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Phytochemical and biological research of Papaver pharmaceutical resources
Abstract
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug. Over 100 phytocannabinoids, as well as terpenoids, fatty acids, and other compounds with health relevance, have been found in Cannabis. The pharmacological importance of cannabinoids has been intensively studied. Multiple mechanisms of the effects of cannabinoids on the nervous system are being elucidated. Cannabinoids have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. Hemp seed oil and terpenoids have health-promoting effects. The relationship between Cannabis chemotype and genotype is being revealed by chemical and genetic analyses. Various omics platform facilitate the basic and applied studies of Cannabis plants. An expanded Cannabaceae family, which consists of six genera, is advocated. This chapter summarizes the recent research progress of phytochemistry, pharmacology, and omics of Cannabis plants.
... Many plant-based drugs are used in Western evidence-based medicine, often named allopathic medicine. Examples of valuable allopathic plant drugs are quinine isolated from the Cinchona bark used to treat malaria [9], morphine isolated from the latex of Papaver somniferum L. (opium poppy) used to relieve severe pain [10], artemisinin obtained from leaves of Artemisia annua (Asteraceae) used as an antimalarial drug [11], podophyllotoxin isolated from roots, and rhizomes of Podophyllum species applied for the removal of condyloma (genital warts) [12]. ...
... Interestingly, S. longepedunculata was also the most used plant in an ethnobotanical study conducted in the district of Bandiagara, Mali. Here, the THPs used S. longepedunculata in the treatment of schizophrenia spectrum disorders [10]. The second and third most cited plants used as both main and additional plants were ascribed to Khaya senegalensis and Boscia integrifolia, respectively. ...
This study explores the traditional knowledge of plants used by traditional health practitioners (THPs) in the treatment of symptoms or syndromes related to mental illnesses in the district of Bamako in Mali, along with the identification of affiliated traditional treating methods. An exploratory and cross-sectional ethnopharmacological survey was conducted in the district of Bamako. The Malian Federation of Associations of Therapists and Herbalists (FEMATH) assisted in the identification and inclusion of the THPs. Data sampling included semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, and in-depth interviews. Quantitative data were evaluated by analysing reports of the use of different medicinal plants and the number of participants. Fifteen THPs belonging to the district of Bamako participated. In total, 43 medicinal plants belonging to 22 plant families were used by the THPs. The most cited plant species was Securidaca longepedunculata (violet tree), followed by Khaya senegalensis (African mahogany) and Boscia integrifolia (rough-leaved shepherds tree). A great number of herbal combinations, preparation methods, and administration routes were used, often with honey as an adjuvant. To our knowledge, this is the first ethnobotanical survey on the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of all types of mental disorders in Bamako.
... It is known that several phytoconstituents of alkaloid nature have been isolated and identified as partially responsible for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of medicinal plant species belonging to several families, but Papaveraceae is one of the most recognized, because of the well-known oldest medicinal plants that remain as a commercial source for the narcotic analgesics, such as opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). This species contains L-tyrosine derived alkaloids such as morphine, codeine, thebanine, papaverine, narcotine, narceine, isoboldine, and salsolinol (Hao et al., 2015). Antinociceptive activity of some of these drugs is modulated at central level, in part by the inhibitory descending pathway, where the opioidergic system is one of the most important inhibitory neurotransmission systems for pain relief (Hernandez-Leon et al., 2016). ...
... family of alkaloids with wide pharmacological properties and potential pharmaceutical uses (Hao et al., 2015). In this context, sanguinarine has been isolated from Macleaya cordata and M. microcarpa, two historical species, which have been used as a common medication to temporarily relieve muscle pain, and to treat bee stings and inflamed wounds, but also in rheumatoid arthritis (Lin et al., 2018). ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance Bocconia arborea S. Watson (Papaveraceae) is known as "palo llora sangre" and is used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of infections, as anxiolytic, analgesic, and antidiabetic, among other effects.
Aim of the study:
to evaluate the antinociceptive and gastroprotective activities of extracts from B. arborea and dihydrosanguinarine (DHS) in murine models.
Materials and methods:
Organic extracts [hexane (HEX), dichloromethane (DCM) and methanol (MeOH)] were obtained by maceration. DHS was isolated and purified from HEX and DCM by precipitation and chromatographic column, respectively. Organic extracts and DHS were evaluated to determine their antinociceptive effect using formalin test in murine model. Also, the ambulatory effect of the HEX and DHS was determined in Open field test. The possible mechanism of action of DHS was explored in the presence of naltrexone (NTX, 1 mg/kg, i.p.), and picrotoxin (PTX, 1 mg/kg, i.p.). Gastric damage as possible adverse effect or gastroprotection were also investigated. Whereas DHS acute toxicological study was done, and 100 mg/kg of DHS was examined by electroencephalographic (EEG) analysis to discard neurotoxic effects.
Results:
The B. arborea extracts significantly showed effects in both neurogenic and inflammatory phases of the formalin test, where the HEX extract reached the major antinociceptive effect. A significant and dose-response (10, 30, and 100 mg/kg) antinociceptive activity was observed with the HEX (ED50 = 69 mg/kg) and DHS (ED50 = 85 mg/kg) resembling the effect of the reference analgesic drug tramadol (30 mg/kg). The significant effect of DHS was inhibited in the presence of NTX and PTX. Neither the extracts or DHS produced sedative effects or gastric damage per se at antinociceptive doses. The EEG analysis demonstrated central depressant activity but not sedative or neurotoxic effects at the highest antinociceptive dosage tested and DL50 is higher than 2000 mg/kg.
Conclusions:
HEX, DCM, and MeOH extracts showed significant antinociceptive activity, and DHS was identified as one of bioactive compounds without producing sedative, neurotoxic or gastric damage effects, as possible adverse effects reported for analgesic drugs. A role of opioid and GABAA neurotransmission appears to be involved as mechanisms of action of DHS, suggesting its potential for pain therapy and reinforcing the traditional use of B. arborea.
... Since the beginning of civilization, people have reaped the multiple benefits that plants could provide such as being a nutritionally valuable food source to opening the pathway to modern medicine (Gurib-Fakim, 2006). Before hospitals, pharmacies, and modern medicine, people would treat their wounds and ailments using extracts from plants (Da Cheng et al., 2015). For centuries Handroanthus impetiginosus or Tabebuia avellanedae (Bignoniaceae family) was used in traditional indigenous South American medicine to treat various ailments (Nahar et al., 2023). ...
... These alkaloids are renowned opium poppies with analgesic, cough suppressant, anticancer, and anti-in ammatory effects (Chaturvedi et al. 2013;Guo et al. 2018). Opium poppy is the only commercial source of morphine (Hao et al. 2015). It was previously reported that in mature opium poppy plants, primary alkaloids accumulate in the capsule and stem (Beaudoin et al. 2014). ...
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are essential for transcription and are involved in a wide range of biological processes in plants. Although lncRNAs have been identified in various plants, research on those linked to alkaloid biosynthesis in Papaver somniferum L. is limited. In this study, the expression of lncRNAs in two opium poppy cultivars that produce different major alkaloids (morphine and noscapine) were analysed. A total of 8945 lncRNAs, mainly lincRNAs, were characterized in the two cultivars' tissues and were distributed unevenly across opium poppy chromosomes.
