Article

Occurrence, relative abundance and spatial distribution of microplastics and zooplankton NW of Sardinia in the Pelagos Sanctuary Protected Area, Mediterranean Sea

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Abstract

Environmental context Plastic materials are accumulating in the marine environment where they can now be found in the remotest areas of the world's oceans. Microplastics (plastic particles ≤5mm), abundant in marine surface waters, are also found in neritic and pelagic waters of Mediterranean marine protected areas. Microplastics can accumulate along marine food chains, having noxious effects on marine organisms at different trophic levels and creating a serious threat to marine ecosystems. Abstract Floating plastic debris tends to fragment into smaller pieces, termed microplastics, which may increase the likelihood of ingestion of plastics by marine organisms entering the food web. This study analyses the amount and spatial distribution of microplastics and zooplankton in an area near Asinara National Park (NW Sardinia) and overlapping the Pelagos Sanctuary (Mediterranean Sea). Analysis showed microplastics in 81% of the 27 samples analysed, with a mean value of 0.17±0.32 items m-3. From geographic information system processing of the data, microplastics appeared more abundant (by a factor of four) in the pelagic than in the neritic environment, and showed a size range of the same order as major zooplanktonic taxa determined in the area. These findings suggest a potential risk of mesozooplankton and species preying on plankton mistaking microplastics for food. Further functional and toxicological studies are therefore necessary to assess the hazard associated with microplastics in the marine food web.

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... Researching the interaction between marine biota and MPs is complex, as it requires the study of response mechanisms of different taxa towards these anthropogenic particles and, until now, studies have tended to focus on marine mammals, turtles and fish Nelms et al., 2016;Fossi et al., 2018), paying little attention to invertebrates and plankton species (Deudero and Alomar, 2014). However, it is of special interest to extend and deepen the knowledge of the relation between zooplankton and MPs due to the possible implications of MPs (and associated contaminants) transfer and accumulation throughout the food web (Setälä et al., 2014), as high microplastic to zooplankton ratios have been reported for different MPAs (Panti et al., 2015;Collignon et al., 2012;Frias et al., 2014). The co-occurrence and the relative abundance of MP and zooplankton could favor the ingestion of MPs by zooplanktonic feeders, entering the food web by ingestion . ...
... Despite the increasing amount of data available on MP effects on zooplankton, the majority of studies consider only individual interactions between MP and zooplanktonic species or taxa in laboratory experiments under controlled conditions (Botterell et al., 2019). When, in field studies, the global zooplanktonic community is considered, generally it is the microplastics to zooplankton ratio which is evaluated, with poor or no attention to zooplankton community composition (Panti et al., 2015;Collignon et al., 2012;Frias et al., 2014). Overall, effect of MPs on the global zooplanktonic community structure are still undetermined. ...
... Moreover, the neustonic habitat is a feeding area for various pelagic organisms where MPs found in great abundance and matching the same size range of zooplankton, could represent an important threat for biota at all trophic levels of the food web. Even if, the global microplastic to zooplankton ratio detected by the present study was moderately low, with ratio values comparable to those detected by previous studies in other Mediterranean regions (Panti et al., 2015;Collignon et al., 2012), a microplastic concentration five times higher than zooplankton was noticed within the no take zone of Cabrera MPA. Even temporary events of MP accumulation could have unpredictable effects on local biota (Cole et al., 2013), even stronger in protected marine areas where trophic relations are more complex. ...
Article
The high abundance of microplastics in marine environments is becoming a growing threat for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Recent studies have identified microplastics (MP) as having multiple effects on biota, and it is of special interest to highlight their effects on zooplanktonic organisms. These organisms play a key role on local food web structures and there is a need to better understand the accumulation of MP and associated contaminants within the food web. The present study addresses MP distribution and composition within Cabrera MPA as well as its effects on local zooplanktonic community composition. Neustonic microplastic and zooplankton abundance and composition were determined in the shallow coastal waters of Cabrera MPA during the summer season of 2019. Sampled were taken using a sea surface manta-net, with a mesh size of 335 μm. MP were found in all manta trawl samples for a total of 7047 MP with an overall mean abundance (± SD) of 3.52 (± 8.81) items/m³, a value higher than those reported for the majority of Western Mediterranean Sea basins. Qualitative and semi-quantitative analyses of the local zooplanktonic community suggest that its composition could be sensitive to MP abundances. Although no correlation was found between overall mean abundance of MP and zooplankton, a positive correlation was found between MP abundance and the abundance of the planktonic stage of the foraminifer Rosalina globularis (Tretomphalus). This species seems to be able to use MP for its dispersion. On the other hand, a negative correlation between MP abundance and Copepoda abundance was detected. This work confirms that the coastal zooplankton community composition within the MPA of Cabrera are not exempt from MP pollution and suggests important and complex interactions between MP and zooplankton organisms in coastal waters.
... The likelihood of ingestion of microplastics by zooplankton and planktivores can be expressed through the use of the ratio. According to Moore et al. (2001) and Panti et al. (2015), an increased ratio could potentially result in a detrimental effect on the stability of biota. In this investigation, the majority of the highest ratios were observed in the Central and Southern Zones. ...
... In this investigation, the majority of the highest ratios were observed in the Central and Southern Zones. This could enhance the likelihood of pelagic creatures encountering and ingesting microplastics, either actively or passively, even during zooplankton migration (Wright et al. 2013;Panti et al. 2015). Despite the low ratio of microplastic to zooplankton at the present moment, the lake ecosystem must be constantly monitored because even trace levels of plastic may have unintended impacts. ...
Preprint
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The prevalence of microplastics (< 5 mm) in aquatic habitats has recently raised concerns owing to their influence on humans and aquatic organisms, as they absorb organic pollutants and pathogens from the surrounding media because of their higher surface-to-volume ratio. Freshwater systems are severely affected by the increased intake of discarded waste from diverse sources. This study focused on the microplastic-to-zooplankton ratio and its potential impact on the environment's food chain. The sampling sites of Kolavai Lake were divided into three zones (18 stations) to investigate the spatial distribution of microplastics and zooplankton biota. The average microplastic abundance was 6.1 ± 2.5 particles/L. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and SEM analysis were performed to understand the chemical composition and surface morphology of microplastics. Water samples collected along the Central and Southern Zones revealed a high abundance of microplastics, which might be due to anthropogenic activities. A negative correlation was observed between the abundance of microplastics and zooplankton. The microplastic-to-zooplankton ratio was found to range from 0.05 to 0.74. Further, the impact of microplastics in the lake ecosystem was analysed using the size and shape descriptors for both zooplankton and microplastics. These findings suggest that microplastics built up in aquatic environments, particularly those with rich biota, could be a severe concern because of their capacity to infiltrate the food web.
... In areas with metal or organic matter contamination of the sediments, such as Lavaca Bay (mercury and PAHs), higher contaminant concentrations may sorb onto the plastics, particularly polystyrene, due to prolonged contact and greater weathering of the plastic. While in the sediments, the plastics may pose a risk to benthic sediment feeders or detritus feeders (Karlsson et al. 2017, Panti et al. 2015, Priscilla et al. 2019). If a resuspension event were to occur, such as a tropical storm or dredging project, plastics in the sediment may be resuspended and transported elsewhere. ...
... In areas with metal or organic matter contamination of the sediments, such as Lavaca Bay (mercury and PAHs), higher contaminant concentrations may sorb onto the plastics, particularly polystyrene, due to prolonged contact and greater weathering of the plastic. While in the sediments, the plastics may pose a risk to benthic sediment feeders or detritus feeders (Karlsson et al. 2017, Panti et al. 2015, Priscilla et al. 2019. Resuspension events potentially reintroduce contaminated plastics into the water column where they may once again come into contact or be ingested by estuarine organisms or disperse/transport the plastic and associated contaminants to elsewhere in the environment. ...
Technical Report
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There is a proposal for deepening and widening the Matagorda Ship Channel. However, there are concerns about specific environmental impacts to Matagorda Bay and Lavaca Bay such as: 1) Circulation and storm surge changes due to changing the bathymetry of Matagorda and Lavaca Bays due to deepening the channel and placement of dredge spoil parallel to the channel, which will funnel tidal movement along the axis of the bay and restrict mixing perpendicular to the channel. 2) Salinity changes due to the circulation changes and connecting with the puncturing of the groundwater lens beneath the bay. 3) Placement of dredge spoil could smother benthic habitats, such as oysters, seagrasses, or muddy bay bottoms and affect forage for desirable fish species. 4) Effects to primary producers or bottom dwelling organisms due to an increase in turbidity during the actual dredging. 5) Mobilization of mercury by the dredging because there are considerable amounts of mercury in sediments of the bay. 6) Plastic and microplastics interactions with sediments, turbidity, and other pollutants. The current study was undertaken to assess these possible concerns. The assessment has been done in two parts to identify potential physical and ecological effects. The assessments were based on a literature review of existing information. No sampling was conducted.
