of research in this area and help build a foundation of a new theory of that can motivate
future research.
Four Disparate Research Programs in Work-Life Balance
Much of the research in work-life balance can be categorized into four research
streams: (1) balanced role commitment, (2) positive spillover, (3) role conflict, and
(4) social alienation. Let’s briefly review this literature.
The Role Commitment Approach to Work-Life Balance
The role commitment approach to work-life balance asserts that work-life
balance is achieved when individuals have balanced role commitments across
various life domains. That is, the theory of role commitment states that work-
life balance is achieved when people are fully committed in their various social
roles in a balanced way. The balanced commitment allows individuals to spend
their time and energy to meet the needs of various life domains (e.g.,
Voydanoff 2005).
Specifically, work-life balance involves equity across multiple roles (Kalliath and
Brough 2008). Work-life balance reflects balance of time, involvement, and satis-
faction across life domains. Balanced individuals engage in multiple roles, experi-
ence satisfaction from multiple roles by effectively well distributing time and effort
across salient life domains. They experience low role conflict because they are
engaged in their roles in a balanced way, and they have a high degree of perceived
control over their multiple role demands (Kalliath and Brough 2008; Marks et al.
2001). In sum, the role commitment approach to work-life balance focuses on
engagement and involvement across various social roles—the more the individual
is engaged and committed to his or her various social roles in a balanced way, the
more likely that he or she would experience work-life balance and subjective
well-being.
While the role commitment approach explains how work-life balance can be
increased through role commitment, this approach does not provide us with an
understanding of the positive spillover effects that occurs between or among the
social roles the person is committed to, and how positive spillover effects contribute
to work-life balance. As such, let’s now turn to the research stream focusing on
positive spillover.
The Positive Spillover Approach to Work-Life Balance
The positive spillover approach to work-life balance asserts that an employee can
achieve work-life balance when (1) positive affect and experiences from one life
domain are transferred to other life domains (positive spillover),(2) the skills and
experiences in one life domain improves role performance in other life domains (role
enrichment), and (3) the two or more life domains are integrated for easy transfer of
Work-Life Balance 1061
positive experiences and affect (role integration) (Poelmans et al. 2008). Let’sdiscuss
these three spillover conditions in more detail.
Positive spillover refers to positive mood, skills, values, and behaviors that
transfer from one life domain to another (Edwards and Rothbard 2000). For
example, a person experiences good mood at work and it persists when he
comes home. This is mood positive spillover. An example of skill positive
spillover is punctuality. An employee and a mother is punctual at work and
raises her children to be punctual is getting up in the morning to get ready for
school. Greenhaus and Powell (2006) have argued that engagement in multiple
roles may result in high levels of subjective well-being through transfer of
positive experiences from one life domain to another. The learning occurring
in one life domain is easily transferred to other life domains, thus enhancing role
engagement and effectiveness in multiple domains. For example, a woman may
feel that being a mother taught her patience, which served her well as a manager
at work.
Role enrichment is highly akin to positive spillover. It refers to the notion that
experiences in one role (role privileges, status, security, personality enrichment, etc.)
improve or further enhance satisfaction in another role (Greenhaus and Powell 2006).
Role enrichment is somewhat different from positive spillover in that it refers to
increased satisfaction, not simply transferring affect and skills from one life domain
to another.
Role integration refers to a special case of spillover between work and nonwork life.
Boundary role theory suggests that individuals vary in the extent to which their various
roles are integrated between work and non-work life (Olson-Buchanan and Boswell
2006). Role integration means that the transfer of positive affect and experiences
between the two life domains is facilitated when the roles in the two life domains are
integrated (Ashforth et al. 2000). As such, role integration is related to low role conflict
(Olson-Buchanan and Boswell 2006). High level of role integration can contribute
significantly to subjective well-being by increasing the relative ease of transitioning
from one life domain to another. While positive spillover or role enrichment is based on
the notion of affect and skill transfer or enhancement between two different life
domains or roles, role integration is based on the notion that the roles in two different
life domains are essentially integrated.
In sum, the spillover approach to work-life balance states that work-life balance is
achieved through the successful transfer of positive skills, values, privileges, status, and
affect from one social role to another in varied life domains. The spillover approach
focuses on work-life balance resulting from role enrichment—the degree to which
participation in one life domain enhances performance and quality of life in other life
domains (Frone 2003; Greenhaus and Powell 2006). The major shortcoming of the
spillover approach is that it does not address negative spillover effects arising from the
interference of one life domain on another domain as the case of role conflict. This
brings us to the third major stream of research in work-life balance, namely role conflict.
The Role Conflict Approach to Work-Life Balance
The role conflict approach to work-life balance asserts that work-life balance is
achieved when there is little-to-no role conflict between social roles (e.g., Greenhaus
1062 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
and Beutell 1985; Rau and Hyland 2002). Role conflict reflects the degree to which
role responsibilities in one life domain and another life domain are incompatible
(Greenhaus and Beutell 1985). As such, the demands of one role make performance
of the other role more difficult (Netemeyre et al. 1996). People experience role conflict
between work and family domains, because the demands of the roles of work life and
family life are inherently incompatible due to their different role demands. Much
research has shown that role conflict between work and family has a negative influence
on job satisfaction and life satisfaction (Netemeyre et al. 1996). Balance is restored by
reducing role conflict (e.g., conflict between work and family roles). Doing so reduces
stress in general, which serves to decrease the individual’s dissatisfaction with life.
Frone (2003) argued that role conflict is a very different construct from role facilitation.
In other words, the factors that influence role conflict (e.g., between work life and
family life) are usually not the same as those that contribute to role facilitation (e.g.,
between work life and family life). Furthermore, the direction of the influence between
one life domain and the other has to be identified because factors related to the
influence of work life on family life are not the same as factors related to the influence
of family life on work life (cf. Carlson et al. 2000; Friedman and Greenhaus 2000;
Greenhaus and Beutell 1985).
Research on work and family roles has shown that work-family role conflict is
associated with life dissatisfaction (e.g., Edwards and Rothbard 2000; Fu and Shaffer
2001;HolahanandGilbert1979; Sturges and Guest 2004), as well as low martial and
family satisfaction and symptoms of low mental and physical well-being (e.g.,
Parasuraman et al. 1992).