Tissue-specific expression profiles of lncRNAs were observed, with a greater number expressed in capsules than in stems, indicating potential effectiveness in capsules, particularly in Munich. Cis-target genes of DELs were detected in 51.8% and 92.4% of the DELs in Munich and HN1, respectively, and were positioned in coding gene-rich regions. A limited number of studies have indicated the potential roles of lncRNAs in secondary metabolite biosynthesis; 7 DELs targeting 12 genes in the BIA pathway, which are mainly involved in morphine biosynthesis, were predicted in Munich, while HN1 targeted 15 genes related to BIA biosynthesis. The F-box gene family abundance suggested potential roles in development, stress response, and secondary metabolism. GO and KEGG analyses suggested regulatory roles in secondary metabolite biosynthesis and starch/sucrose metabolism. This study highlights the potential regulatory roles of lncRNAs in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in opium poppy.
... Terpenes have a wide range of applications in food, cosmetics, and the pharmaceutical industry. Terpenoids, such as limonene, myrcene, α-pinene, and linalool, have been designated as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA [46]. For instance, limonene has a lemon fragrance and is used as a flavoring agent in foods, beverages, chewing gum, ice cream, candy, baked goods, etc. [47]. ...
The primary aim of this investigation was to assess the impact of varying the ratio of gum arabic to maltodextrin and employing diverse encapsulation techniques on the properties of the powdered substance and the capacity to retain the aromatic attributes of terebinth fruit oil. Distinct ratios of gum arabic to maltodextrin (75:25, 50:50, and 25:75) were employed to fabricate oil-in-water emulsions. The utmost stability of the emulsion was realized at a gum arabic to maltodextrin ratio of 75:25, characterized by a minimal creaming index and an even and small-scale dispersion. The encapsulation techniques employed included spray drying (SD), spray freeze-drying (SFD), and freeze-drying (FD). These methodologies were compared based on encapsulation efficiency, desiccation yield, powder attributes, and the capacity to retain aroma. The encapsulation efficiencies were notably higher (>90%) in SD, particularly with the application of an ultrasonic nozzle and a two-fluidized nozzle (2FN), in contrast to those obtained through SFD and FD. Notably, SD employing an ultrasonic nozzle exhibited superior preservation of volatiles (73.19%) compared to FD (24.45%), SD-2FN (62.34%), and SFD (14.23%). Among the various components, α-pinene and linalool stood out with near-perfect retention rates, close to 100%.
... It has been demonstrated that αpinene possesses insecticidal [7], antioxidant [8], anti-microbial [9,10], anti-inflammatory [11], and anti-tumor [12] effects. In addition, α-pinene is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration and other regulatory agencies [13]. Thus, it can be used in the preparation of a wide range of value-added products in the agricultural and food sectors. ...
Essential oil (EO) components possess important biological functions including antimicrobial and insecticidal properties. However, their industrial application is limited due to their volatility, poor water solubility and chemical instability. To solve the aforementioned drawbacks, our thesis work focuses on the preparation and characterization of conventional liposomes (CLs) and drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes (DCLs) carrying several EO components. Characterization of EO encapsulation and release was performed using High Performance Liquid Chromatography and multiple headspace extraction method, respectively. The effect of the chemical structure, the aqueous solubility, the octanol/ water partition coefficient (log P), and the Henry’s law constant (Hc) on the characteristics of CLs and DCLs was investigated. The non-hydrogenated soybean phospholipid (Lipoid S100) was used in combination with cholesterol (CHOL) to prepare the liposomes by the ethanol injection method. A series of EO components was considered including: α-pinene, camphor, estragole, eucalyptol, isoeugenol, pulegone, terpineol, and thymol. Entrapment in CLs was more efficient for the EO components presenting a hydroxyl group in their structure and for those exhibiting a low Hc as well as a low aqueous solubility value. The size and the composition of vesicles were shown to influence the release of components from liposomes. The factors related to EO properties that favor their encapsulation in DCLs were: the presence of a propenyl tail or a hydroxyl group in the structure as well as possessing a high log P value. Besides, a negative relationship was established between the encapsulation efficiency of EO components into DCLs and the CHOL membrane content of vesicles. The release of components from DCLs depends on their encapsulation efficiency into the formulations. Moreover, the interaction of hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) and HP-β-CD/drug inclusion complex with Lipoid S100:CHOL- and Phospholipon 90H:CHOL liposomes was studied where their effects on the size and the membrane composition of vesicles were examined. Results demonstrated that the incorporation of HP-β-CD in the internal aqueous compartment of the liposomes modified the size distribution of vesicles. In addition, HP-β-CD reduced phospholipids incorporation into both types of membranes while reduced CHOL incorporation only for Phospholipon 90H:CHOL vesicles. In conclusion, liposomes and DCLs could be considered as promising carrier systems for EO components. The developed formulations may find wide applications in food, agricultural and pharmaceutical fields.
... It involves complex mixtures of natural compounds with different organic structures and varies depending on the plant source [48]. Papaver species contain alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and essential oil volatiles, among other components [49]. These classes found in different parts of the Papaver plants are discussed in the following subsections. ...
The genus Papaver is highly esteemed in the pharmacy industry, in the culinary field, and as ornamental plants. These plants are also valued in traditional medicine. Among all Papaver species, Papaver somniferum L. (opium poppy) is the most important species in supplying phytochemicals for the formulation of drugs, mainly alkaloids like morphine, codeine, rhoeadine, thebaine, and papaverine. In addition, Papaver plants present other types of phytochemicals, which altogether are responsible for its biological activities. Therefore, this review covers the phytochemical composition of Papaver plants, including alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and essential oils. The traditional uses are reviewed along with their pharmacological activities. Moreover, safety aspects are reported to provide a deep overview of the pharmacology potential of this genus. An updated search was carried out in databases such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and PubMed to retrieve the information. Overall, this genus is a rich source of alkaloids of different types and also contains interesting phenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, flavonols, and the characteristic indole derivatives nudicaulins. Among other pharmacological properties, numerous preclinical studies have been published about the analgesic, anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities of Papaver plants. Although it highlights the significant impact of this genus for the treatment of a variety of diseases and conditions, as a future prospect, characterization works accompanying preclinical studies are required along with clinical and toxicology studies to establish a correlation between the scientific and traditional knowledge.
... Alkaloids are naturally occurring nitrogen-based compounds generally derived from amino acids, which form a complex molecular ring structure where at least one atom of nitrogen is an amine (Laghezza Masci et al. 2019;Alamgeer et al. 2020), reason why most of the alkaloids have the -ine suffix, as in berberine or tetrandrine (Alamgeer et al. 2020). These heterocyclic nitrogenous compounds are mainly found in plants, such as Papaver somniferum (Hao et al. 2015), as well as in animals and fungi, but this is rarely the case (Schläger and Dräger 2016;Liu et al. 2020b). Alkaloids are produced by plants as a protection mechanism against multiple pathogens and herbivores (Alamgeer et al. 2020). ...
Bioactive compounds are usually described as molecules that can be found in small quantities in food and other natural matrixes that can represent an extra-nutritional contribution to the diet due to their related health effects. Membrane technology is an emerging method aimed at purifying different ingredients which has received considerable attention due to the low energy requirements in comparison to other concentration processes, wide range of applications, simplicity in continuous operation and easy integration. One of the main applications of this technique is the recovery and purification of food bioactive ingredients. Nature is an endless source of bioactive compounds that can be used for the formulation of new ingredients or other products. Therefore, it is essential to determine which are those main bioactive compounds present in food and their main properties to correctly apply this technique. The aim of this chapter is to revise those main bioactive compounds found in food, their occurrence, and main sources as well as their main properties. Furthermore, specific limitations for the application of membrane technology will be addressed whenever necessary.