... In the Mediterranean basin, this has led to a total of 179.798 km 2 of superficial waters under legal protection, including 1.231 MPAs (MedPAN, 2016). An increasing number of studies are showing that MPAs are not sheltered from marine plastic pollution despite of their protection status (Costanzo et al., 2020;Hatzonikolakis et al., 2022;Panti et al., 2015;Ruiz-Orejón et al., 2019). This leads to a few open questions whether plastic pollution can have different implications regarding the protection status of an area and if different policies can contribute specifically to the mitigation of plastic pollution in MPAs. ...
... Results coincide with the conclusion of a recent modelling study that points out that in 107 Mediterranean MPAs analyzed, 38% were characterized by a high plastic density, with a prevalence of MPs and with distant cities as main source of contamination (Hatzonikolakis et al., 2022). The majority of these MPAs were located in the northwestern Mediterranean basin and corresponds to areas where previous field studies have detected high abundances of MPs (Collignon et al., 2012;Panti et al., 2015;Ruiz-Orejón et al., 2019). The observed difference in plastic composition, with the more anthropized areas characterized by higher abundances of films and lower abundances of plastic fragments of bigger dimensions when compared to protected and remote areas, seems to be reflected both at a local and global scale. ...
Article
To study the spatial distribution of sea surface plastics in marine protected and non-protected areas, 65 sea surface trawls were carried out using a Hydro-bios manta net coupled with a 335-μm mesh. A total of 19 sampling sites along the coastal waters of Mallorca, the “Parque Nacional Marítimo-terrestre del Archipiélago de Cabrera” and Menorca in the Balearic Islands as well as along coastal waters of The Natural Park of Columbretes Islands (NW Mediterranean Sea) were sampled. A total of 10,637 plastic items were identified and a subset of these items was categorized by shape, color, size and polymer composition. Plastic particles were found at each sampling site and in all samples. No microscale nor mesoscale variability in floating marine plastics abundance (particles/m²) was encountered throughout the study area where similar values were found in protected areas with no local land-based contamination sources, such as Columbretes [0.04 (±0.03) particles/m²], and in high anthropized areas, such as the island of Mallorca [0.04 (±0.07) particles/m²]. However, differences were found in characteristics of plastic items (shape, polymer, and size range), with the protected area of Columbretes characterized by the presence of the highest density of very small plastic items composed mainly of fragments (93%). Quantified plastics from the marine environment were composed mainly of polyethylene (PE, 63.3%), polypropylene (PP; 24.9%), polycarbonate (PC; 4.6%) and polystyrene (PS, 3.3%). The polymer composition showed a homogenous composition between islands and differences were detected only amongst Columbretes and the other islands. Results from this study provide with further evidence into the ubiquity of plastics in the marine environment and highlight that remote and protected areas, such as Columbretes, are not exempt from plastic pollution, but receptor areas for small and aged floating plastics composed mainly by fragments, which might have potentially harmful effects on protected ecosystems.
... Microplastic consumption leads to effects on the planktonic food web and the further breakdown of plastics into smaller particles [2]. Marine zooplankton are known to consume microplastic particles in laboratory and natural settings [3][4][5]. When particles are ingested, microplastics can cause mortality and many types of biological stress. ...
Article
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Primary consumers of microplastics are often zooplankton species such as the mysid shrimp, Americamysis bahia. Ingesting and interacting with these plastics can cause stress and lead to death. In the presence of some environmental stressors, gene expression may be altered without changing DNA sequences via the epigenetic methylation of the DNA. Mysid shrimp were exposed to 5-micrometer fluorescent polystyrene microbeads at different concentrations and different lengths of time. No significant effects were observed on mortality within 72 h, but mortality increased significantly thereafter. Microplastics were consumed by mysids and adhered to the mysid carapace and appendages. An ELISA-like (Enzyme-Linked Imuunosorbent Assay) colorimetric assay was employed to assess mysid DNA for differences in global percent methylation. No significant difference in the average percent methylated DNA nor difference in the number of methylation detections between treatments was found. This is one of few studies that has investigated DNA methylation effects due to microplastics-induced stress and the first study to detect DNA methylation in any member of the order Mysida.
... Among the world's basins, the semi-enclosed Mediterranean Sea Basin, shared by 21 countries, is one of the most studied maritime areas in terms of MP pollution, with, for example, studies on sea surface water (Panti et al., 2015;Ruiz-Orejón et al., 2016;Cincinelli et al., 2019), seafloor and coastal sediments (Alomar et al., 2016;Abidli et al., 2018;Kazour et al., 2019;Fagiano et al., 2023;), as well as freshwater discharged into the basin (Rayadin et al., 2016;Campanale et al., 2020;Constant et al., 2020). However, the occurrence of MPs in these freshwater systems has generally been less well studied and understood than in marine systems (Rodrigues et al., 2018;Wong et al., 2020b;Treilles et al., 2021b). ...
... Hence, MP were detected in all marine compartments such as sea surface (e.g. Panti et al., 2015;Ramírez-Álvarez et al., 2020), water column (e.g. Kanhai et al., 2017;Lefebvre et al., 2019), subtidal sediments (e.g. ...
Article
Assessment of microplastic (MP) contamination is still needed to evaluate this threat correctly and tackle this issue. Here, MP contamination was assessed for a meso-tidal lagoon of the Atlantic coast (Arcachon Bay, France). Sea surface, water column, intertidal sediments and wild oysters were sampled. Five different stations were studied to assess the spatial distribution of the contamination. Two were outside of the bay and three were inside the bay (from the inlet to the back). A distinction was made between all anthropogenic particles (AP, i.e. visually sorted) and MP (i.e. plastic polymer confirmed by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy). The length of particles recovered in this study ranged between 17 μm and 5 mm. Concentration and composition in sea surface and water column samples showed spatial variations while sediment and oyster samples did not. At outside stations, the sea surface and the water column presented a blended composition regarding shapes and polymers and low to high concentrations (e.g. 0.16 ± 0.08 MP.m-3 and 561.7 ± 68.5 MP.m-3, respectively for sea surface and water column), which can be due to coastal processes and nearby input sources. The inlet station displayed a well-marked pattern only at the sea surface. High AP and MP concentrations were recorded, and fragments along with polyethylene overwhelmed (respectively 76.0 % and 73.2 %). Higher surface currents could explain this pattern. At the bay back, AP and MP concentrations were lower and fibers were mainly recorded. Weaker hydrodynamics in this area was suspected to drive this contamination profile. Overall, fragments and buoyant particles were mainly detected at the sea surface while fibers and negatively buoyant particles prevailed in other compartments. Most of the studied samples presented an important contribution of fiber-shaped particles (from 31.5 % to 94.2 %). Finally, contamination was ubiquitous as AP and MP were found at all stations in all sample types.
... The most frequent plastic size category was 1-2.5 mm ( Fig. 2A). According to previous studies reporting this plastic category as the most abundant, it is the same as that of most zooplankton organisms (Cózar et al., 2014;Doyle et al., 2011;Fossi et al., 2017b;Panti et al., 2015), potentially determining accidental ingestion of MPs mistaken for prey and an attendant risk for fin whale or other filter-feeders such as the whale shark, which spend many hours feeding at the surface. Plastic fragments (81 %) (Fig. 2B) were the majority of plastic items isolated, suggesting a possible fragmentation of large plastic manufactured objects. ...
Article
The impacts of microplastics on filter feeders megafauna have recently received increased attention. These organisms are potentially exposed to plastic ingestion and the release of added/sorbed contaminants during feeding activities. An assessment of microplastic abundance and the chemical impact of Phthalates esters (PAEs) were performed in neustonic samples and skin biopsies of Balaenoptera physalus and Rhincodon typus inhabiting the Gulf of California (Mexico). Sixty-eight percent of the net tows contained plastics with a maximum of 0.24 items/m3 mainly composed of polyethylene fragments. PAE levels were detected both in environmental and skin biopsy samples, with the highest values in the fin whale specimens (5291 ng/g d.w). Plasticizer fingerprint showed a similar distribution pattern between neustonic samples and filter-feeding species, with DEHP and MBP having the highest concentrations. The detection of PAE levels confirmed their potential role as plastic tracers and give preliminary information about the toxicological status of these species feeding in La Paz Bay.
... Overall, the abundance found in this study remains high compared to other concentrations found in the Mediterranean basin. [33] Central W Mediterranean 40 000 -9 230 000 items/km 2 [41] Coast of Turkey 16 339 -520 213 items/km 2 [24] Central and Western Mediterranean Sea 8 999 -1 164 403 items/ km 2 [38] Northern Ionian Sea (Greece) 0 -1 610 000 items/km 2 [17] Gulf of Lion 6 000 -1 000 000 items/km 2 [39] Southern Mediterranean/ Gulf of Gabes 25 471 -111 821 items/km 2 [47] Southern Mediterranean/ Bizerte lagoon 453.0 ± 335.2 items /m 3 [46] Eastern Mediterranean Sea 0.12-0.72 items/m 3 [1] South-Western Mediterranean Sea 1.01 *10 5 ± 3.8 *10 4 items/km 2 [40] Southern Mediterranean/ Gulf of Gabes 312 887 -77 110 items/ km 2 [5] Southern Mediterranean/ Monastir Bay 62 095.032-260 979.12 items / km² Actual Study ...