In sum, the role conflict approach asserts that work-life balance is achieved when
there is a low degree of role conflict. People experience role conflict between work and
family domains because the demands of the roles of work life and family life are
mutually incompatible. Work-life balance can be enhanced effectively by engaging in
work and family roles in a balanced way in terms of time and psychological
involvement.
While this approach may explain the negative impact of imbalanced work life on
life satisfaction, this approach fails to explain the case of lack of motivation or no
engagement in life domains. The alienation approach fills in that void by address-
ing the relationship between lack of engagement in life domains and life
satisfaction.
The Social Alienation Approach to Work-Life Balance
The social alienation approach to work-life balance states that lack of engagement and
involvement in a life domain (i.e., social alienation) has a negative impact on life
satisfaction (Michaels et al. 1988). Here, social alienation to a role refers to the extent to
which people withdraw from life’s major roles such as work and family. It refers to a
situation where individuals care little about their social roles, approach their roles with
little energy, and do not feel intrinsically motivated to engage in role performance. In
other words, alienated individuals become disengaged from social life and society at
large.
Consistent with this approach to work-life balance is the work of Greenhaus et al.
(2003) who addressed disengagement and alienation in terms of negative balance.
Work-Life Balance 1063
These authors distinguished between positive balance and negative balance. Positive
balance between work and family life refers to high investment of time and involve-
ment in both work and family roles. In contrast, negative balance is the opposite—that
is, the individual does not invest much time or energy in both work and family roles.
These scholars maintain that positive balance produces the beneficial quality-of-life
effects, not negative balance. Negative role balance refers to tendency to become fully
disengaged in the performance of every role. It is the practice of apathy and cynicism
(Marks and MacDermid 1996).
In sum, the alienation approach to work-life balance states that social alienation in a
life domain has a negative impact on life satisfaction. This is because social alienation
in a life domain results in less efficient functioning of roles with little or no role
enrichment. While the positive spillover approach explains how positive affect spills
over from a satisfying life domain to another, the alienation approach focuses on lack of
spillover from a domain to another because of lack of involvement and engagement in
life domains.
An Integrated Model of Work-Life Balance
While these four programs of research are useful in explaining the effect of work-life
balance on life satisfaction, each program can provide only a partial explanation of how
work-life balance impacts life satisfaction. These four programs point to the notion that
four conditions have to be met to achieve both work-life balance and life satisfaction.
Two of these four conditions imply that work-life balance can be achieved by enhanc-
ing two positive states while mitigating the effects of two negative states. See Fig. 1.
The figure shows that enhancing two positive states and mitigating two negative states.
The positive states involve enhancing role commitment (a notion deduced from the role
commitment approach—Theory 1 in Fig. 1) and facilitating positive spillover (a notion
deduced from the positive spillover approach—Theory2inFig.1). That is, research on
role commitment points to the notion that work-life balance can, in part, be achieved
through balanced commitment (i.e., nudging the individual to become fully and totally
engaged in his or her varied social roles) across various roles in life domains. Similarly,
research on positive spillover suggests that the individual can enhance life satisfaction,
in part, by facilitating positive spillover of skills, values, status, and affect between life
domains.
The negative states involve reducing role conflict (a notion deduced from the role
conflict approach—Theory 3 in Fig. 1) and mitigating social alienation (a notion
deduced from the social alienation approach—Theory 4 in Fig. 1). We will fully discuss
these two positive states and the two negative states in the sections below. That is,
the research streams related to social alienation and role conflict provide us
with lessons on how to mitigate the negative states of work-life balance.
Specifically, the social alienation approach asserts that full engagement in
various roles is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for work-life balance.
The role conflict approach advocates the notion that work-life balance can be
achieved by reducing role conflict between social roles (i.e., investing time and
energy in work life in ways not to take away time and energy required in non-
work life, and vice versa).
1064 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
The proposed integrated model (as shown in Fig. 1) helps us identify four groups of
individuals that experience work-life balance and life satisfaction differently. We will
now turn our attention to these four groups of individuals and explain how they may
experience life satisfaction differently.
Four Types of Individuals Varying in Work-Life Balance and Life
Satisfaction
As shown in Fig. 1, the model we develop addresses the positive conditions of work-
life balance (balanced role commitment and positive spillover) as well as the negative
conditions (social alienation and role conflict). As such, the model distinguishes among
individuals who experience different levels of role commitment, positive spillover, role
conflict, and social alienation. We classify individuals in terms of four different types of
work-life balance: fully engaged, partially engaged, engaged but conflicted, and disen-
gaged (see Table 1).
The Fully Engaged Individuals
The fully engaged individuals are those with high and balanced commitments across
life domains. They are involved in varied social roles in which successful role
performance contributes significant positive affect in multiple life domains. A case in
point is an individual who assumes varied social roles and successfully meets the role
Theory 1: Role commitment Theory enhance role commitment
Theory 2: Positive spillover Theory enhance positive affect transfer
Theory 3: Role conflict theory reduce conflict between work and non-work roles
Theory 4: Social alienation theory reduce role disengagement
Role
Commitment
Role Conflict
Social
alienation
Work-Life
Balance
Work-Life
Satisfaction
Satisfaction in
Non-Work
Life
Overall
Life
Satisfaction
Theory 1
Theory 2
Theory 3
Theory 4
Fig. 1 The Life Satisfaction Model of Work-Life Balance: Integrating Four Theoretical Approaches
Work-Life Balance 1065
expectations by becoming fully engaged in the various roles in a balanced way. The
person is likely to experience positive affect as a direct result of successful role
performance. The person is likely to experience positive spillover of satisfaction across
different life domains with minimum role conflict, resulting in a highest level of life
satisfaction (see Table 1).