... In addition, α-pinene is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration and other regulatory agencies [12]. Thus, it can be used in the preparation of a wide range of value-added products in the agricultural and food sectors. ...
The essential oil component α-pinene has multiple biological activities. However, its application is limited owing to its volatility, low aqueous solubility, and chemical instability. For the aim of improving its physicochemical properties, α-pinene was encapsulated in conventional liposomes (CLs) and drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes (DCLs). Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin/α-pinene (HP-β-CD/α-pinene) inclusion complexes were prepared in aqueous solution, and the optimal solubilization of α-pinene occurred at HP-β-CD:α-pinene molar ratio of 7.5:1. The ethanol-injection method was applied to produce different formulations using saturated (Phospholipon 90H) or unsaturated (Lipoid S100) phospholipids in combination with cholesterol. The size, the phospholipid and cholesterol incorporation rates, the encapsulation efficiency (EE), and the loading rate (LR) of α-pinene were determined, and the storage stability of liposomes was assessed. The results showed that α-pinene was efficiently entrapped in CLs and DCLs with high EE values. Moreover, Lipoid S100 CLs displayed the highest LR (22.9 ± 2.2%) of α-pinene compared to the other formulations. Both carrier systems HP-β-CD/α-pinene inclusion complex and Lipoid S100 CLs presented a gradual release of α-pinene. Furthermore, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of α-pinene was maintained upon encapsulation in Lipoid S100 CLs. Finally, it was found that all formulations were stable after three months of storage at 4 °C.
... nigrum (blind poppy) is the variant that is mostly used in agriculture. It consists of 99 kinds of alkaloids [1]. Ones that are found in the highest concentrations are morphine, codeine, tebaine, noscapine, and papaverin [2]. ...
Papaver somniferum contains many opioids and is frequently used in agriculture. Both the intoxication and the withdrawal of opioids have a wide range of symptoms such as coma, depressed respiration and agitation. Here, a fatal case of opioid intoxication will be presented. A four-year-old female patient was admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit after ingesting raw poppy plants. She had shallow respiration, tachycardia, hypertension and muscle cramps. A high plasma opioid level was measured and bolus intravenous naloxone was administered which resulted in a brief gain of consciousness. She was intubated after a sudden respiratory depression and loss of consciousness 10 hours later. Naloxone infusion was started and continued for two days. She developed disseminated intravascular coagulation and was lost on day twelve. Raw plant ingestion proves difficult to treat since there is less information about the ingredients. Having no consensus on naloxone dosage and intrinsic complications such as hypo- and hypertension, redistribution, rhabdomyolysis and dysmotility disrupts naloxone administration. Ingestion of opioids as plants brings out different complications for the treatment course while deciding on naloxone dosage proves opioid intoxication difficult to treat.
... The structure of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid is similar to isoquinoline alkaloid with the addition of carbon bridge connecting aromatic ring (ring C) to ring B. We screened 12 benzylisoquinoline alkaloids isolated Papaver bracteatum Narcotics and analgesics, sedative and cytotoxic properties [44] Increase fertilization [45] Papaver dubium Antibacterial [43] Papaver dubium subsp. laevigatum Aerial Cytotoxic [46] Papaver libanoticum Aerial Analgesic [47] Papaver pseudocanescens Antiviral effects against the replication of poliovirus 1 and human rhinovirus 14 [48] Papaver radicatum Coloring agent [49] Papaver rhoeas Aerial Antibacterial [43,50], cytotoxic [51] Fruit Antioxidant [52][53][54] Petals Sedative effect [14], tonic [55] Plant Anodyne, emmenagogue, emollient, expectorant, hypnotic, sedative [55] Scavenging activity [56] Pancreatic lipase inhibitory [57] Increases the quality of ovulated oocytes [58] Anti-influenza [59], antidepressant [60] Antimicrobial activities [61] Root Anti-ulcerogenic [62] Decrease morphine withdrawal symptoms [63][64][65] Anti-inflammatory [66] Papaver lacerum Arial Antidepressant, cytotoxic [51,67] from Papaver genus. Results show that benzylisoquinoline alkaloids such as armepavine, reticuline, and miltanthaline could possess neuroactivity by targeting dopamine and adrenaline receptor and transporter. ...
With its high level of phytochemical and botanical variability, Papaver genus contains several species with many subspecies yielding more than 170 alkaloids. Papaver species have been used as sedative, hypnotic, analgesic, and antidepressant. The aim of this study is to shed light on the structure-activity relationship of alkaloids isolated from Papaver genus. All alkaloids isolated from Papaver genus are listed according to their plant source. We identified the molecular targets of the 92 alkaloids from 10 different types of Papaver alkaloids (simple isoquinoline, benzylisoquinoline, proaporphine, aporphine, morphinane, promorphinane, protoberberine, phthalideisoquinoline, protopine, and rhoeadine) by using cheminformatic approach (Swiss Model). Hierarchical clustering heatmaps were generated by R programming language to visualize the in silico results. The research finding of this study could act as a guiding source for future natural product-based drug discovery.
... It grows in tropical and subtropical regions [1]. This family includes several species, among which C. produces the highest amount and concentration of active principles; C. indica mainly produces fibers and oil-both species have psychoactive properties [2]. The route of administration is inhalation (intrapulmonary u oral), and its modes of presentation are of two: first, as plant (a ground mixture of leaves, stems, and female HIGHLIGHTS Cannabis sativa is a plant with psychoactive properties. ...
Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) is an important annual medicinal plant that belongs to the Cannabaceae family. It contains 421 substances of 18 chemical types-the most significant compound is δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, which causes several effects, both in the Central Nervous System and in several peripheral locations in the organism. The objectives of this scientific review are to mention the anatomical distribution, chemical characteristics and biosynthesis of cannabinoids, as well as its actions mechanisms. The endogenous cannabinoid system, the therapeutic properties of C. sativa and its action on the nociceptive control are described. Finally, the modulators of the cannabinoid system in clinical use are indicated, together with marijuana legalization benefits.
... The potential therapeutic uses of cannabidiol (CBD), one of the cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa L., have recently gained considerable attraction, particularly after approval of the anticonvulsant drug Epidiolex containing 98 % CBD by the FDA in protective and anticonvulsant properties [1,2]. In addition to CBD and THC, other cannabinoids commonly found in hemp are cannabigerol (CBG), a relatively unknown non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid with analgesic, anti-proliferative and antibacterial activity [3], and cannabinol (CBN), a minor constituent in fresh plant material that results of the oxidation of THC [2] and that is normally considered a chemical marker for poor or lengthy storage conditions [4,5]. ...
Hemp varieties of Cannabis Sativa L. contain low levels of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and can be used to produce therapeutic extracts rich in cannabidiol (CBD). In this work, extracts containing up to 449 mg/g CBD were obtained from New Zealand industrial hemp varieties by extraction of flower buds with supercritical CO2. The composition of the extracts and the influence of different processing parameters (extraction pressure up to 1300 bar, use of ethanol co-solvent, decarboxylation of feed) were determined. The apparent solubility of the extract in CO2 at different pressures was measured. Extractions using near-critical propane and dimethyl-ether were also performed. Total extraction yields reached 12.0 wt% with CO2 and 8.2 wt% with propane, whereas total cannabinoid yield ranged from 51 to 100% with CO2 and from 74 to 99 wt% with propane. Addition of 5% ethanol co-solvent enhances the extraction of cannabinoid acid forms, as does an increase in extraction pressure.