Chapter
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The ninth International Symposium Monitoring of Mediterranean Coastal Areas: Problems and Measurements Techniques was organized by CNR-IBE in collaboration with Italian Society of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, and Natural History Museum of the Mediterranean and under the patronage of University of Florence, Accademia dei Lincei, Accademia dei Geogofili, Tuscany Region, The North Tyrrhenian Sea Ports System Authority, Livorno Municipality and Livorno Province. In the Symposium Scholars had illustrated their activities and exchanged innovative proposals, with common aims to promote actions to preserve coastal marine environment. Despite the COVID 19 pandemic, the success of this edition is attested by the 170 contributions selected by the Scientific Committee from among those received. Participation involved all the thematic lines envisaged by the sessions, involving many countries of the Mediterranean Sea. A big endeavor for a costal environment of paramount importance but threatened by global changes. The importance of this Proceedings is attested by the fact that this volume is the first issue of a new FUP Series.
... Generalist eaters such as Daphnia and herbivorous rotifers frequently ingest MP in laboratory experiments, while more specialized eaters such as cyclopoid and carnivorous rotifers are less likely to ingest it . Although at high concentrations they can be ingested indirectly, through contaminated prey (He et al., 2021), or by mistake, through consumption of faecal pellets (Cole et al., 2016;Panti et al., 2015). Since the beginning of MPs investigation, zooplankton have been exposed to MPs in laboratory conditions (Phuong et al., 2016). ...
Thesis
Microplastics in the environments are estimated to increase in the near future due to increasing consumption of plastic product and also due to further fragmentation in small pieces. The fate and effects of MP once released into the freshwater environment are still scarcely studied, compared to the marine environment. In order to understand possible effect and interaction of MPs in freshwater environment, planktonic zooplankton organisms are very useful for their crucial trophic role. In particular freshwater rotifers are one of the most abundant organisms and they are the interface between primary producers and secondary consumers. The aim of my thesis was to investigate the ingestion and the effect of MPs in rotifers from a more natural scenario and to individuate processes such as the aggregation of MPs, the food dilution effect and the increasing concentrations of MPs that could influence the final outcome of MPs in the environment. In fact, in a near natural scenario MPs interaction with bacteria and algae, aggregations together with the size and concentration are considered drivers of ingestion and effect. The aggregation of MPs makes smaller MPs more available for rotifers and larger MPs less ingested. The negative effect caused by the ingestion of MPs was modulated by their size but also by the quantity and the quality of food that cause variable responses. In fact, rotifers in the environment are subjected to food limitation and the presence of MPs could exacerbate this condition and decrease the population and the reproduction input. Finally, in a scenario incorporating an entire zooplanktonic community, MPs were ingested by most individuals taking into account their feeding mode but also the concentration of MPs, which was found to be essential for the availability of MPs. This study highlights the importance to investigate MPs from a more environmental perspective, this in fact could provide an alternative and realistic view of effect of MPs in the ecosystem.
... Microplastics represent most plastic marine litter in the oceans; they were recorded in all compartments and represent an ecological and biological emergence (Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012;Zhang et al., 2022). The large spatial distribution of this contaminant, due to a combination of oceanographic, biotic, and abiotic factors (Alomar et al., 2016;Galli et al., 2022;Panti et al., 2015), is recorded in many environments. Generally, deep sea environments and submarine canyons are sinks for microplastics (Pham et al., 2014;Woodall et al., 2014), but recent studies showed that also coastal shallow environments might represent as many areas of accumulation (Alomar et al., 2016). ...
Article
This study investigates for the first time the presence of microplastics in sediment, water, and benthic organisms (foraminifera) of a marine cave in the Gulf of Orosei (Sardinia, Italy). Microplastics were found in all water, and sediment samples with similar shapes, sizes, and compositions; identified items were mainly fragments and fibers constituted by PVC and polyethylene. Their provenance was supposed to be predominantly from the sea than from the seasonal freshwater supplies from the karst system. Foraminiferal assemblages were mainly constituted by calcareous hyaline taxa in the outer station, while in the inner ones, the agglutinated Eggerelloides advenus was dominant. FTIR analyses on agglutinated shells identified polyethylene. Microplastic items are collected by the foraminifers and sediment grains building the shell chambers. This is the first study providing evidence that marine caves may be collectors of microplastics and that, in these habitats, microplastics enter the biotic matrix at the protist’s level.
... Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) particles seem to be the most abundant (Suaria et al., 2016). Plastic particles are ingested by various marine taxa such as the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) (e.g., Fossi et al., 2014), the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) (Fossi et al.,2014), sea turtles (Darmon et al., 2017), large pelagic fish (Romeo et al., 2015), seabirds (Codina-García et al., 2013), and zooplankton (e.g., Panti et al., 2015). ...
Article
European marine waters are infested with plastic, with an average density of 1 plastic item in every four square-meters. Research relevant to MPs-NPs ingestion by wild decapods in European waters is limited, none of which regards the European spiny lobster. Totally 4102 plastic particles were extracted from the spiny lobster stomach tissues of both sexes. Out of the 63 samples analysed only three (4.8%) of them were found with no plastic particles. The range of number of MPs in stomachs was from 20 to 273 MPs individual⁻¹. The 98.3% were fragments. In total 3833 plastic particles were extracted from the gill tissues of both sexes. MPs were found in all samples (n = 50),99.2% of the detected particles were fragments. The MPs detected in gills ranged from 11 to 339 MPs individual⁻¹. The DLS method was used in order to evaluate the NPs presence. Nanoplastics were detected in 22.6% of stomachs and in the 48.1% of gills. A total of 43 polymer types were identified in both tissues. Also, our study assessed the accumulation of heavy metals at the edible tail muscle. Certain elements were detected above the EU's Maximum Residue Level, including arsenic. The present results are alarming and the potential human health implications could be serious.
... These environmental compartments are vertically distributed throughout the water column and are associated with specific habitats and communities of marine organisms (Danovaro and Pusceddu, 2007). Microplastics have been extensively quantified and characterized, reporting alarming abundances in all these habitats, from sea surface layers (Cincinelli et al., 2019;Collignon et al., 2012;Panti et al., 2015;Suaria and Aliani, 2014) to seafloor habitats (Cohen-Sánchez et al., 2020;Pasquini et al., 2016;Pham et al., 2014;Strafella et al., 2015). However, studies on marine plastic pollution have often considered these habitats independently (Ali et al., 2021), and consequently, little is known about MP distributions and fluxes among environments that are, in reality, biologically and physically linked (Griffiths et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
We conducted one of the first studies to integrate the quantification and characterization of microplastics (MPs), including fibers, in different habitats (sea surface, seafloor and beach sediments) of a coastal Mediterranean marine protected area, analyzing their ingestion in several marine species. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the distribution of MPs according to shape and polymer, to assess the contribution of fibers to local plastic pollution and to evaluate their ingestion in fish and invertebrates species that inhabit the study area (Pagrus pagrus, Serranus scriba, Spondyliosoma cantharus, Diplodus vulgaris, Oblada melanura, Holothuria forskalii, Holothuria tubularis, Holothuria polis, Arbacia lixula, Paracentrotus lividus, Modiolus barbatus, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Arca noae). A total of 111 environmental samples were analyzed. The mean abundance of MPs (excluding fibers) quantified in beach sediments (13,418.86 ± 28,787.99 MPs/m²) was two orders of magnitude higher than that found in seafloor sediments (76.92 ± 108.84 MPs/m²), which in turn was two orders of magnitude higher than sea surface samples (0.17 ± 0.39 MPs/m²). The fibers were the most abundant shape of MPs identified in all habitats. Variability in MPs ingestion was detected between species, with ingestion rates ranging from 43 % to 100 % for general MPs and ranging from 7 % to 100 % for fibers. The highest ingestion was observed in Holoturians, representing suitable bioindicators for plastic pollution. The composition of the polymer varies weakly depending on habitats and biota, but the result is strongly correlated with the morphology of the plastic. Fibers were mainly composed of cellulose acetate (29 %), styrofoam of polystyrene (18 %), and filaments, films and fragments of polyethylene and polypropylene. The results highlighted the need to expand integrated approaches to effectively study marine plastic pollution and to undertake efficient actions to limit the input of plastics, particularly fibers, into the marine environment.
... Plastic pollution poses a significant challenge for the role of marine protected areas in the preservation of marine biodiversity. Levels of MPs in GBR surface waters are similar to those reported for the Pelagos Sanctuary Protected Area (Mediterranean Sea) (0.17 ± 0.32 items m − 3 ) (Panti et al., 2015) and the Professor Luiz Saldanha Marine Park (Portugal) (0.45 ± 0.52 items m − 3 (Rodrigues et al., 2020b)), demonstrating that marine park protection status does not diminish the hazard of MP pollution. Routine monitoring surveys will be crucial to generate longitudinal data on the abundance, characteristics and major sources of plastic debris to the GBR (Hardesty et al., 2017) and will equip marine park managers with science-based evidence to inform decision making and planning with regards to the preservation of valuable natural resources. ...
