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The impact of ammonia inhalants on strength performance in resistance trained males

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Scott Richmond at Lindenwood University
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A.C. Potts
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Abstract

Ammonia Inhalants (AIs) have been suspected to enhance athletic performance through an increased awareness and subsequent increase in physical strength. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of AIs on strength performance. Twenty-five college-aged males with at least 3 yrs of resistance training experience performed as many repetitions as possible with the back squat and bench press at 85% of one repetition maximum (1RM) after inhaling either AIs or placebo (Vick's® VapoRub®, VVR). There were no significant differences between the number of repetitions performed in the back squat (P = 0.403) or the bench press (P = 0.422) after inhaling the AIs compared to the VVR. While no differences in performance were observed, many individuals may still continue to use AIs. Therefore, if an individual has no pre-existing medical conditions and feels that AIs improve performance, there appears to be no contraindications to using low doses.
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Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline
April 2014
Volume 17 Number 2
Editor-in-Chief
Tommy Boone, PhD, MBA
Review Board
Todd Astorino, PhD
Julien Baker, PhD
Steve Brock, PhD
Lance Dalleck, PhD
Eric Goulet, PhD
Robert Gotshall, PhD
Alexander Hutchison, PhD
M. Knight-Maloney, PhD
Len Kravitz, PhD
James Laskin, PhD
Yit Aun Lim, PhD
Lonnie Lowery, PhD
Derek Marks, PhD
Cristine Mermier, PhD
Robert Robergs, PhD
Chantal Vella, PhD
Dale Wagner, PhD
Frank Wyatt, PhD
Ben Zhou, PhD
Official Research Journal
of the American Society of
Exercise Physiologists
ISSN 1097-9751
Official Research Journal of
the American Society of
Exercise Physiologists
ISSN 1097-9751
JEPonline
The impact of ammonia inhalants on strength
performance in resistance trained males
Scott R. Richmond1, Adam C. Potts2, Joseph R. Sherman1
1 Department of Kinesiology, Missouri State University, Springfield,
MO, USA
2 Lamar University Strength & Conditioning Department, Lamar
University, Beaumont, TX, USA
ABSTRACT
Richmond SR, Potts AC, Sherman JR. The impact of ammonia
inhalants on strength performance in resistance trained males.
JEPonline 2014;17(2):1-7. Ammonia Inhalants (AIs) have been
suspected to enhance performance through an increased awareness
and subsequent increase in physical strength. The purpose of this
study was to examine the impact of AIs on strength performance.
Twenty-five college-aged males with at least three years resistance
training experience performed as many repetitions as possible with
the back squat and bench press at 85% 1RM after inhaling either AIs
or placebo (Vick’s® VapoRub®, VVR). There was no significant
difference between the amount of repetitions performed in the back
squat (p = 0.403) or the bench press (p = 0.422) after inhaling the AIs
compared to the VVR. While no differences in performance were
observed, many individuals may still continue to use AIs. Therefore, if
an individual has no pre-existing medical conditions and feels that AIs
improve their performance then there are no contraindications to use
in low doses. Key Words: Smelling Salts, Resistance Training
1
INTRODUCTION
Pre-workout supplements are very popular in today’s fitness realm. Many athletes,
bodybuilders, power-lifters and recreational lifters use pre-workout supplements prior to training to
increase motivation and muscular strength. Previous studies have shown that significant benefits in
muscular strength and power can be acquired from using pre-workout ‘energy’ supplements within an
hour prior to the resistance training session (2, 9). Ammonia Inhalants (AIs), or smelling salts, are
often used to enhance performance in sports competitions and prior to heavy resistance training
bouts. AIs are becoming more widespread among athletes and lifters attempting to gain an edge or
increase strength or performance (3, 4).
AIs are typically found in the form of capsules containing ammonium carbonate combined with
scents or perfumes. AIs are categorized as a respiratory stimulants and when AIs are inhaled, the
nose, lungs, and mucus membranes rapidly become irritated causing involuntary inhalation (4). This
involuntary inhalation is reported to accelerate respiration and stimulate a “higher degree of
consciousness” (4). A “higher degree of consciousness” may be responsible for increasing primary
attentional focus which allows the weight lifter to block out unnecessary distractions and primarily
focus on the task of executing the exercise, a psychological trait that many expert athletes utilize to
perform successfully under pressure (7).