... It grows widely at higher altitudes as Cedars Mountain, Makmel Mountain, Sannine, and Qornet es-Saouda in Lebanon. Papaver species are very important medicinally as they are source for many pharmacologically active alkaloids [9]. ...
Papaver libanoticum is an endemic plant to Lebanese region (family Papaveraceae) that has not been investigated before. The present study aimed to explore the analgesic activity of dried ethanolic extract of Papaver libanoticum (PLE) using tail flick, hot plate, and acetic acid induced writhing models in mice. The involvement of opioid receptors in the analgesic mechanism was investigated using naloxone antagonism. Results demonstrated that PLE exhibited a potent dose dependent analgesic activity in all tested models for analgesia. The analgesic effect involved activation of opioid receptors in the central nervous system, where both spinal and supraspinal components might be involved. The time course for analgesia revealed maximum activity after three hours in both tail flick and hot plate methods, which was prolonged to 24 hours. Metabolites of PLE could be responsible for activation of opioid receptors. The EC50 of PLE was 79 and 50 mg/kg in tail flick and hot plate tests, respectively. The total coverage of analgesia by PLE was double that of morphine in both tests. In conclusion, PLE proved to have opioid agonistic activity with a novel feature of slow and prolonged effect. The present study could add a potential tool in the armaments of opioid drugs as a natural potent analgesic and for treatment of opioid withdrawal syndrome.
This chapter explores legal opium farming in Madhya Pradesh, India, by focusing on legal opium farmers and the complexities of their profession. The chapter is divided into three parts. An historical overview of opium cultivation and consumption in India shows that, throughout centuries, the opium plant has been used in many different ways, including medicinal, recreational, and ritual purposes. The second part focuses on how the Indian government regulates opium cultivation and consumption. In 1985 a still valid bill was passed by the Indian government regulating contemporary opium cultivation, possession, sale, purchasing, transport, and storage. Regulation of this psychotropic substance is outdated and poorly functioning, while the number of illicit drug use or possession cases has only increased in recent years (Mehrotra 2021; Sharma et al. 2017). The third part of the chapter analyses ethnographic data (interviews, photographs and fieldwork observations) gathered in two villages in Madhya Pradesh in August 2021 and February 2022. Farmers not only explained the traditional processes of opium cultivation and the meaning they attribute to opium, but they also shared what problems they were facing in their work, most of which are related to unclear or burdensome Government policies on opium cultivation and the increasing attractiveness of the black market.
Papaver somniferum, a member of the Papaveraceae family, is also referred to as Khashkhash. It is among the traditional plants that have been used for medicinal purposes for a very long time. The health advantages of the poppy seeds (Papaver somniferum L.) are widely recognized. Proteins, oil content, dietary fiber, antioxidants, tocopherols, and other micronutrients are among its many nutrients. It is also being investigated because of its in vitro bioactive potential to treat a number of illnesses, including cancer, pain, and hypertension. With particular relation to Unani medicine, we have reviewed habitat, pharmacological activities, and phytochemicals in this paper.
Cannabinoid decarboxylation via thermo‑chemical conversion has the potential to reduce the cannabinoid degrada‑tion and evaporation due to short reaction time and use of water as the solvent. When combined with pressurizedliquid extraction (PLE), thermo‑chemical conversion can be performed as the first stage in the extraction procedure.PLE utilizes a closed system at elevated temperatures and pressure to increase the solvation power, which contrib‑utes to decreased viscosity and increased diffusion rate. With this new in-extraction decarboxylation approach thereremain variables that need full understanding before up scaling from bench top to pilot or commercial scale. Herein,the thermo‑chemical decarboxylation kinetics was studied for industrial hemp via PLE at different temperatures(80–160 °C) and reaction times (1–90 min). The reaction was found to be pseudo‑first order. Model verification on CBDand CBG resulted in acceptable results; however, an anomaly in the minor cannabinoids suggests that cannabinoidconcentration may influence model kinetics
Medicinal plants have a long history of different uses and are still of great importance in the daily life of the Kurds living in the Kurdistan province of Iraq. The present review provides comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological information about medicinal plants growing in the Kodo Mountain area. In fact, no systematic study of the bioresources from this unique region has yet been reported in the scientific literature, even if local villagers have been consuming several plants as nutrition and ethnomedical food for centuries, until today. The data reported in this paper were obtained through interviews with local herbal healers and people living in villages around the Kodo Mountains. They concern 40 plants belonging to 16 botanical families, which are considered medicinal by the local population. The present study recorded and examined the demographic information given by the study participants, the local names and the parts used of the plants, the preparation and administration techniques, and the treatments for diseases. The most frequently cited families were Asteraceae (32.5 %), Lamiaceae (10 %), Brassicaceae, Malvaceae, and Papaveraceae (7.5 % each). The main parts of the plants used for medicinal purposes were leaves (36 %) and flowers (29.5 %). They were administered as decoctions (42 %), raw (26 %), or powder (14 %). Several important phytochemicals have been isolated from the used plants, including flavonoids (60 %), terpenoids (45 %), phenolic acids (42.5 %), polyphenolic compounds (40 %), and essential oils (30 %). The plant ethnomedicinal and pharmacological uses were supported by their antibacterial (18%, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae), anti-inflammatory (18%, Malvaceae, Asteraceae, Papaveraceae), anti-oxidant (16%, Malvaceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Papaveraceae), anti-cancer (9%, Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae, Asteraceae), anti-parasitic (8%, Asteraceae), hepatoprotective (7%, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae, Fabaceae), anti-diabetic (5%, Asteraceae, Fabaceae), anti-fungal (5%, Amaryllidaceae, Umbelliferae, Asphodelaceae, Orchidaceae), anti-spasmodic (4%, Asteraceae, Papaveraceae), and diuretic (3%, Asteraceae, Amaryllidaceae, Plantaginaceae) activities. This study illustrates the significance of traditional medicinal plants that have been utilized for treatment and healing the wounds and curing the illnesses Kurdish tribe in Kodo mountain, north-east part of Kurdistan Region in Iraq, that can be used as reference for further investigations for the researchers in future.