Article
Particle size plays an important role in determining the behaviour, fate and effects of microplastics (MPs), yet little is known about MPs <300 μm in aquatic environments. Therefore, we performed the first assessment of MPs in marine surface waters around the Whitsunday Islands region of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia, to test for the presence of small MPs (50–300 μm) in-situ. Using a modified manta net, we demonstrate that MPs were present in all marine surface water samples, with a mean sea surface concentration of 0.23 ± 0.03 particles m⁻³. Microplastics were mainly blue, clear and black fibres and fragments, consisting of polyethylene terephthalate, high-density polyethylene and polypropylene plastic polymers. Tourism and marine recreation were considered the major contributing sources of MPs to surface waters around the Whitsunday Islands. Between 10 and 124 times the number of MPs exist in the 50 μm–300 μm size class, compared with the 1 mm–5 mm size range. This finding indicates that the global abundance of small MPs in marine surface waters is grossly underestimated and warrants further investigation. Research into the occurrence, characteristics and environmental fate of MPs <300 μm is needed to improve our understanding of the cumulative threats facing valuable ecosystems due to this smaller, potentially more hazardous size class.
... Plastic litter is a growing concern for marine diversity, with global plastic production exceeding 368 million metric tonnes/year, of which between 4.8 and 12.7 million tons are estimated to enter the oceans annually with the records of harm these items might cause to marine fauna steadily increasing [2,3]. The overlap between the presence of plastic litter in the marine environment and its impact on species has been identified through ingestion studies across marine organisms by contrasting models and concentrations found in different compartments of the marine environment, such as on the sea surface and on the seafloor [4][5][6]. Furthermore, models of hotspot areas calculated globally and in the Mediterranean Sea showed that sea turtle species, seabirds, and other marine species are at high risk of interacting with plastic marine debris [7][8][9], an indication of the severity posed by plastic waste on marine diversity globally and at the regional scale. ...
Article
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We have applied a multispecies ecosystem approach to analyse the ingestion of anthropogenic particles (AP) in the gastrointestinal tract of 313 individuals (17 fish species and 8 invertebrate species) from pelagic, demersal and benthic habitats in a marine protected area off the Western Mediterranean (Cabrera National Park). We have quantified and characterized the ingestion at several taxonomic levels of fish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, bivalves, and jellyfish in relation to biotic/abiotic factors based on taxonomic groups, trophic guilds (functional groups) and habitats. AP ingestion occurrence ranged from 26 to 100% with no significant differences among taxonomic groups. The fish within the MPA showed an overall ingestion occurrence ranging from 0 to 100%, the echinoderms from 29 to 100%, the bivalves from 72 to 96% and the jellyfish 36% ingestion. The ecosystem approach applied to evaluate overall AP ingestion within the species reported that for trophic guilds, the omnivorous species ingested the highest amounts of anthropogenic items, while herbivores ingested significantly fewer items than all other trophic guilds. Moreover, no significant differences were found amongst habitats, indicating a homogeneous spatial distribution of APs at all studied habitats. The multispecies approach provided insight into the high APs exposure to species within Cabrera MPA, highlighting the potential harm linked with marine litter that threatens marine biodiversity.
... Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are management tools designed for conservation purposes with specific levels of protection aiming at the conservation of areas with high ecological value (in terms of habitats and biodiversity) and the increase of biomass of species of interest for fishing. Although MPAs are protected from direct anthropogenic impacts such as boat anchoring, maritime traffic, or extraction and exploitation of marine resources, recent studies have reported that these areas are also affected by the presence of pollutants, mainly plastics, along beaches (Giovacchini et al., 2018), sediments (Alomar et al., 2016), the sea surface (Fagiano et al., 2022), and the water column (Panti et al., 2015); the presence of these plastics evidences the transference of pollutants to MPAs from anthropogenized areas. Moreover, plasticizers have already been detected in sediments from MPAs (Alkan et al., 2021) highlighting the ubiquity of these chemicals even in pristine areas. ...
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Microplastic (MP) ingestion, along with accumulated plasticizers such as bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol S (BPS), and phthalates represented by diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), were quantified in bivalves, fish, and holothurians collected from a coastal pristine area at the western Mediterranean Sea. MP ingestion in sediment-feeders holothurians (mean value 12.67 ± 7.31 MPs/individual) was statistically higher than ingestion in bivalves and fish (mean 4.83 ± 5.35 and 3 ± 4.44 MPs/individual, respectively). The main ingested polymers were polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. The levels of BPS, BPF, and DEHP were highest in bivalves' soft tissue; BPA and DBP had the highest levels in the holothurians’ muscle. In addition, the levels of all plasticizers assessed were lowest in fish muscle; only BPA levels in fish were higher than in bivalves, with intermediate values between those of bivalves and holothurians. This study provides data on exposure to MPs and plasticizers of different species inhabiting Cabrera Marine Protected Area (MPA) and highlights the differences in MP ingestion and levels of plasticizers between species with different ecological characteristics and feeding strategies.
... Cózar et al. (2015) performed the most comprehensive plastic monitoring study in the surface waters across the Mediterranean Sea and found that 85 % of the collected floating items were MP. In the western Mediterranean Sea surface waters, the abundance of MP particles was determined as 0.26 ± 0.33 MPs m −3 in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Baini et al., 2018), 1.00 ± 1.87 MPs m −3 in the Adriatic Sea, and the western Mediterranean Sea (Suaria et al., 2016), 0.17 ± 0.32 MP m −3 in the Gulf of Asinara (Panti et al., 2015), 0.15 ± 0.11 MPs m −3 Gulf of Oristano (de Lucia et al., 2014), 0.31 ± 1.17 MPs m −3 in Tuscan coast, 0.62 ± 2.00 MPs m −3 in the Sardinian and Ligurian Seas (Fossi et al., 2012). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea surface waters, the abundance of MP particles was determined as 1.18 ± 1.27 items m −3 for the Ionian, Aegean, and Levantine Seas (Adamopoulou et al., 2021). ...
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Plastics manufactured to fulfil the unique demands of civilization accumulate in the sea due to their durability. Microplastics (MP) pose a greater threat than macroplastics as they can easily enter the aquatic environment and be hard to detect. MPs potentially impact several components of the marine life and food chain. This study determined MP distribution and characterization by collecting sediment from 47 different stations and surface seawater (SSW) from 29 stations in 2019 along the Turkish coast of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Potential MP particles were stained with Nile-Red and verified using ATR-FTIR. While MP abundance in the sediment ranged between 118±97 and 1688±746 MPs kg-1, it varied between 0.18±0.10 MPs m-3 and 2.21±1.75 MPs m-3 in SSW. The MP abundance showed significant spatial variation (p<0.05). The polymer type in the samples was determined by ATR-FTIR. In both water and sediments, polyethylene was the most common MP type (>59%), while fragment was the most common MP form (>57.6%), and more than 65% of overall MPs were less than 1500 µm. The spatial pattern of MPs in the sediments and SSW was affected by the population, the magnitude of the tourism sector, the rim current, and circulation. The monitoring data presented here can provide a remarkable projection of the current trend and form a basis for future MP pollution prevention.
... Plastic pollution poses a significant challenge for the role of marine protected areas in the preservation of marine biodiversity. Levels of MPs in GBR surface waters are similar to those reported for the Pelagos Sanctuary Protected Area (Mediterranean Sea) (0.17 ± 0.32 items m − 3 ) (Panti et al., 2015) and the Professor Luiz Saldanha Marine Park (Portugal) (0.45 ± 0.52 items m − 3 (Rodrigues et al., 2020b)), demonstrating that marine park protection status does not diminish the hazard of MP pollution. Routine monitoring surveys will be crucial to generate longitudinal data on the abundance, characteristics and major sources of plastic debris to the GBR (Hardesty et al., 2017) and will equip marine park managers with science-based evidence to inform decision making and planning with regards to the preservation of valuable natural resources. ...
... Globally, studies have reported a relatively high abundance of zooplanktonsized micro plastics and mention the potential for zooplanktivores to mistake these microparticles for prey (e.g. Collignon et al. 2012, Frias et al. 2014, Kang et al. 2015, Panti et al. 2015, Gove et al. 2019, Ryan et al. 2019. However, most studies that report microplastic size distributions tend to ignore the abundance and particle size of microplastics relative to natural particles -and hence the biological relevance of microplastic concentrations -particularly for organisms feeding on smaller particles (i.e. ...
... In the Bay of Marseille, the MP/zooplankton ratio (0.3-5 mm) is similar to the ratio found by Pedrotti et al. (2016) for a coastal zone located less than 1 km from land in the NW Ligurian Sea (on average 0.03 ± 1.40) and higher by one order of magnitude than those found in the NW of the Sardinian Sea (0.006 ± 0.006) for sites beyond 10 km from the coast (Panti et al., 2015). The presence of MPs and zooplanktonic groups of the same size can lead to potential confusion for predators with respect to optimal size range of planktonic prey, therefore this ratio can be used to express the probability of ingesting MPs. ...
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Microplastics (MPs) were sampled in three seasons from 2016 to 2018 in the Bay of Marseille, northwestern Mediterranean Sea, adjacent to a highly urbanized area. Six sites were selected according to their different characteristics (river mouth, treatment plants, protected marine area). Surface floating MPs were characterized (number, weight, typology and polymer) as was zooplankton. In addition, mussels were submerged and used to investigate ingestion. Finally, a hydrodynamic model was used to improve understanding of dispersion mechanisms. The annual averages of floating MPs values ranged from 39,217 to 514,817 items/km². The MPs collected were mainly fragments principally composed of polyethylene and polypropylene. The mean abundance ratio (MPs/zooplankton) was 0.09. On average 87% of mussel pools were contaminated and ingested 18.73 items/100 g of flesh. Two hydrodynamic patterns were identified: the first retaining the MPs in the harbor, and the second dispersing them outside.