The fully engaged individuals are likely to have highest level of life satisfaction for
the following reasons. First, they are likely to experience positive affect from role
engagement. They are likely to experience a high level of domain life satisfaction
because they can devote enough energy and time to successfully meet role expectations
(Marks and MacDermid 1996; Voydanoff 2005). Second, the fully engaged individuals
are likely to experience much need satisfaction from multiple life domains. An
individual’s overall life satisfaction is high when the individual engage in multiple
domains in a balanced way—engagement in multiple life domains contributes to life
satisfaction because multiple life domains are more likely to cover the full spectrum of
human development needs than single domains. Third, the fully engaged individuals
are likely to experience positive spillover across life domains. They are likely to
experience positive spillover of affect, skills, resources, etc. from work and nonwork
domains and vice versa, which in turn contribute significantly to life satisfaction (e.g.,
Ashforth et al. 2000; Carlson et al. 2006; Edwards and Rothbard 2000; Greenhaus and
Powell 2006;Poelmansetal.2008). Fourth, the fully engaged individuals are less
Tab le 1 Classifying Individuals with Four Different Types of Work-Life Balance
Typ e of
individual
Degree and scope
of engagement
in life domains
Role enrichment Role conflict Life satisfaction
Fully engaged
individuals
Total engagement in
various social roles
in terms of satisfaction,
perceived importance,
and time and energy
investment
High level of role
enrichment
Ve ry l o w l e v e l
of role conflict
High level of life
satisfaction
Partially engaged
individuals
Total engagement in
restricted social roles
in terms of satisfaction,
perceived importance,
and time and energy
investment
Moderate level of
role enrichment
Moderate level
of role conflict
Moderate level of
life satisfaction
Engaged-but-
conflicted
individuals
Overload in certain social
roles creating conflict
in others in terms of
satisfaction, perceived
importance, and time
and energy investment
Low level of role
enrichment
Very high level
of role conflict
Low level of life
satisfaction
Disengag ed
individuals
Lack of engagement in
any social role in terms
of satisfaction, perceived
importance, and time
and energy investment
Ve ry l o w l e v e l o f
role enrichment
Apathy, no
conflict
Very low level of
life satisfaction
1066 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
likely to experience role conflict as they are engaged in various roles in a balanced way
(Frone 2003). They are less likely to experience role conflict because they engage in
roles in various life domains while successfully meeting role expectations (Greenhaus
and Beutell 1985).
Thus, we formally describe the fully engaged individuals as follows: The
fully engaged individuals are likely to experience a high level of life satisfac-
tion; they also experience high role enrichment and low role conflict across life
domains.
The Partially Engaged Individuals
The partially engaged individuals are those with a moderate level of commitment
balanced across life domains. Consider an individual who is partially committed to
various social roles. The person is likely to experience a moderate level of role
enrichment, affect spillover, and role conflict, resulting in a moderate level of life
satisfaction (see Table 1).
The partially engaged individuals are likely to experience high-to-moderate levels of
life satisfaction for the following reasons. First, they are likely to experience a moderate
level of role enrichment from various life domains as they devote moderate level of
resources in each life domain. As such, they experience a moderate level of satisfaction
through role engagement. Second, the partially engaged individuals are likely to
experience a moderate level of affect transfer from one life domain to another. As they
engage in multiple roles across life domains (e.g., Crosby 1991; Kandel et al. 1985;
Wethington and Kessler 1989), they are likely to experience positive spillover.
However, the degree of spillover is likely to be moderate because the domains are less
integrated.
Hence, we can formally describe the partially engaged individuals as follows: The
partially engaged individuals are likely to experience a moderate level of life satisfac-
tion; they experience moderate levels of role enrichment and role conflict across life
domains.
The Engaged-but-Conflicted Individuals
The engaged-but-conflicted individuals are those whose commitment in one life
domain usurps a great deal of time, energy, and commitment at the expense of other
life domains. These individuals are likely to experience a low degree of role enrich-
ment and a high level of role conflict, resulting in a low level of life satisfaction
(Table 1).
The engaged-but-conflicted individuals are likely to experience a low level of life
satisfaction for the following reasons. First, they are likely to have a low degree of role
enrichment because their commitments to various social roles are not balanced.
Although they may be able to meet the expectations of one social role, they may fail
to meet the expectations of another social role. Second, they are likely to experience a
high level of role conflict because of role overload and lack of balance across different
roles (Greenhaus and Beutell 1985; Rau and Hyland 2002). They are overly committed
to a demanding social role that consumes resources from other life domains. Lack of
balance across different social roles is likely to generate role conflict. Role conflict is
Work-Life Balance 1067
associated with a low level of life satisfaction (Edwards and Rothbard 2000;Fuand
Shaffer 2001; Holahan and Gilbert 1979; Parasuraman et al. 1992; Sturges and Guest
2004). They cope with role conflict using coping strategies such as segmentation (e.g.,
separating work life from family life) and compensation (e.g., investing resources in
family life to compensate for dissatisfaction experienced in work life) (e.g., Greenhaus
and Powell 2006; Judge and Watanabe 1993;Kosseketal.2006).
Thus, one can argue that the engaged-but-conflicted individuals are likely to
experience a low level of life satisfaction. Although they may extract a certain level
of satisfaction from those social roles domain they engage in, this satisfaction is
likely to be ameliorated by role conflict. Based on this discussion, we can formally
describe the engaged-but-conflicted individuals as follows: The engaged-but-
conflicted individuals are likely to experience a low level of life satisfaction; they
experience a low degree of role enrichment and a high level of role conflict across
life domains.
The Disengaged Individuals
The disengaged individuals are those who are not committed to important social roles.
They are not engaged in any particular life domain and experience social alienation in
life. As a result, they do not experience much satisfaction in any significant life domain,
which becomes evident in very low levels of life satisfaction (see Table 1).
The disengaged individuals are likely to experience a very low level of life satis-
faction because they are less likely to experience positive affect in any salient life
domain. To maximize life satisfaction, one should engage in multiple life domains in a
balanced way to facilitate positive affect spillover with minimal role conflict. Yet, the
disengaged individuals do not engage in any significant social role, thus failing to meet
role expectations.