Summary: Medicinal plants have a long history of different uses and are still of great importance in the daily life of the Kurds living in the Kurdistan province of Iraq. The present review provides comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological information about medicinal plants growing in the Kodo Mountain area. In fact, no systematic study of the bioresources from this unique region has yet been reported in the scientific literature, even if local villagers have been consuming several plants as nutrition and ethnomedical food for centuries, until today. The data reported in this paper were obtained through interviews with local herbal healers and people living in villages around the Kodo Mountains. They concern 40 plants belonging to 16 botanical families, which are considered medicinal by the local population. The present study recorded and examined the demographic information given by the study participants, the local names and the parts used of the plants, the preparation and administration techniques, and the treatments for diseases. The most frequently cited families were Asteraceae (32.5 %), Lamiaceae (10 %), Brassicaceae, Malvaceae, and Papaveraceae (7.5 % each). The main parts of the plants used for medicinal purposes were leaves (36 %) and flowers (29.5 %). They were administered as decoctions (42 %), raw (26 %), or powder (14 %). Several important phytochemicals have been isolated from the used plants, including flavonoids (60 %), terpenoids (45 %), phenolic acids (42.5 %), polyphenolic compounds (40 %), and essential oils (30 %). The plant ethnomedicinal and pharmacological uses were supported by their antibacterial (18%, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae), anti-inflammatory (18%, Malvaceae, Asteraceae, Papaveraceae), anti-oxidant (16%, Malvaceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Papaveraceae), anti-cancer (9%, Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae, Asteraceae), anti-parasitic (8%, Asteraceae), hepatoprotective (7%, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae, Fabaceae), anti-diabetic (5%, Asteraceae, Fabaceae), anti-fungal (5%, Amaryllidaceae, Umbelliferae, Asphodelaceae, Orchidaceae), anti-spasmodic (4%, Asteraceae, Papaveraceae), and diuretic (3%, Asteraceae, Amaryllidaceae, Plantaginaceae) activities. This study illustrates the significance of traditional medicinal plants that have been utilized for treatment and healing the wounds and curing the illnesses Kurdish tribe in Kodo mountain, north-east part of Kurdistan Region in Iraq, that can be used as reference for further investigations for the researchers in future.
The increasing demand for effective and natural anti-inflammatory agents prompts an investigation into the properties of Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl., a plant traditionally used in medicine. This study aimed to explore the ability of S. caseolaris leaves extract to inhibit inflammation and accelerate wound healing. S. caseolaris leaves were collected from Tanjung Api-Api area, Banyuasin, South Sumatra. The method involved carrageenan induction in rat paws as an inflammatory model. The results showed that the most effective dose was found in the group with a dose of 150 mg/kg BW measured using a digital caliper and plethysmometer. The qualitative phytochemical test contain alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, and phenols. The results GC-MS analysis were thought to contain aldehydes, glucosinolates, coumarins, esters, terpenoids, alcohols, lipids, tocopherols, and steroids. Due to their diverse range of mechanisms of action, coumarins show significant promise in mitigating inflammation and hold potential for treating inflammatory conditions. This study provides new insights related to the potential of S. caseolaris as a source of natural anti-inflammatory agents, supporting public comprehension regarding the utilization of traditional herbal remedies.
Opium poppy is one of the oldest medicinal plants known to humanity. This iconic plant is believed to be originated in the eastern Mediterranean region but now thrives in various parts of the world. It is an annual herb with an actinomorphic flower and develops a capsule (fruit) containing numerous tiny poppy seeds. The opium poppy is a valuable ornamental plant as well as a source of several natural chemical compounds, including alkaloids, phenolics and essential oils. It possesses exceptional analgesic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties. Afghanistan is the world’s largest poppy producer, with approximately 2.24 × 106 hectares of cultivation area. Sequencing the 2.7 GigaBase genome of opium poppy revealed the presence of 51,213 protein-coding genes and 9494 noncoding RNAs, unveiling promising applications in medicine and agriculture. Opium, dried latex harvested from capsules of opium poppy, contains potent alkaloids such as morphine, codeine, noscapine, and thebaine. These alkaloids, such as morphine and their derivatives, such as heroin, collectively known as opioids, are strong analgesic and sedative narcotics. Their mechanism of action is mediated via binding with opioid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Despite numerous pharmaceutical applications, these compounds are under strict regulation due to their potential for abuse and addiction. Poppy seeds are also an excellent source of nutrients, including protein, fiber, and essential fatty acids and have various applications in culinary, baking, medicine, colovesical fistula diagnostics, hepatocellular cancer imaging, and skincare.
Papaver somniferum L. (opium poppy) is one of the oldest medicinal plants with a history of use in traditional medicine as well as extensive commercial value as a rich source of alkaloids. Different parts of the plant possess potent pharmacological properties and nutritional value as well. Experimental studies and clinical trials have provided evidence that extracts of opium poppy are used in the treatment of several diseases. Further, using GC-MS-based tools, several bioactive constituents have been identified that are of immense phytochemical importance and nutritional value. Several experimental and clinical studies have reported its beneficial role as a vasodilator, anti-bacterial, antipyretic, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous, and anti-anemic agent. With the use of modern technology and research advancement, the biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids has emerged as a new paradigm to decipher the alkaloid biosynthesis pathway. However, future investigations are still required to maximize the commercial use of opium poppy in the form of innovative drugs.
Papaver somniferum L. (Family: Papaveraceae) is a species well known for its diverse alkaloids (100 different benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs)). L-tyrosine serves as a precursor of several specific metabolites like BIAs. It has been used as an antitussive and potent analgesic to alleviate mild to extreme pain since ancient times. The extraction of pharmaceutically important alkaloids like morphine and codeine from poppy plant reflects the need for the most suitable and standard methods. Several analytical and extraction techniques have been reported in open literature for morphine, codeine and other important alkaloids which play a vital function in drug development and drug discovery. Many studies suggest that opioids are also responsible for adverse effects or secondary complications like dependence and withdrawal. In recent years, opium consumption and addiction are the most important risk factors. Many evidence-based reviews suggest that opium consumption is directly linked or acts as a risk factor for different cancers. In this review, we highlight significant efforts related to research which have been done over the past 5 decades and the complete information on Papaver somniferum including its phytochemistry, pharmacological actions, biosynthetic pathways and analytical techniques of opium alkaloid extraction and the link between opium consumption and cancer-related updates.
Medicinal plants have gained popularity in the medical field as herbal remedies due to their beneficial secondary metabolites content. Secondary metabolites and derivatives are also in high demand in medicines and phytotherapy. Environmental factors such as biotic and abiotic stresses influence the synthesis and quality of secondary metabolites. Genetic modification technologies provide strategies to enhance the production of secondary metabolites. Recent genome editing tool CRISPR-Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a potential tool for targeted mutagenesis, gene knockouts, and regulation of gene transcription in plants. This technique has enabled manipulation by modifying the genes that play a key role in the biosynthetic pathway and production of specific plant secondary metabolites (alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, etc.). This chapter aims to explain the importance and necessity of the CRISPR/Cas9 technology in medical plants. The potential of this technology over classical breeding, its limitations in medicinal plants, and the various important secondary metabolites and their applications in the pharmaceutical industry have been discussed.
Papaver somniferum L., opium poppy, (Papaveraceae) has been used for several purposes since ancient times. P. somniferum L. is an annual herb that bears alkaloids such as morphine, codeine, noscapine, papaverine, etc., especially in its capsule. Thanks to these bioactive compounds, it has several therapeutic effects. Because of that, it has also been used against several illnesses for centuries. Until today, countless studies have been carried on P. somniferum L. and its bioactivities. These studies are focused on the isolation of bioactive alkaloids and synthesizing their various semi-synthetic and synthetic derivatives. Along with identification and bioactivity tests of alkaloids of opium poppy, their clinical behaviors were also examined by researchers from the whole world. Today, opium poppy, especially its alkaloids, became an indispensable part of medicine.The objective of this chapter is to discuss Papaver somniferum L. with all aspects.KeywordsPapaver somniferum L.Opium poppyOpiateMorphineCodeineHistory of opium
This study used opium sirup (OP) as reducing and stabilizing agent to improve the biological properties of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by green approach. XRD, UV–visible spectrum, ESEM, TEM, dynamic light scattering, FT-IR, density functional theory and Zeta potential techniques were employed to investigate the synthesis particles. Stable well-dispersed spherical AgNPs with a mean grain size of 4 nm were successfully synthesized. Our data revealed the enhanced anti-bacterial effects of Ag-opium at higher concentrations of OP against the human pathogens including Streptococcus mutants, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, and E. coli. DPPH free radical scavenging assay showed the AgNPs and O can act as anti-oxidant as well as suppressor agents on the maintenance of DPPH radicals as a function of their dosages. Also, MTT assay was shown that the green synthesized AgNPs effects significantly increased the anti-proliferative with activities of prepared samples on MDA-MB-468 cells as a dose depended manner.