... Results from this study show that microplastic abundances in MPAs were similar than those reported in the other areas with no protection. In this sense, previous studies revealed high abundances of marine debris on beaches (Giovacchini et al., 2018), sediments (Alomar et al., 2016), sea surface (Fagiano et al., 2022) and water column (Panti et al., 2015) from protected areas. These scientific results provide with further evidence of transferred contamination to MPAs from anthropogenized areas and should encourage member states to develop joint measures at a basin scale which help to reduce marine debris at the source area and consequently mitigate the impacts of these in MPAs. ...
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The abundance of microplastics items (debris particles of less than 5 mm) along the sea surface and in seafloor sediments have been extensively documented worldwide; however, little is known in terms of the vertical distribution of microplastics in the water column, especially in the epipelagic zone. Considering the biological importance of this area, the quantification of microplastics available here is essential to identify potential impacts for marine organisms. This study reports the vertical distribution of microplastic abundances throughout the water column in two Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) demarcations from the western Mediterranean Sea during July 2019. Three concatenated 5-L Niskin bottles were used for sampling at 5, 15 and 25 meters from the sea surface in stations with a total depth smaller than 50 meters and at 5, 25 and 50 meters from the sea surface in stations with a total depth greater than 50 meters. This study demonstrates the ubiquitous abundance of microfibers, 96% of the microplastic items identified, in the upper epipelagic layer of the western Mediterranean Sea. Microplastics exhibit a heterogeneous vertical and horizontal spatial distribution. Fragments had a very low representation (4% of the items) but showed a similar frequency of occurrence along all sampling depths. In terms of size, 68% of the microplastics were less than 2 millimeters in length. Microplastics quantified within the study area were mainly composed of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) (20% each) followed by cellulose acetate (CA) (16%) and polyestyrene (PS) (14%). Regarding the spatial distribution of microplastics, higher abundances were found at intermediate distances (5–10 km from the coast) with mean values of 2.41 ± 1.90 items L⁻¹ and further away (>20 km) from the coast, with mean values of 2.11 ± 1.80 items L⁻¹. A slight decreasing trend in the abundances of microplastics from the sub-surface to deeper waters was also observed. Stations within MPAs waters showed no significant differences in microplastic abundances when comparing to non-MPAs stations. Overall, the results of this study highlight the ubiquitous presence of microplastics, primarily microfibers, along the epipelagic layer of the Spanish Mediterranean continental shelf.
... Extensive research has demonstrated the ubiquity of plastic pollution in several matrices such as beaches (Fortibuoni et al., 2021;Prevenios et al., 2018), sediments (Piazzolla et al., 2020;Renzi et al., 2018) and seawater (Atwood et al., 2019;Capriotti et al., 2021) although remote (Cincinelli et al., 2017;Lusher et al., 2015). Microlitter was retrieved from all water samples taken within the framework of the PISCES project in a much higher (~20-fold) average Cincinelli et al., 2017;Collignon et al., 2012;Constant et al., 2018;Cózar et al., 2015;de Lucia et al., 2018;de Lucia et al., 2014;Expósito et al., 2021;Fagiano et al., 2022;Fossi et al., 2012Fossi et al., , 2016Kazour et al., 2019;Lusher et al., 2015;Panti et al., 2015;Suaria et al., 2016;van der Hal et al., 2017;Zhang et al., 2017;Zhao et al., 2014) (Fig. 9), suggesting that also surveys that are not extensive in either duration or sample sizes can effectively capture the extent of microlitter pollution. This is desirable to minimize the impacts of research-related anthropogenic activities. ...
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Marine litter is composed mainly of plastics and is recognized as a serious threat to marine ecosystems. Ecotoxicological approaches have started elucidating the potential severity of microplastics (MPs) in controlled laboratory studies with pristine materials but no information exists on marine environmental microlitter as a whole. Here, we characterized the litter in the coastal Northern Tyrrhenian sea and in the stomach of two fish species of socio-economic importance, and exposed primary cell cultures of mucosal and lymphoid organs to marine microlitter for evaluating possible cytotoxic effects. An average of 0.30 ± 0.02 microlitter items m⁻³ was found in water samples. μFT-IR analysis revealed that plastic particles, namely HDPE, polyamide and polypropylene were present in 100% and 83.3% of Merluccius merluccius and Mullus barbatus analyzed, which overall ingested 14.67 ± 4.10 and 5.50 ± 1.97 items/individual, respectively. Moreover, microlitter was confirmed as a vector of microorganisms. Lastly, the apical end-point of viability was found to be significantly reduced in splenic cells exposed in vitro to two microlitter conditions. Considering the role of the spleen in the mounting of adaptive immune responses, our results warrant more in-depth investigations for clarifying the actual susceptibility of these two species to anthropogenic microlitter.
... Globally, studies have reported a relatively high abundance of zooplanktonsized micro plastics and mention the potential for zooplanktivores to mistake these microparticles for prey (e.g. Collignon et al. 2012, Frias et al. 2014, Kang et al. 2015, Panti et al. 2015, Gove et al. 2019, Ryan et al. 2019. However, most studies that report microplastic size distributions tend to ignore the abundance and particle size of microplastics relative to natural particles -and hence the biological relevance of microplastic concentrations -particularly for organisms feeding on smaller particles (i.e. ...
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Microplastics are a widespread class of pollutants in marine environments that can become embedded in food webs. Due to their diverse composition and size, microplastics can enter food webs both directly through consumption and indirectly via trophic transfer. In this study, we investigated potential ingestion pathways of microplastics in an important pelagic food web in coastal British Columbia. Between March and September 2019, we completed repeat surveys of water, zooplankton, and larval Pacific herring Clupea pallasii at 11 locations in Baynes Sound, Strait of Georgia. Five zooplankton taxa were isolated from each zooplankton sample for specific analysis. Juvenile herring were sampled once in September. Samples were cold digested with KOH or H2O2 and suspected microplastics isolated. Suspected microplastics were confirmed using µ-Raman spectroscopy and were subsequently identified from the collected samples. The average microplastic concentration in surface waters was 0.59 microplastics L-1, and no clear spatial pattern was evident. Average microplastic loads were 0.0007 ind.-1 in zooplankton, 0.0017 ind.-1 in larval herring, and 0.089 ind.-1 in juvenile herring. There was a clear difference in the biological:microplastic particle ratio across size fractions (125-250, 250-500, 500-1000, 1000-2000, 2000-4000 µm) in the water column. In size classes <1000 µm, biological particles outnumbered microplastic particles by up to 4 orders of magnitude, whereas for size classes >1000 µm the ratio decreased to nearly one. Zooplanktivorous consumers, like juvenile herring, are more likely to consume microplastics than prey as the ratio of microplastics >1000 µm to potential food, and therefore encounter rate, is higher.
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Marine litter concentration in the Mediterranean Sea is strongly influenced both by anthropogenic pressures and hydrodynamic factors that locally characterise the basin. Within the Plastic Busters MPAs (Marine Protected Areas) Interreg Mediterranean Project, a comprehensive assessment of floating macro- and microlitter in the Pelagos Sanctuary and the Tuscan Archipelago National Park was performed. An innovative multilevel experimental design has been planned ad-hoc according to a litter provisional distribution model, harmonising and implementing the current sampling methodologies. The simultaneous presence of floating macro- and microlitter items and the potential influences of environmental and anthropogenic factors affecting litter distribution have been evaluated to identify hotspot accumulation areas representing a major hazard for marine species. A total of 273 monitoring transects of floating macrolitter and 141 manta trawl samples were collected in the study areas to evaluate the abundance and composition of marine litter. High mean concentrations of floating macrolitter (399 items/km2) and microplastics (259,490 items/km2) have been found in the facing waters of the Gulf of La Spezia and Tuscan Archipelago National Park as well in the Genova canyon and Janua seamount area. Accordingly, strong litter inputs were identified to originate from the mainland and accumulate in coastal waters within 10-15 nautical miles. Harbours and riverine outfalls contribute significantly to plastic pollution representing the main sources of contamination as well as areas with warmer waters and weak oceanographic features that could facilitate its accumulation. The results achieved may indicate a potentially threatening trend of litter accumulation that may pose a serious risk to the Pelagos Sanctuary biodiversity and provide further indications for dealing with plastic pollution in protected areas, facilitating future management recommendations and mitigation actions in these fragile marines and coastal environments.