Research on alienation is highly consistent with the notion that Balienated types^are
a different breed of people: they experience work-life balance very differently from the
other three groups (the Bfully engaged types,^the Bpartially engaged types,^and the
Bengaged but conflicted types^) (e.g., Greenhaus et al. 2003). The concept of negative
balance captures the motivational essence of the Balienated types.^Negative balance
refers to the notion that the individual does not invest much time or energy in both work
and family roles, which is associated with life dissatisfaction. In sum, we can formally
describe the disengaged individuals formally as follows: The alienated-type individuals
are likely to experience a very low level of life satisfaction; they experience very low
degree of role enrichment, and a low level of role conflict across life domains.
Psychological Dynamics of Work-Life Balance
To reiterate, the lessons learned from the research on role commitment, positive
spillover, role conflict, and social alienation helped us develop an integrated model
of work-life balance (with the resulting identification of four groups of individuals
varying in work-life balance) described in the preceding section. Our challenge now is
to develop a set of principles that can shed more light on the psychological dynamics of
the model. In doing so, we will use concepts of the psychology of human development,
1068 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
particularly human motivation and the work of scholars such as Maslow (1954,1970),
McClelland (1961), Herzberg (1966), and Alderfer (1972). We will focus on three
major principles: (1) satisfaction spillover across life domains, (2) need satisfaction
limit from a single domain, and (3) satisfaction of the full spectrum of human
developmental needs—basic and growth needs.
The first is the principle of satisfaction spillover across life domains. An individual’s
overall life satisfaction is increased when satisfaction from one life domain spills over
to other life domains with little role conflict or interference. This is due to vertical and
horizontal spillover effects on overall life satisfaction. Thus, to maximize life satisfac-
tion, one should engage in multiple life domains in a balanced way to facilitate positive
affect spillover with minimal role conflict across life domains and to minimize negative
affect and negative spillover effects. This implies that individuals should engage in
work life in a balanced way so that positive affect at work could spillover to family life
and other domains. In addition, one should make sure that role expectations in those
domains do not conflict with one another.
The second principle is the principle of need satisfaction limits from a single life
domain. An individual’s overall life satisfaction is high when the individual engage in
multiple domains (work and family life domains) in a balanced way. Engaging in only
one domain (e.g., work life domain) would not contribute much to overall life
satisfaction because satisfaction in a single life domain can contribute only a limited
amount to satisfaction. Increases in satisfaction in a life domain serve to increase
overall life satisfaction, but in a decreasing marginal rate and subject to a threshold.
Thus, one may engage in multiple life domains to achieve a high level of overall life
satisfaction. High engagement in a single life domain with little or no engagement in
other life domains does not contribute much to overall life satisfaction.
The third principle is the principle of satisfaction of the full spectrum of
human developmental needs. This principle posits that one’s overall life satis-
faction is high when satisfaction in multiple life domains covers the full
spectrum of human developmental needs: satisfaction with basic needs as well
as growth needs. Satisfying a specific need only in a single life domain does
not contribute much to overall life satisfaction. This implies that one should
engage in multiple roles in an attempt to meet the full spectrum of develop-
mental needs (both basic and growth needs). Now let us explain these three
principles in more detail and make an attempt to relate them to our model of
life satisfaction.
The Principle of Satisfaction Spillover across Life Domains
The principle of satisfaction spillover states that an individual overall life satisfaction is
increased when satisfaction from one life domain spills over to other life domains with
little role conflict or interference. In other words, life satisfaction through satisfaction
spillover can be heightened given two conditions: (1) when the individual engages in
multiple life domains, and (2) when he or she has balanced roles across life domains
with little-to-no role conflict.
Engagement in Multiple Life Domains People are more satisfied with life when the
source of the satisfaction derives from engagement in multiple life domains than a
Work-Life Balance 1069
single domain (Barnett and Baruch 1985;Sieber1974; Thoits 1983). The underlying
rationale here is that involvement in multiple roles can be beneficial in several ways: (1)
knowledge and skills in one role are used in another role; (2) success in one role can
offset failure in another role; (3) the individual has a broader frame of reference that
may help the person deal with others; (4) the individual’s self-image becomes increas-
ingly complex to reflect environmental demands; (5) the individual has a greater
repertoire of social support extracted from the multiple roles; and (6) positive affect
in one role leads to positive affect in another role. Empirical research has demonstrated
that individuals engaging in multiple life domains are likely to experience a high degree
of spillover and resulting a high degree of overall life satisfaction (Barnett and Baruch
1985; Crosby 1991;Kandeletal.1985; Wethington and Kessler 1989).
Little-to-no Role Conflict People are more satisfied with life when there is little or no
role conflict across different life domains. This is because role conflict prevents positive
spillover of satisfaction in one life domain to another. When people are fully engaged in
multiple roles without role conflict, they are likely to experience a positive spillover of
affect from one life domain to another, thereby may experience a high level of life
satisfaction. Marks and MacDermid (1996) found that individuals who were more Brole
balanced^and enjoyed Bevery part of their life equally well^reported less role
overload, had higher self-esteem, and lower depression levels. Balanced individuals
experience little-to-no role conflict because they are fully engaged in their roles; thus,
they do not allow situational stressors to detract their role performance. They do this by
developing routines that allow them to meet the demands of their various roles in the
long run. (cf. Marks et al. 2001).
In sum, one can argue that one’s overall life satisfaction is high when the when one
engages in multiple life domains and when one has balanced roles across life domains
with little-to-no role conflict. Here is a formal statement of the principle of satisfaction
spillover across life domains:Work-life balance is characterized by a high level of
engagement in varied social roles with little-to-no role conflict resulting in high level of
satisfaction in multiple domains considered important by the individual, which in turn
contributes to increased life satisfaction.
To fully appreciate how this principle works, the reader should try to understand two
important concepts: needs satisfaction limits and satisfaction of basic-plus-growth
needs. The two concepts of life balance (need satisfaction limits and satisfaction of
survival plus growth needs) are all grounded in the need satisfaction approach to
subjective well-being (e.g., Sirgy 2002,pp.34–36; Sirgy 2012; Sirgy and Wu 2009).
This approach is developed using concepts based on Maslow (1954, 1970), McClelland
(1961), Herzberg (1966), and Alderfer (1972). We explain these two concepts in greater
detail below.