Bu çalışmada, onbir bitki familyasından yirmi türün Orosanga japonica nimf kontrolüne karşı potansiyel etkinlikleri edilmiştir. Etil Asetat özütleri için, en yüksek mortalite oranlarını Daucus carota ve Salvia vertisillate vermiştir. En düşük mortalite 24 saat sonra Matricaria camomilla ve 48 saat sonra Tripleurospermum caucasicum için bulunmuştur. Metanol ekstraktlarında, en düşük ölüm oranları iki test süresinde de Matricaria camomilla için bulunmuştur. En yüksek mortalite oranları 24 saat Salvia verticillate ve 48 saat için Salvia verticillate, Erigeron annuus, Daucus carota için bulunmuştur. Metanol ekstraktları ölüm oranlarının genellikle etil asetat ekstraktlarından daha yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. En etkili bitki ham özütleri sırasıyla Salvia verticillate (Lamiaceae) ve Daucus carota (Apiaceae) olarak görülmüştür. Sonuç olarak, on bir farklı bitki familyası türlerinden alınan özütlerin Orosanga nimflerine karşı yüksek veya orta derecede potansiyel insektisidal aktivite rapor edilmiştir. Bu nedenle Karadeniz ülkelerinde istilacı Orosanga japonica'ya karşı biyolojik bazlı kontrol yöntemlerinin oluşturulması için kapsamlı ve daha ayrıntılı bir çalışma yapılması gerekmektedir.
Objective
Brain ischemia is an arterial vascular disorder, the second cause of death in the world. In this study, the effect of oral consumption of opium on the inflammation status, oxidative stress, infarction volume and neurological function after stroke in male rats were investigated.
Materials and methods
A total of 48 male Wistar rats were randomly assigned into three groups: 1- Sham group: these rats underwent sham surgery. 2- Stroke group: rats of this group underwent 2 h transient focal cerebral ischemia. 3- Opium group: opium administration began eight days before the ischemia, and then rats were underwent 2 h of transient focal cerebral ischemia. After that, the rats were evaluated for neurological impairment 24 h after stroke. The cerebral edema and infarct volume were evaluated by Image j software, and the concentration of total antioxidant capacity (TAC), Malondialdehyde (MDA), TNF-α, and C-reactive protein (CRP) of the brain tissue were measured as an indicator of inflammation and oxidative stress.
Results
TAC concentration in the opium group was significantly higher than of stroke group. Also, the TNF-α, CRP and MDA concentrations in the opium group were significantly lower than stroke group. The degree of cerebral edema and infarct volume in the opium group was significantly lower than stroke group. Moreover, the opium group had better neurological performance than the stroke group.
Conclusion
Based on the results of this study, the use of opium by enhancing the antioxidant capacity and decreasing inflammation after cerebral ischemia can reduce the extent of damage.
Opium is the latex from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum L. which man has utilized since ancient Mesopotamia all the way to modern times. Opium used to be surrounded in divine mystery or magic like abilities and was given to cure a wide verity of diseases until its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties were understood and the resulting alkaloids were isolated and their structure and properties unmasked. Opium went from being sold in any store front in the form of pills or tinctures with no prescription necessary for purchase, or smoked in an opium den down the street, to then bringing about consumer advocacy and the right to know what is in a medication. Legislation to limit the prescribing and selling of medications to doctors and pharmacists, as well as outlawing opium dens and smoking opium. This review will focus primarily on the uses of opium throughout history, the isolation of the principle alkaloids, and their structure elucidation.
In May 2011, numerous poppy plants closely resembling Papaver bracteatum Lindl., a type of narcotic plant that is illegal in Japan, were distributed directly from several large flower shops or through online shopping throughout Japan, including the Tokyo Metropolitan area. In order to better identify the narcotic plants, the relative nuclear DNA content at the vegetative stage was measured by flow cytometric (FCM) analysis in 3 closely-related species of the genus Papaver section Oxytona, namely P. orientale, P. pseudo-orientale, and P. bracteatum, based on the difference between the chromosome numbers of these species. The results showed that the nuclear DNA content differed between these 3 species, and that most of the commercially distributed plants examined in this study could be identified as P. bracteatum. The remaining plants were P. pseudo-orientale, a non-narcotic plant. In addition, the FCM results for the identification of P. bracteatum completely agreed with the results obtained by the morphological analysis, the inter-genic spacer sequence of rpl16-rpl14 (PS-ID sequence) of chloroplast DNA, and the presence of thebaine. These results clearly indicate the usefulness of FCM analysis for the identification of P. bracteatum plants, including when they are in their vegetative stage.
Downy mildew (DM) caused by Peronospora arborescens, is a serious disease in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), which has a world-wide spread. The establishment of DM-resistant cultivars appears to be a sustainable way to control the
disease. In this paper, we present the results of a study aimed at the identification of amplified fragment length polymorphism
(AFLP) markers for DM-resistance in opium poppy. Three opium poppy genotypes (inbred over about 10 years): Pps-1 (DM-resistant),
Jawahar-16 (DM-susceptible) and H-9 (DM-susceptible) were crossed in a diallel manner and the F1 progeny along with the parents
were subjected to AFLP analysis of chloroplast (cp) and nuclear DNA with seven and nine EcoRI / MseI primer combinations, respectively. cpDNA AFLP analysis identified 24 Pps-1 (DM-resistant)-specific unique fragments that
were found to be maternally inherited in both the crosses, Pps-1 × Jawahar-16 and Pps-1 × H-9. In the case of nuclear DNA
AFLP analysis, it was found that 17 fragments inherited from Pps-1 were common to the reciprocal crosses of both (i) Pps-1
and Jawahar-16 as well as (ii) Pps-1 and H-9. This is the first molecular investigation on the identification of polymorphism
between DM-resistant and DM-susceptible opium poppy genotypes and development of DM-resistant opium poppy genotype-specific
AFLP markers. These AFLP markers could be used in future genetic studies for analysis of linkage to the downy mildew resistance
trait.
KeywordsAFLP-disease resistance-DNA markers-downy mildew-
Papaver somniferum
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Peronospora arborescens
The structure of pangrenine, a new diisoquinoline alkaloid representing salts of protoberberine bases that was isolated from
the aerial part of Papaver angrenicum as the nitrate, was established. Spectral and x-ray structural data of the isolated compound were presented.
Papaver somniferum (opium poppy) is the source for several pharmaceutical benzylisoquinoline alkaloids including morphine, the codeine and sanguinarine. In response to treatment with a fungal elicitor, the biosynthesis and accumulation of sanguinarine is induced along with other plant defense responses in opium poppy cell cultures. The transcriptional induction of alkaloid metabolism in cultured cells provides an opportunity to identify components of this process via the integration of deep transcriptome and proteome databases generated using next-generation technologies.