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The prevalence of microplastics (MP) (< 5 mm) in aquatic habitats has recently raised concerns owing to their influence on humans and aquatic organisms, as they absorb organic pollutants and pathogens from the surrounding media because of their higher surface-to-volume ratio. Freshwater systems are severely affected by the increased intake of discarded waste from diverse sources. This study focused on the microplastic-to-zooplankton ratio and its potential impact on the environment’s food chain. The sampling sites of Kolavai Lake were divided into three zones (18 stations) to investigate the spatial distribution of microplastics and zooplankton biota. The average microplastic abundance was 6.1 ± 2.5 particles/L. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and SEM analysis were performed to understand the chemical composition and surface morphology of microplastics. Water samples collected along the Central and Southern Zones revealed a high abundance of microplastics, which might be due to anthropogenic activities. A negative correlation was observed between the abundance of microplastics and zooplankton. The microplastic-to-zooplankton ratio was found to range from 0.05 to 0.74. Furthermore, the impact of microplastics in the lake ecosystem was analysed using the size and shape descriptors for both zooplankton and microplastics. These findings suggest that microplastics built up in aquatic environments, particularly those with rich biota, could be a severe concern because of their capacity to infiltrate the food web. Graphical Abstract
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Introduction: La Segua is an important wetland in Ecuador, recognized as a Ramsar site and of great ecological relevance. Currently, La Segua is threatened by human pressures and unsustainable landscape use associated with agriculture and aquaculture. This study is the first approach to the occurrence of suspended microplastics (SMPs) in an Ecuadorian lentic waterbody and the estimated potential threat of these on the filter and suspension feeders in aquatic food webs. Methods: Surface water samples were collected at 16 sampling points in the wetland to analyze the occurrence, concentration, and horizontal distribution of Suspected Suspended Microplastics (SSMPs) and zooplankton. Results and discussion: SSMPs were found in all sampling sites, and concentrations were between 313 and 490 particles/liter. Fragments were the most abundant category, followed by fibers, films, and pellets. The highest concentration of SSMPs was found in sampled sites on the east coast and in the middle of the wetland. The frequency and concentration of categories of SSMps found in surface water largely reflect the reality of local human activity around the La Segua wetland. Only rotifers and copepod nauplii were found in the zooplankton. The SSMMPs to zooplankton ratio varied between 0.3 and 441 particles/individuals.The SSMPs/zooplankton ratio indicates that fish and other filter and suspension feeders of aquatic food webs could be more likely to feed on suspended microplastics than natural food items around the wetland. SSMPs indicate that microplastics may represent.
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The ninth International Symposium Monitoring of Mediterranean Coastal Areas: Problems and Measurements Techniques was organized by CNR-IBE in collaboration with Italian Society of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, and Natural History Museum of the Mediterranean and under the patronage of University of Florence, Accademia dei Lincei, Accademia dei Geogofili, Tuscany Region, The North Tyrrhenian Sea Ports System Authority, Livorno Municipality and Livorno Province. In the Symposium Scholars had illustrated their activities and exchanged innovative proposals, with common aims to promote actions to preserve coastal marine environment. Despite the COVID 19 pandemic, the success of this edition is attested by the 170 contributions selected by the Scientific Committee from among those received. Participation involved all the thematic lines envisaged by the sessions, involving many countries of the Mediterranean Sea. A big endeavor for a costal environment of paramount importance but threatened by global changes. The importance of this Proceedings is attested by the fact that this volume is the first issue of a new FUP Series.
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Cruise tourism is expanding almost everywhere, despite the pandemic generated by COVID-19 in this sector as well. According to estimates and reported by the CLIA (2021), between mid-March and September 2020, the economic damage was around 77 billion dollars, with a loss of jobs that exceed 500 000. The CLIA itself, however, records a significant increase in travelers who aspire to join a cruise, even among those who have never been there. Cruise ships and their economic impact have been the subject of research for many years and the data, which can also be obtained from various agencies and shipping companies, denote the importance of this particular sector, in the more general context of tourism. It is therefore increasingly appropriate to direct research towards an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary analysis that considers the concept of environmental impact (now in many cases somewhat emptied of its deep meaning and become a sort of opportunistic slogan), so as to consider, in addition to the economic aspects, also the anthropogeographic ones (both negative and positive). In fact, the opportunity to enrich the technical and organizational changes required by the pandemic with second thoughts that also have a cultural impact, in addition to the usual environmental impact, is a delightful opportunity. Through the MSC case study, this contribution aims to partecipate in the reflection on the theme of sustainability, which is also abused lexically, to look at the possibility of directing cruise tourism towards a new way of introducing Man into the landscape.
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Marine plastic pollution, particularly microplastics, has been recognised as a global issue in the recent years, but research efforts in the Pacific are lagging. We carried out research on microplastics contamination of surface waters of the Vava'u archipelago, Tonga. Since microplastics smaller than the standard mesh size (333–335 μm) are readily reported in the literature on microplastics, we used a finer plankton net (100 μm) to determine the proportion of captured microplastics smaller than 300 μm. Isolated microplastics were counted and measured using stereomicroscope with polymer identification performed by FTIR spectroscopy. The analysis revealed high microplastics concentrations (329,299.7 ± 40,994.2 pcs km⁻² or 1.05 ± 0.13 pcs m⁻³). The proportion of particles smaller than 300 μm was 40 %. The predominant type of microplastics in surface waters were small bits of white film, which we associated with cement-filled white bags used to construct docks throughout Vava'u, often heavily eroded.
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Background: Microplastics, defined as plastic smaller than 5 mm, are pervasive in both marine and freshwater ecosystems. Humans, zooplankton, and fish have been shown to ingest microplastics, which could have detrimental health impacts. Consequently, this project investigated the question: are there microplastics in the sediment of Lac Hertel, located in the Mont Saint Hilaire Biosphere Reserve in Quebec, and if so, how has the amount of microplastics changed over time?Methods: One sediment core was obtained from the centre of the lake and one was obtained from the edge near the mesocosm dock. Next, one section from the top, middle, and bottom of each core was collected. Afterwards, the microplastics were extracted from the sediments, counted with a dissecting microscope under regular light, and a subset of fragments were tested with a hot needle to confirm that they were plastic.Results: A generalized linear model indicated that the number of microplastics in our samples increased significantly over time and that the sediment samples from the mesocosm dock had significantly fewer microplastics than the lake’s centre. Similarly, a Pearson correlation test revealed that an increasing sediment depth had a significantly negative relationship with the number of microplastics at the lake’s centre. However, another Pearson correlation test determined that this trend was not reflected at the mesocosm dock, potentially because of sediment focusing.Limitations: Due to resource and time constraints, we had a small sample size, only analyzed microplastics larger than 250 µm, and counted microplastics instead of weighing them.Conclusion: Our results suggest that there has been a significant increase in microplastics in Lac Hertel sediment over time. Ultimately, our results emphasize the need to mitigate plastic pollution.
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Marine plastic pollution represents a major problem owing to its increasing presence in the environment, persistence and ability to spread in every compartment in the form of small plastic particles, namely microplastics (MPs). Studies concerning MPs abundance in the Mediterranean Sea are growing, but their occurrence in the Southern regions remains largely unexplored. In this study, distribution, abundance, size, and polymer type of microplastics were investigated in surface water samples collected with a Manta net (200 μm mesh size) and in 118 marine specimens of commercial interests, including fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks, during Spring and Autumn 2019 EU H2020 Claim Project sampling Campaigns in the Gulf of Gabes (Southern Mediterranean Sea). Laboratory characterization showed significant plastic pollution concentrations, with an average abundance of 312,887 and 77,110 items/km² in surface water samples collected in Spring and Autumn, respectively. A 3D hydrodynamic and Tracking Model was used to identify dispersal and transport pathways of the floating plastics, reporting a seasonal variability observed in MPs distribution between I (Spring) and II Campaign (Autumn). Despite the high values of MPs abundance found in surface water samples, an overall low frequency of ingestion among studied species was observed, with a maximum value of 20% of individuals (in Scomber scombrus) found with ingested MPs. The present study contributes to expand our state of knowledge regarding MPs pollution level in water and biota samples collected in the Gulf of Gabes, an area of particular interest for its biological resources, but still little investigated.
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An overview of the contamination of the Mediterranean marine environment with microplastics (MPs) is presented. At the sea surface various concentrations of MPs have been detected, which sometimes also coincide with modelling studies. The contamination of subtidal sediments ranges from few tens to few hundreds items per kilogram dry weight, with hotspots - few thousands items per kilogram in the deep Tyrrhenian Sea, in the lagoon of Venice and in Posidoinia oceanica meadow adjacent to agricultural hinterland in Spain. Polyethylene and polypropylene were most abundant material in both seawater and sediments, while fragments and filaments were the most frequently found shapes. Photodegradation is the main degradation driver, while biofouling has an important effect on microplastic sinking. Marine biota facilitate the sinking of MPs, the horizontal transport on the seafloor and burial in the sediments.
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Plastic pollution in the Mediterranean Sea has been widely reported, but its impact on biodiversity has not been fully explored. Simultaneous sampling of microplastics (MP) with a manta net and surveys of large marine vertebrates were conducted along the coastal waters of Sicily (Western Ionian Sea). A total of 17 neustonic samples have been collected and 17 marine species (cetaceans, sea turtles, seabirds, and fish) have been sighted in the target area. Kernel density estimation was evaluated to highlight a possible overlap between the presence of large marine fauna and MP densities to provide a preliminary risk assessment. The highest biodiversity and MP concentration (0.197 ± 0.130 items/m²) were observed in the southernmost part of the studied area. The overlap between biodiversity hotspots and the occurrence of MP, potential contribute to the identification of sensitive areas of exposure in a poorly studied region.