The Principle of Need Satisfaction Limits in a Single Life Domain
The basic tenet of the need satisfaction approach (e.g., Alderfer 1972;Herzberg1966;
Maslow 1954, 1970; McClelland 1961) is that people have a variety of developmental
needs they seek to fulfil (developmental needs such as biological, safety, social, esteem,
self-actualization, knowledge, and beauty-related needs), and the more they satisfy
1070 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
these needs the more they feel good about their lives. That is, those who are more
successful in satisfying their developmental needs—through successful engagement in
various social roles—are likely to experience greater happiness and life satisfaction
than those who are less successful in role engagement.
Social psychologists such as Kurt Lewin (1951) and organizational psychologists
(e.g., Danna and Griffin 1999;Riceetal.1985; Seeman 1967) have long recognized
that affective experiences are segmented in Blife spheres^or what quality-of-life
researchers refer to as life domains (Diener 1984).Thus, a person may have affective
experiences segmented in relation to work, education, family, health, friends, and
romantic relationships, among others. Affective experience (conscious, subconscious,
and unconscious) is likely to be divided into life domains, and within each domain the
person has deep-seated cognitions reflecting these experiences in that domain. Note that
although most life domains are organized and structured around one related set of needs
(biological, safety, social, etc.). For example, leisure life involves a set of activities
dealing with social needs. Those activities serve not only to satisfy one’ssocialneeds
but also a variety of other needs such as the need for aesthetics and creativity (see
Tab le 2). The life domains shown in the table are for illustrative purposes only. They
are not meant to capture all life domains.
We believe that the psychological explanation of how balance contributes to sub-
jective well-being is directly related to the principle of need satisfaction limits.We
maintain that satisfaction from one life domain can contribute only a limited amount of
positive affect to subjective well-being because need satisfaction from one life domain
is limited—any given life domain covers only a subset of developmental needs, not the
full range of needs.
It should be noted that life satisfaction is not simply cumulative positive minus
negative affect—irrespective of the source. It is the satisfaction of human developmen-
tal needs, the full range of needs—not a handful of selected needs. One cannot
Tab le 2 Developmental Needs Satisfied through Activities Organized in Terms of Life Domains
Health
life
Love
life
Residential
life
Family
life
Social
life
Leisure
life
Wor k
life
Education
life
Spiritual
life
Biological
needs
Most Most Most Most Some Some Most Least Least
Safety needs Most Most Most Some Some Some Some Least Least
Social needs Some Most Some Some Most Most Some Some Some
Esteem needs Least Some Some Least Some Some Most Some Some
Actualization
needs
Least Some Least Least Least Some Some Most Most
Knowledge
needs
Least Least Least Least Least Some Some Most Most
Aesthetics
needs
Least Least Least Least Some Most Some Most Most
BMost,^Bsome,^and Bleast^indicate the extent to which those activities in a specific life domain are
successful in satisfying a specific developmental need. For example, the table shows that safety needs can
be Bmost^satisfied through the health, love, and residential life domains and Bleast^satisfied in the
educational life domain
Work-Life Balance 1071
substitute positive affect related to one need with another need. To illustrate the
satisfaction limit with an arithmetic example, suppose that a woman’s level of life
satisfaction is 50 (on a scale varying from −100 to +100). This means that she is
moderately happy with life. The source of this moderate degree of happiness comes
from five key domains—work, leisure, family, community, and neighborhood. Focus
on work life. She has +15 points of satisfaction. The satisfaction limit in the work
domain is +10. In other words, only 10 out of the 15 could contribute to life
satisfaction. She is +5 over the limit in her work domain. Only so much of that
satisfaction can contribute to her overall life satisfaction.
The notion of satisfaction limits is somewhat akin to the behavioural economists’
notion of declining marginal utility (Diener et al. 2008).Theanalogueisessentially
satisfaction from income. Satisfaction from income is quite high when the individual
has little or no income. However, as the individual gains increasing levels of income,
the satisfaction from income diminishes. To ensure the individual can maintain a set
level of happiness (or life satisfaction), relying on income will not do it. The individual
has to engage in other roles and life events that can generate other sources of
satisfaction. It is that multiple sources of satisfaction are effective in optimizing
happiness.
There are a number of measures of subjective well-being that are based on the
notion that life satisfaction is the sum of the satisfaction of various life domains
and possibly moderated by the salience of these domains (e.g., Andrews and
Withey 1976; Campbell et al. 1976;Frisch2006; Headey and Wearing 1992).
The sum composite of all the domain satisfaction correlated highly with general
life satisfaction. The nomological validity of domain measures of life satisfaction
provides evidence to the theoretical notion of the need satisfaction limit. That is,
those who are happy the most seem to be satisfied with multiple life domains in
which each domain contributes to the satisfaction of different developmental needs
(Valliant 1977).
In sum, work-life balance contributes to life satisfaction because of the satisfaction
limit that people can derive from social roles related to a few life domains. People
have to be involved in social roles that contribute positive affect in multiple domains
to satisfy the full spectrum of human development needs. This is due to the fact that
different life domains tend to focus on different human developmental needs. As such,
the principle of need satisfaction limits in a single life domain can be formally stated
as follows: There is a satisfaction limit that people can derive from social roles
related to a few life domains. People have to be involved in social roles that
contribute positive affect in multiple domains to satisfy the full spectrum of human
developmental needs. This is due to the fact that different life domains tend to focus
on different human developmental needs. Now we turn to the third and last principle,
namely the principle of satisfaction with the full spectrum of human developmental
needs.
The Principle of Satisfaction with the Full Spectrum of Human Developmental
Needs: Both Basic and Growth Needs
This principle states that an individual’s overall life satisfaction is high when satisfac-
tion from life domains covers the full spectrum of human development needs.
1072 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
Greenhaus and Powell (2006)havearguedthatmultipleroleparticipationmayresultin
high levels of subjective well-being through an additive effect of positive affect
stemming from multiple roles. For example, satisfaction with work plus satisfaction
with family are likely to contribute more to subjective well-being much more so than
satisfaction in only one of these life domains.