A cDNA library was prepared for opium poppy cell cultures treated with a fungal elicitor for 10 h. Using 454 GS-FLX Titanium pyrosequencing, 427,369 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) with an average length of 462 bp were generated. Assembly of these sequences yielded 93,723 unigenes, of which 23,753 were assigned Gene Ontology annotations. Transcripts encoding all known sanguinarine biosynthetic enzymes were identified in the EST database, 5 of which were represented among the 50 most abundant transcripts. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) of total protein extracts from cell cultures treated with a fungal elicitor for 50 h facilitated the identification of 1,004 proteins. Proteins were fractionated by one-dimensional SDS-PAGE and digested with trypsin prior to LC-MS/MS analysis. Query of an opium poppy-specific EST database substantially enhanced peptide identification. Eight out of 10 known sanguinarine biosynthetic enzymes and many relevant primary metabolic enzymes were represented in the peptide database.
The integration of deep transcriptome and proteome analyses provides an effective platform to catalogue the components of secondary metabolism, and to identify genes encoding uncharacterized enzymes. The establishment of corresponding transcript and protein databases generated by next-generation technologies in a system with a well-defined metabolite profile facilitates an improved linkage between genes, enzymes, and pathway components. The proteome database represents the most relevant alkaloid-producing enzymes, compared with the much deeper and more complete transcriptome library. The transcript database contained full-length mRNAs encoding most alkaloid biosynthetic enzymes, which is a key requirement for the functional characterization of novel gene candidates.
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) produces a diverse array of bioactive benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and has emerged as a model system to study plant alkaloid metabolism. The plant is cultivated as the only commercial source of the narcotic analgesics morphine and codeine, but also produces many other alkaloids including the antimicrobial agent sanguinarine. Modulations in plant secondary metabolism as a result of environmental perturbations are often associated with the altered regulation of other metabolic pathways. As a key component of our functional genomics platform for opium poppy we have used proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) metabolomics to investigate the interplay between primary and secondary metabolism in cultured opium poppy cells treated with a fungal elicitor.
Metabolite fingerprinting and compound-specific profiling showed the extensive reprogramming of primary metabolic pathways in association with the induction of alkaloid biosynthesis in response to elicitor treatment. Using Chenomx NMR Suite v. 4.6, a software package capable of identifying and quantifying individual compounds based on their respective signature spectra, the levels of 42 diverse metabolites were monitored over a 100-hour time course in control and elicitor-treated opium poppy cell cultures. Overall, detectable and dynamic changes in the metabolome of elicitor-treated cells, especially in cellular pools of carbohydrates, organic acids and non-protein amino acids were detected within 5 hours after elicitor treatment. The metabolome of control cultures also showed substantial modulations 80 hours after the start of the time course, particularly in the levels of amino acids and phospholipid pathway intermediates. Specific flux modulations were detected throughout primary metabolism, including glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, nitrogen assimilation, phospholipid/fatty acid synthesis and the shikimate pathway, all of which generate secondary metabolic precursors.
The response of cell cultures to elicitor treatment involves the extensive reprogramming of primary and secondary metabolism, and associated cofactor biosynthetic pathways. A high-resolution map of the extensive reprogramming of primary and secondary metabolism in elicitor-treated opium poppy cell cultures is provided.
Meconopsis horridula Hook.f. Thoms has been used as traditional Tibetan medicine to clear away heat, relieve pain and mobilize static blood. In this study, a reliable method based on high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry was established for the identification of components in this herb. A total of 40 compounds (including 17 flavonoids, 15 alkaloids and eight phenylpropanoids) were identified or tentatively identified. Among them, 17 components were identified in the herb for the first time. Compound 39 appears to be a novel compound, which is confirmed as 3-(kaempferol-8-yl)-2,3-epoxyflavanone by NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Moreover, seven major constituents were simultaneously quantified by the developed high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem triple-quadrupole mass spectrometry method. The quantitative method was validated and quality parameters were established. The study provides a comprehensive approach for understanding this herbal medicine. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Recent advances in DNA sequencing technology and analytical mass spectrometry are providing unprecedented opportunities to develop the functional genomics resources required to investigate complex biological processes in non-model plants. Opium poppy produces a wide variety of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), including the pharmaceutical compounds codeine, morphine, noscapine and papaverine. A functional genomics platform to identify novel BIA biosynthetic and regulatory genes in opium poppy has been established based on the differential metabolite profile of eight selected cultivars. Stem cDNA libraries from each of the eight opium poppy cultivars were subjected to 454 pyrosequencing and searchable expressed sequence tag databases were created from the assembled reads. These deep and integrated metabolite and transcript databases provide a nearly complete representation of the genetic and metabolic variances responsible for the differential occurrence of specific BIAs in each cultivar as demonstrated using the biochemically well characterized pathway from tyrosine to morphine. Similar correlations between the occurrence of specific transcripts and alkaloids effectively reveals candidate genes encoding uncharacterized biosynthetic enzymes as shown using cytochromes P450 potentially involved in the formation of papaverine and noscapine.
The perennial herb Meconopsis cambrica, a western European endemic, is the only European species of the otherwise Himalayan genus Meconopsis and has been interpreted as a Tertiary relict species. Using rbcL and ITS sequence variation, we date the split between M. cambrica and its sister clade Papaver s.str. to the Middle to Upper Miocene (12.8 Myr, 6.4-19.2 Myr HPD). Within M. cambrica, cpDNA sequence variation reveals the existence of two groups of populations with a comparable level of genetic variation: a northern group from Great Britain, the Massif Central, the western Pyrenees and the Iberian System, and a southern group from the central and eastern Pyrenees. Populations from the Cantabrian Mountains were placed in both groups. Based on ITS sequence variation, the divergence between these two groups can be dated to 1.5 Myr (0.4-2.8 Myr HPD), and the age of the British populations is estimated as 0.37 Myr (0.0-0.9 Myr HPD). Amplified fragment length polymorphism results confirm the distinctive nature of the populations from Britain, the Massif Central and the central and eastern Pyrenees. These patterns of latitudinal variation of M. cambrica differ from patterns of longitudinal differentiation found in many other temperate species and imply glacial survival of the northern populations in northerly refugia. The primary differentiation into northern and southern cpDNA groups dates to near the onset of the Quaternary and suggests that an ancient phylogeographic pattern has survived through several glacial periods. Our data provide evidence that the species has persisted for a long period with a highly fragmented and probably very localized distribution.
Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers in the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) were identified from an expressed sequence tag (EST) database comprised of 20,340 sequences. In total, 2780 SSR-containing sequences were identified. The most frequent microsatellite had an AT/TA motif (37%). Twenty-two opium poppy EST-SSR markers were presently developed and polymorphisms of six markers (psom 2, 4, 12, 13, 17, and 22) were utilized in 135 individuals under narcotic control investigation. An average of three alleles per locus (range: 2-5 alleles) with a mean heterozygosity of 0.167 was detected. Six loci identified 29 unique profiles in 135 individuals. The EST-SSR markers exhibited small degrees of genetic differentiation (fixation index = 0.727, p < 0.001). Other variable markers will be needed to facilitate the forensic identification of the opium poppy for future cases. To determine the potential for cross-species amplification, six markers were tested in five Papaver genera species and two Eschscholzia genera. The psom 4 and psom 17 primer pair was transferable. This is the first study to report SSR markers of the opium poppy.