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This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the risk assessment of plastic-associated residual additives, i.e. residual monomers, degradation products and additives, in the marine environment, also considering effects of weathering and bioavailability. Experimental studies have found a number of organic and metal additive compounds in leachates from plastics, and the analysis of weathered plastic particles, such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene particles sampled on beaches and shorelines, has identified residual additives, such as flame retardants, plasticizers, UV stabilizers and antioxidants. While the transfer of e.g. PBDEs to organisms upon ingestion has been demonstrated, studies on uptake and bioaccumulation of plastic-associated chemicals are inconclusive. Studies on hazard and risk assessments are few, and focus on monomers and/or a limited number of high concentration additives, such as phthalates and flame retardants. The risk assessment results vary between low, moderate and high risks of specific additives, and are not necessarily consistent for the same compound. Given the large number of chemicals potentially introduced into the marine environment with plastic particles and the challenges associated with the correct quantification of exposure concentrations and toxicity thresholds, the question arises whether new risk assessment concepts may be needed.
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In this study, the abundance and properties (size, shape, and polymer type) of microplastics (MPs) in sea surface water samples, collected during two sampling campaigns over 2018–2019, in four coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea (Saronikos Gulf, LIgurian Sea, Gulf of Lion, and Gabes Gulf) were investigated. Coupled hydrodynamic/particle drift model simulations with basin-scale Mediterranean and high resolution nested models were used to provide a better understanding on the variability of the abundance/size of MPs, originating from wastewater and river runoff, in the four areas. Different size classes of MPs were considered in the model, taking into account biofouling induced sinking, as a possible mechanism of MPs removal from the surface. The Gabes Gulf showed the highest mean MPs abundance (0.073–0.310 items/m²), followed by Ligurian Sea (0.061–0.134 items/m²), Saronikos Gulf (0.047–0.080 items/m²), and Gulf of Lion (0.029–0.032 items/m²). Overall, the observed MPs abundance and size distribution was reasonably well reproduced by the model in the four different areas, except an overestimation of small size contribution in Saronikos Gulf. The basin-scale simulation revealed a strong decrease of smaller size MPs in offshore areas, due to biofouling induced sinking, with larger (floating) MPs being able to travel longer distances in the open sea. A significant impact of waves drift and advection of MPs from non-local sources was identified from model simulations, particularly in the Gulfs of Lion and Gabes, having a stronger effect on larger microplastics. In Gabes Gulf, most MPs originated from offshore areas, being mainly (floating) larger size classes, as suggested by the observed quite small contribution of <1 mm particles. The MPs observed abundance distribution in each area could be partly explained by the adopted sources distribution. The modeling tools proposed in this study provide useful insight to gain a better understanding on MPs dynamics in the marine environment and assess the current status of plastic pollution on basin and regional scale to further develop environmental management action for the mitigation of plastic pollution in the Mediterranean Sea.
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Marine litter is composed mainly of plastics and is recognized as a serious threats to marine ecosystems. Ecotoxicological approaches have started elucidating the potential severity of microplastics (MPs) in controlled laboratory studies with pristine materials but no information exist on marine environmental microlitter as a whole. Here, we characterized the litter in the coastal Northern Tyrrhenian sea and in the stomach of two fish species of socio-economic importance, and exposed primary cell cultures of mucosal and lymphoid organs to marine microlitter for evaluating possible cytotoxic effects. An average of 0.30 ± 0.02 microlitter items m ⁻³ was found in water samples. μFT-IR analysis revealed that plastic particles, namely HDPE, polyamide and polypropylene were present in 100% and 83.3% of Merluccius merluccius and Mullus barbatus analyzed, which overall ingested 14.67 ± 4.10 and 5.50 ± 1.97 items/individual, respectively. Moreover, microlitter was confirmed as a vector of microorganisms. Lastly, the apical end-point of viability was found to be significantly reduced in splenic cells exposed in vitro to two microlitter conditions. Considering the role of the spleen in the mounting of adaptive immune responses, our results warrant more in-depth investigations for clarifying the actual susceptibility of these two species to anthropogenic microlitter. Highlights 0.30 ± 0.02 microlitter items m ⁻³ were found at the surface of coastal Northern Tyrrhenian sea 14.67 ± 4.10 and 5.50 ± 1.97 items/individual were retrieved from the stomach of hakes and mullets The ingested microlitter contained plastic items Microlitter was validated as a carrier of bacteria, fungi and flagellates Splenic cells exposed to two microlitter conditions for 72 hours suffered cytotoxicity
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Microplastics (MPs) are considered a new type of pollutant that invades different environmental regions. The gradual increase in consumption of plastic products has led to its abundance in the ecosystem as a result of degradation of larger plastics into smaller particles. A great scientific interest in this topic arose from a series of unknowns that fell into different research disciplines. This review aims to take a look at the latest research papers on the detection of MPs in the world's marine environments. Some of the recent studies performed in the marine environments of the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Southern regions are listed in this study. The highest number of MPs were found mainly in the Pacific ocean with an average concentration of 918 items/m³. However, the occurrence of MPs in the Atlantic, Arctic, Indian and Southern oceans reduced to 7.68 item/m³, 0.7 item/m³, 0.32 item/m³ and 0.022 items/m3, respectively. Average MPs concentration reported are based on the case studies listed in this paper. Additionally, this paper highlights the variety of equipment used for the detection of MPs in seawater and deep seawater. On the other hand, the mitigation of MPs occurrence was discussed noting the urgent need for global cooperation to reduce the use of plastics and increase the use of biodegradable and bioplastics. Finally, the importance of this study remains in the broad screening of MPs in the world's marine environment underlying existing research gaps and possible mitigation methods for MPs reduction.
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Microplastics have sparked global concern due to their negative effects on organisms' health and the environment. Microplastics research in protected areas (marine and freshwater) has recently gained prominence and is expected to grow in the coming years. This review of 36 published studies examines current progress and identifies future research challenges. It begins with an overview of microplastic evaluation methodologies, followed by a discussion of recent advances in the abundance of microplastics in water, sediment, biota, wet and dry deposition, and particulate matter. Current quality assurance and control measures are also summarized. The majority of studies (44%) examined sediment samples. In biota, the gastrointestinal system was the most evaluated for microplastics. Digestion (using H2O2 and KOH) and density separation (using NaCl) are the most common microplastic extraction methods. We found that microplastic contamination is pervasive in all the surveyed protected areas, with varying levels of abundance geographically, and over 50% of the biota ingest microplastics. The methodological discrepancies amongst the investigations, from sampling to microplastics characterization, make it difficult to compare the results and generate baseline data on microplastic contamination levels. Close monitoring and a standardized approach are thus required to determine the extent to which microplastics might enter and persist in protected area environments, as well as to devise effective mitigating strategies.
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Plastic debris litters aquatic habitats globally, the majority of which is microscopic (< 1 mm), and is ingested by a large range of species. Risks associated with such small fragments come from the material itself and from chemical pollutants that sorb to it from surrounding water. Hazards associated with the complex mixture of plastic and accumulated pollutants are largely unknown. Here, we show that fish, exposed to a mixture of polyethylene with chemical pollutants sorbed from the marine environment, bioaccumulate these chemical pollutants and suffer liver toxicity and pathology. Fish fed virgin polyethylene fragments also show signs of stress, although less severe than fish fed marine polyethylene fragments. We provide baseline information regarding the bioaccumulation of chemicals and associated health effects from plastic ingestion in fish and demonstrate that future assessments should consider the complex mixture of the plastic material and their associated chemical pollutants.
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Components used in plastics, such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), are detected in humans. In addition to their utility in plastics, an inadvertent characteristic of these chemicals is the ability to alter the endocrine system. Phthalates function as anti-androgens while the main action attributed to BPA is oestrogen-like activity. PBDE and TBBPA have been shown to disrupt thyroid hormone homeostasis while PBDEs also exhibit anti-androgen action. Experimental investigations in animals indicate a wide variety of effects associated with exposure to these compounds, causing concern regarding potential risk to human health. For example, the spectrum of effects following perinatal exposure of male rats to phthalates has remarkable similarities to the testicular dysgenesis syndrome in humans. Concentrations of BPA in the foetal mouse within the range of unconjugated BPA levels observed in human foetal blood have produced effects in animal experiments. Finally, thyroid hormones are essential for normal neurological development and reproductive function. Human body burdens of these chemicals are detected with high prevalence, and concentrations in young children, a group particularly sensitive to exogenous insults, are typically higher, indicating the need to decrease exposure to these compounds.
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Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g(-1) to microg g(-1). Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub microg l(-1) to mg l(-1) and were correlated with the level of economic development.