Fredrickson and Losada (2005) have empirically demonstrated that people who
flourish (have a high level of subjective well-being) tend to experience a ratio of 4.3
of positive to negative affect, whereas normal people average a 2.5 ratio. People who
languish (low levels of subjective well-being) have a much lower ratio of positive to
negative affect. The authors argue that negative emotions reflect survival needs (e.g.,
biological, safety, and economic needs), whereas positive emotions reflect growth
needs (e.g., social, esteem, self-actualization, knowledge, and aesthetics needs).
Survival needs are associated with the reduction of negative affect much more so than
the enhancement of positive affect. Conversely, growth needs are associated with the
enhancement of positive affect more so than the reduction of negative affect. Human
flourishing, in turn, is associated with a high ratio of positive to negative affect. Both
positive and negative affect are necessary because increased positive affect reflects the
satisfaction of growth needs, and decreased negative affect reflects the satisfaction of
survival needs.
Much research has been done to demonstrate this principle in the context of
organizational psychology and management. For example, the two-factor theory
(Herzberg 1966) posits that job satisfaction is affected by two sets of factors, namely
hygiene and motivation factors. Hygiene factors are related to survival needs (e.g., pay,
working conditions, collegiality, and corporate policies). In contrast, motivation factors
are related to growth needs (e.g., achievement programs, recognition awards, career
advancement opportunities, corporate ownership, and profit sharing). The two-factor
theory argues that job satisfaction can be enhanced by developing conditions and
programs at work that serve to satisfy both survival needs (i.e., biological, safety, and
economic needs) and growth needs (i.e., social, esteem, self-actualization, knowledge,
and aesthetics needs).
Additional evidence of this principle comes from research in industrial/
organizational psychology on work-life balance. For example, research in that area
has found that organizational values supportive of work-family balance (and organiza-
tional work-family balance programs) can bring about balance between work and
family life (e.g., Burke 2003;Madsen2003). Work-family balance programs include
alternative work schedules, telecommuting, wellness classes, and caregiver services.
Furthermore, factors in the family domain (e.g., spousal support) play a significant role
in reducing work-family conflict (Bedeian et al. 1986). The basic idea here is that life
satisfaction can be enhanced significantly through successful performance at work
(satisfaction of higher-order needs). However, employees cannot be highly successful
if they neglect their health and family responsibilities. Health and family responsibil-
ities are related to lower-order needs. Therefore, work-life balance programs are
designed to enhance life satisfaction by helping employees become successful at work
while helping them take care of their health and family responsibilities.
Additional suggestive evidence of the viability of the principle of satisfaction of
survival-plus-growth needs come from cultural psychology. Consider the concept of the
BYing and Yang,^which is popular in East Asian cultures. The Ying and Yang concept
Work-Life Balance 1073
posits that life satisfaction can be achieved by maintaining a good balance between
positive and negative emotions (Kitayama and Markus 2000). The adage is to remain
calm, undisturbed, and not agitated. Thus, the Ying and Yang is balance between
fulfilment of physical (lower-order needs) and spiritual needs (higher-order ones).
Kitayama and Markus (2000) report findings from Japan about correlations between
positive and negative affect. These correlations were mostly positive and significant (in
contrast to negative correlations among U.S. subjects).
Further cross-cultural evidence of the combined effect of both basic and growth
needs on life satisfaction comes from studies that examined the relationship between
income and happiness. For example, Veenhoven (1995) hypothesized that money
enhances happiness when it contributes to the satisfaction of basic needs (e.g., food,
shelter, and clothes). Study findings indicate that within societies there is a relationship
between income and satisfaction at the lower end of the scale only, and that relationship
is strong in poorer countries and weak in rich countries. Oishi et al. (1999) found that
satisfaction with self-esteem and with freedom were stronger correlates of life satisfac-
tion in richer nations.
In sum, the principle of satisfaction of the full spectrum of human development
needs posits that one’s overall life satisfaction is high when satisfaction from life
domains covers the full spectrum of human development needs. Formally stated:
Subjective well-being can only be attained when both survival and growth needs are
met. High levels of subjective well-being cannot be attained with satisfaction of basic
needs or growth needs alone. Both needs have to be met to induce a high level of
subjective well-being.
Theoretical Propositions Spurring Future Research
In this section, we make an attempt to develop a set of theoretical propositions based on
preceding discussion. Such theoretical propositions are designed to spur future research
in this area.
Determinants of Work-Life Balance
As shown in Fig. 1, there are three theoretical approaches (or programs of research)
that focus on the determinants of work-life balance, namely role commitment
theory, role conflict theory, and social alienation theory. These three programs of
research indicate that work-life balance can be increased when individuals are full
committed to their social roles (role commitment theory), experience low role
conflict (role conflict theory), and reduce their experience of social alienation (social
alienation theory). If so, then the determinants of work-life balance is essentially
threefold.
First, guided by role commitment theory, one can argue that individuals with high
work-life balance are likely to experience a high level of balanced commitment in
multiple roles across life domains. High role commitment reflects the notion that people
spend their time and energy in ways meeting their various human developmental needs
across the various life domains. High role commitment does not necessarily mean
investing exactly the same amount of time and energy across social roles in different
1074 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
life domains. Rather, it reflects investment of time and energy to meet human devel-
opmental needs. An individual’s commitment to his or her social roles increases as role
performance bears fruit and produces reward.
Second, guided by role conflict theory, one can argue that individuals with high
work-life balance are likely to experience minimum role conflict across various
life domains. Role conflict involves competing demand in work and non-work
roles (e.g., meeting the demands placed on one’s job makes it difficult to meet
family demands) (cf. Greenhaus and Beutell 1985). In other words, people expe-
rience role conflict when they perceive demand of their various social roles being
incompatible. Time and energy invested in work life interferes with time and
energy needed to meet demand of other social roles. Thus, it is fair to say that
individuals with high work-life balance are likely to experience a low degree of
role conflict.
Third, guided by social alienation theory, one can argue that individuals with high
work-life balance are likely to experience low levels of social alienation or disengage-
ment in life’s multiple roles. Work-life balance necessitates engagement in life on
different fronts. Alienation leads to depression, a condition which is exactly the
opposite of life satisfaction. Based on the preceding discussion, we propose the
following:
Theoretical Proposition 1 Work-life balance can be increased by increasing balanced
role commitment across social roles in multiple life domains.