The proper identification of illicit plants such as Papaver somniferum L (opium poppy) is important for law enforcement agencies. The identification of opium poppy was presently tested using 10 genetic markers that are universal for all plants or specific to a few poppy plants. The genetic distances of universal markers such as nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS), 18S rRNA, plastid rbcL, and trnL-trnF intergenic spacer (IGS) of 14 species included in the Papaveraceae and Fumariaceae family were acquired by sequence comparisons. Both the ITS region and trnL-trnF IGS showed high levels of interspecific divergence. Six Papaver genera-specific markers were developed from coding regions involved in morphine biosynthesis. Three markers (TYDC, NCS, and BBE) produced amplicons only in opium poppy, providing a presence/absence test for opium poppy, while three additional markers (CYP80B1, SAT, and COR) were genus specific. These 10 markers might be useful for the forensic DNA analysis of opium poppy.
Micro-RNAs (miRNA) are regulatory non-coding class of small RNAs functioning in many organisms. Using computational approaches we have identified 20 conserved opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) miRNAs belonging to 16 miRNA families in Expressed Sequence Tags (EST) database. The existence of ESTs suggested that the miRNAs were expressed in P. somniferum. Lengths of mature miRNAs varied from 20 to 23 nucleotides located at the different positions of precursor RNAs. Uracil was found to be a dominant nucleotide in both poppy pre-miRNA sequences (31.28 +/- 7.06% of total nucleotide composition) and in the first position at the 5' end of the mature poppy miRNAs. We have applied quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) assays to compare and validate expression levels of selected P. somniferum miRNAs and their target transcripts. As a result, some of the predicted miRNAs and their target genes were found to be differentially expressed in P. somniferum leaf and root tissues. A meaningful correlation between three of the four analyzed pairs of miRNAs and their target transcript expression levels was detected. Additionally, using these predicted miRNAs as queries, 41 potential target mRNAs were found in National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) protein-coding nucleotide (mRNA) database of all plant species. Some of the target mRNAs were found to be transcription factors regulating plant development, morphology, and flowering time. Other target mRNAs of identified conserved miRNAs involve in metabolic processes, signal transduction, and stress responses. This study reports the first identification of opium poppy miRNAs.
An integrated approach using targeted metabolite profiles and modest EST libraries each containing approximately 3500 unigenes was developed in order to discover and functionally characterize novel genes involved in plant-specialized metabolism. EST databases have been established for benzylisoquinoline alkaloid-producing cell cultures of Eschscholzia californica, Papaver bracteatum and Thalictrum flavum, and are a rich repository of alkaloid biosynthetic genes. ESI-FTICR-MS and ESI-MS/MS analyses facilitated unambiguous identification and relative quantification of the alkaloids in each system. Manual integration of known and candidate biosynthetic genes in each EST library with benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthetic networks assembled from empirical metabolite profiles allowed identification and functional characterization of four N-methyltransferases (NMTs). One cDNA from T. flavum encoded pavine N-methyltransferase (TfPavNMT), which showed a unique preference for (+/-)-pavine and represents the first isolated enzyme involved in the pavine alkaloid branch pathway. Correlation of the occurrence of specific alkaloids, the complement of ESTs encoding known benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthetic genes and the differential substrate range of characterized NMTs demonstrated the feasibility of bilaterally predicting enzyme function and species-dependent specialized metabolite profiles.
In the present study morphinan, tetrahydrobenzylisoquinoline, benzo[c]phenanthridine, and phthalideisoquinoline alkaloids were determined qualitatively and quantitatively by HPLC and LC-MS analysis in tissues of the Tasmanian Papaver somniferum L. elite cultivar C048-6-14-64. The data were compared with the results from the low-morphine cultivar "Marianne". In the elite cultivar, 91.2% of the latex alkaloids consist of the three pharmaceutically most valuable alkaloids: morphine, codeine, and thebaine. In the root system, the major alkaloids are sanguinarine/10-hydroxysanguinarine and dihydrosanguinarine/10-hydroxydihydrosanguinarine. In the stems and leaves of C048-6-14-64, the same alkaloids were measured as in the latex. In the stems, a gradient in relative total alkaloid content from the top downward toward the roots was observed. The concentration of morphine was decreasing toward the roots, whereas an increasing gradient from the upper to the lower stem parts was detected for codeine. The relative total alkaloid concentration in leaves remained constant; no gradient was observed. The cultivar "Marianne" displayed a shifted pattern of alkaloid accumulation and reduced levels of total alkaloid. In the condiment cultivar, 80.5% of the alkaloids of the latex consisted of the two phthalideisoquinoline alkaloids narcotoline and noscapine. Only 18.8% of the relative total alkaloid content were morphinan alkaloids. In contrast to the narcotic cultivar, in which the benzo[c]phenanthridines in roots dominated over the morphinan and tetrahydrobenzylisoquinoline alkaloids, the concentration of benzo[c]phenanthridines in "Marianne" was similar to that of morphinan and tetrahydrobenzylisoquinoline alkaloids. These data suggest a differential alkaloid regulation in each cultivar of P. somniferum.
In the present study, the effects of a water-alcohol extract of Papaver rhoeas on the acquisition and expression of morphine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice were investigated. The subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of morphine (50 mg/kg) induced locomotor activity in animals, whereas the drug did not show an effect at a dose of 5 mg/kg. On the other hand, intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of the plant extract (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) did not show any effect. The locomotor behavioral response was enhanced in mice pretreated with morphine (5 mg/kg, daily × 3 days) alone, indicating that sensitization had developed. Extract (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p.) administration, 30 min before each of the three daily doses of morphine decreased the development of sensitization. Moreover, intraperitoneal administration of the plant extract (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) 30 min before the test reduced the expression of morphine-induced behavioral sensitization.
The results indicate that administration of the extract of Papaver rhoeas reduced the acquisition and expression of morphine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice. Copyright
Together with bismorphine A (1), a new compound bismorphine B (2) was identified in the wounded capsules of Papaver somniferum. On the basis of analyses of the various spectral data, bismorphine B (2) was determined as a novel morphinan alkaloid, in which two morphine units are coupled through a biphenyl ether bond. When the physiological function of bismorphine B (2) in opium poppy was investigated, it was evident that this alkaloid more effectively cross-links cell wall polysaccharide pectins than bismorphine A (1) and that such cross-linking reaction leads to resistance against hydrolysis by pectinase.
The opium poppy Papaver somniferum contains an array of opiates. There is a variety of methods of preparation that can be used by people with opiate dependence, with patterns of use determined by numerous factors including cost, safety, potency and legal status. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency and nature of poppy seed tea (PST) use by opiate-dependent patients in the form of a written questionnaire. The study took place at the Community Alcohol and Drug Clinic, Wellington, New Zealand, and comprised 24 opiate-dependent patients attending the clinic. A total of 11 of 24 (46%) patients reported having used PST. In five patients currently using PST it represented the major source of opiates, and two had managed to withdraw from use of other opiates with regular PST use. Patients reported a median onset of action of 15 minutes and an effect lasting a median of 24 hours. The major limitation of PST use was the foul taste. PST is used commonly by opiate-dependent patients attending an alcohol and drug clinic in New Zealand. The use of PST as the major source of opiates could be considered favourably within 'harm reduction' philosophies, because of its low cost, legal availability and oral route of administration. Conversely, there is the potential for PST to act as a 'gateway drug' by inducing opioid dependence and introducing people to the culture of drug abuse.