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Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amounts of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude estimates of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and composition of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
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Synthetic polymers, commonly known as plastics, have been entering the marine environment in quantities paralleling their level of production over the last half century. However, in the last two decades of the 20th Century, the deposition rate accelerated past the rate of production, and plastics are now one of the most common and persistent pollutants in ocean waters and beaches worldwide. Thirty years ago the prevailing attitude of the plastic industry was that "plastic litter is a very small proportion of all litter and causes no harm to the environment except as an eyesore" [Derraik, J.G.B., 2002. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44(9), 842-852]. Between 1960 and 2000, the world production of plastic resins increased 25-fold, while recovery of the material remained below 5%. Between 1970 and 2003, plastics became the fastest growing segment of the US municipal waste stream, increasing nine-fold, and marine litter is now 60-80% plastic, reaching 90-95% in some areas. While undoubtedly still an eyesore, plastic debris today is having significant harmful effects on marine biota. Albatross, fulmars, shearwaters and petrels mistake floating plastics for food, and many individuals of these species are affected; in fact, 44% of all seabird species are known to ingest plastic. Sea turtles ingest plastic bags, fishing line and other plastics, as do 26 species of cetaceans. In all, 267 species of marine organisms worldwide are known to have been affected by plastic debris, a number that will increase as smaller organisms are assessed. The number of fish, birds, and mammals that succumb each year to derelict fishing nets and lines in which they become entangled cannot be reliably known; but estimates are in the millions. We divide marine plastic debris into two categories: macro, >5 mm and micro, <5 mm. While macro-debris may sometimes be traced to its origin by object identification or markings, micro-debris, consisting of particles of two main varieties, (1) fragments broken from larger objects, and (2) resin pellets and powders, the basic thermoplastic industry feedstocks, are difficult to trace. Ingestion of plastic micro-debris by filter feeders at the base of the food web is known to occur, but has not been quantified. Ingestion of degraded plastic pellets and fragments raises toxicity concerns, since plastics are known to adsorb hydrophobic pollutants. The potential bioavailability of compounds added to plastics at the time of manufacture, as well as those adsorbed from the environment are complex issues that merit more widespread investigation. The physiological effects of any bioavailable compounds desorbed from plastics by marine biota are being directly investigated, since it was found 20 years ago that the mass of ingested plastic in Great Shearwaters was positively correlated with PCBs in their fat and eggs. Colonization of plastic marine debris by sessile organisms provides a vector for transport of alien species in the ocean environment and may threaten marine biodiversity. There is also potential danger to marine ecosystems from the accumulation of plastic debris on the sea floor. The accumulation of such debris can inhibit gas exchange between the overlying waters and the pore waters of the sediments, and disrupt or smother inhabitants of the benthos. The extent of this problem and its effects have recently begun to be investigated. A little more than half of all thermoplastics will sink in seawater.
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Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (< 1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial experiments showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments containing seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 microm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biological effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biological consequences of this debris.
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The potential for ingestion of plastic particles by open ocean filter feeders was assessed by measuring the relative abundance and mass of neustonic plastic and zooplankton in surface waters under the central atmospheric high-pressure cells of the North Pacific Ocean. Neuston samples were collected at 11 random sites, using a manta trawl lined with 333 u mesh. The abundance and mass of neustonic plastic was the largest recorded anywhere in the Pacific Ocean at 334271 pieces km2 and 5114 g km2, respectively. Plankton abundance was approximately five times higher than that of plastic, but the mass of plastic was approximately six times that of plankton. The most frequently sampled types of identifiable plastic were thin films, polypropylene/monofilament line and unidentified plastic, most of which were miscellaneous fragments. Cumulatively, these three types accounted for 99% of the total number of plastic pieces.
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One hundred and sixty four plastic particles (mean length 4.1 mm) recovered from the scats of fur seals (Arctocephalus spp.) on Macquarie Island were examined. Electron micrographs of 41 of the plastic particles showed that none could be identified as plastic pellet feedstock from their shapes. Commonly, such pellets are cylindrical and spherical. Instead, all the 164 plastic particles from the seal scats were angular particles of 7 colors (feedstock particles are normally opaque or white) and could be classified into 2 categories: i) fragmented along crystal lines and likely to be the result of UV breakdown; and ii) worn by abrasion (where striations were clearly visible) into irregular shapes with rounded corners. White, brown, green, yellow and blue were the most common colors. In composition, they came from 5 polymer groups; polyethylene 93%, polypropylene 4%, poly(1-Cl-1-butenylene) polychloroprene 2%, melamine-urea (phenol) (formaldehyde) resin 0.5%, and cellulose (rope fiber) 0.5%. The larger groups are buoyant with a specific gravity less than that of seawater. These small plastic particles are formed from the breakdown of larger particles (fragments). Their origin seems to be from the breakdown of user plastics washed ashore and ground down on cobbled beaches. Certainly most particles (70%) had attained their final form by active abrasion. It is hypothesized that the plastic particles were washed out to sea and then selected by size and consumed by individuals of a pelagic fish species, Electrona subaspera, who in turn were consumed by the fur seals. Thus, the particles were accumulated both by the fish and the seals in the usual process of their feeding.
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Millions of metric tons of plastic are produced annually. Countless large items of plastic debris are accumulating in marine habitats worldwide and may persist for centuries ([ 1 ][1]–[ 4 ][2]). Here we show that microscopic plastic fragments and fibers ([Fig. 1A][3]) are also widespread in the
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The majority of consumer products used today are comprised of some form of plastic. Worldwide, almost 280 million t of plastic materials are produced annually, much of which ends up in landfills or the oceans (Shaw and Sahni Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering 46-48, 2014). While plastics are lightweight, inexpensive, and durable, these same qualities can make them very harmful to wildlife, especially once they become waterborne. Once seaborne, plastics are most likely found circulating in one of five major ocean gyres: two in the Pacific, one in the Indian, and two in the Atlantic. These ocean garbage patches are not solid islands of plastic; instead, they are a turbid mix of plastics (Kostigen 2008; Livingeco 2011). Recent research conducted on the surfaces of the Great Lakes has identified similar problems (Erikson et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 77(1), 177-182, 2013). A growing concern is that once plastics reach the wild, they may cause entanglement, death from ingestion, and carry invasive species. Several cutting edge technologies have been piloted to monitor or gather the plastics already in our environments and convert them back into oil with hopes to reduce the damage plastics are causing to our ecosystems.
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Determining the exact abundance of microplastics on the sea surface can be susceptible to the sampling method used. The sea surface microlayer (SML) can accumulate light plastic particles, but this has not yet been sampled. The abundance of microplastics in the SML was evaluated off the southern coast of Korea. The SML sampling method was then compared with bulk surface water filtering, a hand-net (50 μm mesh), and a Manta trawl net (330 μm). The mean abundances were in the order of SML water > hand-net > bulk water > Manta trawl net. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) identified that alkyds and poly(acrylate:styrene) accounted for 81% and 11%, respectively, of the total polymer content of the SML samples. These polymers originated from paints and the fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) matrix used on ships. Synthetic polymers from ship coatings should be considered to be a source of microplastics. Selecting a suitable sampling method is crucial for evaluating microplastic pollution.
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Microplastics, plastics particles <5mm in length, are a widespread pollutant of the marine environment. Oral ingestion of microplastics has been reported for a wide range of marine biota, but uptake into the body by other routes has received less attention. Here, we test the hypothesis that the shore crab (Carcinus maenas) can take up microplastics through inspiration across the gills as well as ingestion of pre-exposed food (common mussel Mytilus edulis). We used fluorescently labelled polystyrene microspheres (8-10 μm) to show that ingested microspheres were retained within the body tissues of the crabs for up to 14 days following ingestion and up to 21 days following inspiration across the gill, with uptake significantly higher into the posterior versus anterior gills. Multi-photon imaging suggested that most microspheres were retained in the foregut after dietary exposure due to adherence to the hair like setae and were found on the external surface of gills following aqueous exposures. Results were used to construct a simple conceptual model of particle flow for the gills and the gut. These results identify ventilation as a route of uptake of microplastics into a common marine non-filter feeding species.
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The Goiana Estuary was studied regarding the seasonal and spatial variations of microplastics (o5 mm) and their quantification relative to the zooplankton. The total density (n 100 m�3) of microplastics represented half of the total fish larvae density and was comparable to fish eggs density. Soft, hard plastics, threads and paint chips were found in the samples (n¼216). Their origins are probably the river basin, the sea and fisheries (including the lobster fleet). In some occasions, the amount of microplastics surpassed that of Ichthyoplankton. The highest amount of microplastics was observed during the late rainy season, when the environment is under influence of the highest river flow, which induces the runoff of plastic fragments to the lower estuary. The density of microplastics in the water column will determine their bioavailability to planktivorous organisms, and then to larger predators, possibly promoting the transfer of microplastic between trophic levels. These findings are important for better informing researchers in future works and as basic information for managerial actions.
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Global in its distribution and pervading all levels of the water column, marine debris poses a serious threat to marine habitats and wildlife. For cetaceans, ingestion or entanglement in debris can cause chronic and acute injuries and increase pollutant loads, resulting in morbidity and mortality. However, knowledge of the severity of effects lags behind that for other species groups. This literature review examines the impacts of marine debris on cetaceans reported to date. It finds that ingestion of debris has been documented in 48 (56% of) cetacean species, with rates of ingestion as high as 31% in some populations. Debris-induced mortality rates of 0–22% of stranded animals were documented, suggesting that debris could be a significant conservation threat to some populations. We identify key data that need to be collected and published to improve understanding of the threat that marine debris poses to cetaceans.