Theoretical Proposition 2 Work-life balance can be increased by decreasing role
conflict across social roles in multiple life domains.
Theoretical Proposition 3 Work-life balance can be increased by decreasing alien-
ation in social roles in multiple life domains.
Relationship Between Satisfaction with Work Life and Non-Work Life Domains
The theory of positive spillover hints at the fact that people characterized as high in
work-life balance experience a high degree of positive transfer of affect, skills, and
experiences between work life and non-work life. That is, individuals with work-life
balance are likely to experience a high degree of affect transfer, role enrichment, and
role integration for the following reasons. First, individuals with work-life balance are
likely to experience positive affect transfer of satisfaction in various life domains. Thus,
one can argue that individuals with high work-life balance are likely to experience a
high level of positive affect transfer across life domains because their life domains are
not compartmentalized. Compartmentalization is used only to prevent contagion of
negative affect. Second, individuals characterized as high in work-life balance are likely
to experience role enrichment. As their roles are likely to be mutually compatible,
experiences in one role should further heighten satisfaction in another. For example,
they are likely to have family support in relation to their work roles, and vice versa.
Thus, their experience in one role is likely to improve the quality of other compatible
roles. Compatible roles tend to reinforce one another. Third, individuals with high
Work-Life Balance 1075
work-life balance are likely experience a high level of integration across their social
roles. Role integration facilitates transfer of positive affect, skills, and experiences.
Based on the discussion, we propose the following.
Theoretical Proposition 4 Individuals with high work-life balance are likely to
experience a high degree of positive affect transfer, role enrichment, and role
integration.
The Effect of Work-Life Balance on Life Satisfaction
Now let’s make an attempt to put it all together. Table 3revisits the four types of
individuals: the fully engaged, the partially engaged, the engaged but conflicted, and
the disengaged (see Table 3).
As previously stated, the fully engaged individuals are likely to have the highest
level of life satisfaction. They are likely to experience positive affect from the various
Tab le 3 Explaining the Life Satisfaction Effect
Type of
work-life
balance
Degree of commitment/engagement cross
life domains
Expected results
Fully engaged
individuals
High role enrichment
Balanced (positive
spillover)
Low role conflict
High life satisfaction
(high and low need
satisfaction)
Partially engaged
individuals
Moderate role
enrichment
Balanced (some
spillover)
Low role conflict
Moderate life
satisfaction (some need
satisfaction)
Engaged
but conflicted
individuals
High role enrichment
in some domains
Low role enrichment in
other domains
Unbalanced (no
spillover)
High role conflict
Low life satisfaction
(low need satisfaction)
Disengaged
individuals
Low role enrichment in
all domains (alienation)
No role conflict or
spillover
Low life satisfaction
(no need satisfaction)
1076 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
roles and life domains they are engaged in. And positive affect is likely to spillover to
other life domains with little-to-no role conflict. These experiences are likely to lead to
high level of life satisfaction. Why? These individuals are likely to experience satis-
faction of the full spectrum of developmental needs from multiple life domains.
Formally stated, the fully-engaged individuals with little or no role conflict are likely
to experience high level of life satisfaction because they are likely to experience a high
level of satisfaction of a broad range of developmental needs (both basic and growth
needs) across social roles across life domains (see Table 3).
As previously described, the partially engaged individuals are likely to experience
high-to-moderate levels of life satisfaction. They are likely to experience positive affect
from some of the life domains they are engaged in. And the experiences of positive
affect are likely to spillover to other life domains with little-to-no role conflict. As these
individuals are engaged in some life domains, they are likely to experience a moder-
ately high level of need satisfaction from these domains. These individuals can obtain
only a certain degree of need satisfaction from a single life domain. Formally stated, the
partially engaged individuals are likely to experience a moderate level of life satisfac-
tion because they experience only a moderate level of satisfaction across the full
spectrum of developmental needs across life domains. See Table 3.
The third group of individuals, the engaged-but-conflicted type, are likely to expe-
rience a moderate level of life satisfaction. They are likely to experience positive affect
from some of the life domains they are engaged in. Yet, the experiences of positive
affect are less likely to spill over to other life domains because they experience role
conflict. Specifically, the engaged-but-conflicted individuals are likely experience a low
(or low-to-moderate) level of life satisfaction because they experience low satisfaction
across the full spectrum of developmental needs across salient life domains (see
Tab le 3).
The fourth group involves individuals who experience social alienation and anomie
in life. We described these individuals as disengaged (i.e., they don’tcaremuchabout
anything or anyone; they carry on to simply survive and to avoid pain). They do not
experience much satisfaction in any significant life domain, which is further manifested
in very low levels of life satisfaction (see Table 3). Why? The alienated-type individuals
are likely experience a very low level of life satisfaction because they experience very
low need satisfaction across the spectrum of developmental needs across life domains.
Based on the preceding discussion, we propose the following.
Theoretical Proposition 5 Individuals differing in degree and scope of engagement in
life domains (the fully engaged individuals, the partially engaged individuals, the
engaged-but-conflicted individuals, and the disengaged individuals) experience life
satisfaction differently. Specifically, the fully engaged individuals experience a high
level of life satisfaction, followed by the partially engaged individuals, the engaged-
but-conflicted individuals, and the disengaged, respectively.
The work-life balance model proposed in this paper should motivate future research.
Future study should empirically test the model. The model recognizes that work-life
balance policies should be distinguished as a function of the type of employee
experiencing a certain level of engagement in multiple roles. Studies can be designed
to identify these four types of individuals and track their life satisfaction over time. In
doing so, researchers should develop measurement instruments that would identify and
Work-Life Balance 1077
reveal these distinctions. As such, we may be able to test the principles of work-life
balance explicitly. Furthermore, a program of research can be initiated to systematically
determine organizational, cultural, personality, and situational factors that are hypoth-
esized to influence engagement in life domains. Such research should help further
develop and fine-tune work-life balance policies and programs.
Conclusion
In this paper we reviewed the literature on work-life balance and identified four major
research streams: balanced role commitment, positive spillover, role conflict, and social
alienation. The major lessons learned from the four research streams is that work-life
balance can be achieved through two means: enhancing the positive conditions of work-
life balance (i.e., programs and policies designed to increase role commitment and positive
spillover in various work and nonwork roles) and mitigating the negative conditions (i.e.,
programs and policies designed to reduce role conflict and social alienation).
Based on our understanding of the positive and negative factors affecting work-life
balance, we then developed a life satisfaction model that distinguished among four
types of individuals: (1) those who are fully engaged in life (total engagement in social
roles contributing significant positive affect in multiple life domains), (2) those who are
partially engaged (total engagement in social roles contributing to significant positive
affect in one or few domains), (3) those who are engaged but conflicted (engagement in
two or more social roles involving role overload and role conflict causing low levels of
domain satisfaction and life satisfaction too), and (4) those who are disengaged from
life (not engaged in any of their social roles). We argued that the fully engaged group is
likely to experience the highest level of life satisfaction (with high levels of role
enrichment and low levels of role conflict), followed by the partially engaged group,
the engaged but conflicted group, and those who are disengaged from life, respectively.
We then set out to explain the psychological dynamics of the model. In doing so, we
articulated three principles. The first is the principle of satisfaction spillover across life
domains. This principle states that an individual’s subjective well-being can be in-
creased when satisfaction from one life domain spills over to other life domains with
little role conflict or interference.
The second principle focuses on need satisfaction quota. That is, total engagement in
a single role may contribute only a limited amount of need satisfaction because of the
satisfaction limit-people can derive only a limited amount of satisfaction from a single
role. People have to be involved in social roles that contribute positive affect in multiple
domains to satisfy the full spectrum of human developmental needs. Why? This may be
due to the fact that different social roles tend to focus on different human developmen-
tal needs.
The third principle qualifies the second principle by explicitly translating the concept
of the full spectrum of human developmental needs into basic and growth needs.
Succinctly put, role engagement contributes to life satisfaction because subjective
well-being can only be attained when both survival and growth needs are met. High
levels of life satisfaction cannot be attained with satisfaction of basic needs or growth
needs alone. Both needs have to be met to generate a high level of life satisfaction.
1078 M.J. Sirgy, D.-J. Lee
We then used these three principles to explain the relationship between the levels of
role engagement and life satisfaction. The fully engaged are individuals who are totally
engaged in various social roles. These individuals are likely to experience high levels of
life satisfaction. This may be due to the possibility that they experience high levels of
satisfaction in multiple life domains considered important enhancing the likelihood of
satisfying the full spectrum of human developmental needs (both basic and growth
needs). The partially engaged are engaged in restricted social roles. They are likely to
experience a moderate level of life satisfaction. This may be due to the possibility that
they experience high levels of satisfaction in a few domains considered important
making it likely to meet certain developmental needs but not others. The engaged but
conflicted individuals experience overload in certain social roles creating conflict in
others. They are likely to experience low levels of life satisfaction. This may be due to
the possibility of negative affect spillover from domains involving role overload
tootherscausinglowsatisfactionindomains considered important making it less
likely to adequately satisfy most of developmental needs. Finally, the disengaged
individuals are those who lack engagement in any meaningful social role. They
are likely to experience very low levels of life satisfaction. This may be due to
the possibility that they experience low levels of satisfaction in most domains
considered important, making it least likely to satisfy most of the developmental
needs.
Policy Implications
To promote work-life balance, the following policies are recommended. First, individ-
uals should be fully engaged in various life domains and make an effort to avoid social
alienation. A high level of engagement across multiple roles should help satisfy the full
spectrum of developmental needs. It is also important for individuals to engage in
multiple roles because there is only so much satisfaction they can extract from a single
role. Second, individuals should be fully committed to varied social roles in a balanced
way. Balanced commitment across roles and domains should facilitate spillover of
positive affect and skills. Imbalanced commitment could result in role conflict, which is
mostly likely to adversely impact life satisfaction.
Specifically, for the Bfully engaged^types, the prescription here is to maintain and
reinforce what they are doing. They are engaged in work and nonwork roles and are
successful in their role performance, resulting in a high level of life satisfaction. Policy
makers should attempt to maintain those programs and policies that seem to serve these
individuals well. In contrast, policy makers can do more for the Bpartially engaged^
types. These people experience a moderate level of life satisfaction mostly because they
are not engaged in multiple and varied roles. They are successful in their limited social
roles, and this success does bring about a limited amount of domain satisfaction that
spills over to life satisfaction. However, these individuals can increase their life
satisfaction by allowing themselves to be involved and engaged in other roles that
may help meet the full spectrum of human developmental needs—both basic and
growth needs. Thus, the workaholic who is married to his or her job may be encouraged
to get involved in leisure and social activities that may also produce successful role
performance and much satisfaction related to different needs (different from those that
are met through job performance alone).
Work-Life Balance 1079
With respect to the Bengaged but conflicted^types, much of the traditional organi-
zational policies involving structural and cultural work-life support apply here (Kossek
et al. 2010). Examples of structural work-life policies and programs include job
redesign to enable flexible work schedules, teleworking and virtual arrangements,
reduced workloads, and other non-traditional work arrangements; occupational safety
and health initiatives to reduce stress related to work and nonwork issues; formal
policies on absenteeism, vacations, and sick times that support non-work roles; and
enhanced childcare and eldercare benefits. Examples of cultural work-life support
policies and programs include training supervisors to increase social support of non-
work demands and foster positive organizational norms toward non-work roles.
Lastly, the Bdisengaged^types are the most challenging to deal with. Workers who
are disengaged in their work and non-work roles can best be helped through profes-
sional counselling services. Life couches and counsellors can aid the disengaged by
attempting to help them refocus on work and non-work roles likely to lead successful
role performance. Successful role performance is important in this regard because
rewards and resources do follow from successful role performance. These rewards
and resources are likely to motivate them to embrace these roles into their personal
identity and self-concept, which may lead to satisfaction in certain domains, ultimately
contributing to some degree of life satisfaction.
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