The use of AIs are approved through the United States Food and Drug Administration for the
treatment of fainting and may be purchased over the counter. Ammonia is toxic in large amounts and
should only be administered in small doses to users with no pre-existing medical conditions (10).
Complications caused by AIs in athletes have been reported, but are extremely rare, and include lung
irritation/damage, loss of consciousness and anaphylaxis (3). People with respiratory issues such as
asthma should avoid using AIs due to the potential of the lungs becoming irritated. It is also
recommended that AIs not be used to aid head and neck injuries because of the risk of a sudden,
unexpected reflex (10).
Athletes commonly use AIs immediately before or during competition, such as prior to
attempting a 1RM in the bench press, back squat, deadlift or power clean. AIs have also been used
before the opening kickoff of a football game, between rounds of a boxing match or in locker rooms
during breaks or intermissions of games (10). Although AIs have been used for many years, little is
known about their effects on athletic performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
examine the impact of AIs on strength performance.
METHODS
Subjects
Twenty-eight males were recruited from university physical conditioning courses and local
fitness establishments (age: 21.5 ± 2.2y, height: 181.1 ± 4.6 cm, weight: 93.4 ± 14.2 kg). A training
history questionnaire was required to ensure that all subjects were indeed ‘experienced’; defined by
at least 3yrs of resistance training experience (Resistance Training Experience: 7.3 ± 2.6y) and could
back squat 1.5 times their body weight and bench press 1.0 times their body weight (1). Individuals
who did not meet these criteria were excluded from participation in the study. Prior to participating in
the investigation, subjects were informed of all potential risks and procedures involved with the study
and completed an informed consent in accordance with the Human Subjects Committee Review
Board (Study #: 13-0316) and the World Medical Association 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. Each
participant in the study completed a medical history form to assist in screening out individuals that
have any cardio, respiratory or muscular conditions that would affect the study. Vick’s ® VapoRub®
(VVR) was chosen as a placebo in this study because of its strong menthol scent that is comparable
to an AI. The back squat and bench press exercises were used in this study due to the fact they are
measures of upper and lower body strength, are highly utilized in training and correlate to athletic
performance (5).
2
Procedures
The initial session consisted of completing pre-participation paperwork and estimating their
one-repetition max (1RM) on the back squat and the bench press. Participants were instructed not to
engage in any demanding physical activity at least 48-h prior to any of the testing sessions so that the
central nervous system and muscular system would be fully recovered (6). Participants were also
instructed to follow the same dietary regime throughout the trial and eat a meal at least 3-h prior to
each testing session. After the completion of all pre-screening paperwork participants began a
general warm up on an Aerodyne Ergometer for 5-min followed by the back squat warm up (8).
Participants performed the back squat testing prior to the bench press in this study because the squat
exercise involves larger muscle groups which should be trained prior to smaller muscle groups (1). A
standard squat rack with a 20kg barbell was used for the all of the testing. Participants were already
familiar with proper back squat technique from previous training experience, but proper technique
was re-emphasized prior to and during all lifting. Technique consisted of the feet being parallel to
each other and also shoulder width apart with the barbell resting on the shoulders. For the repetition
to be deemed successful the participant needed to descend with the hips and knees until the thighs
were parallel to the floor and then return to a standing position from the squat (1). Following at least
3 warm-up sets consisting 2-6 repetitions; the resistance was increased in 5-20kg increments until the
participants could only perform 2-5 repetitions with maximal exertion and proper technique. The 1RM
was estimated using the number of squat repetitions performed with that weight (1). After the back
squat RM, participants rested for 5-min before starting the bench press warm up. The bench press
technique consisted of the head, back, hips, feet and legs contacting the bench or floor at all times.
The participants were instructed to lower the barbell to touch the chest and then raise the barbell by
fully extending the elbows. The repetition was not deemed successful if the participant failed to utilize
the demonstrated technique. Next, the participant completed at least 3 warm up sets before
attempting the RM set. The 1RM was estimated using the number of bench press repetitions
performed with that weight (1). See Figure 1 for detail of overall timeline of testing session
throughout the study.
Approximately 2 to 4 days (at least 48-h and no more than 96-h) after the initial testing, the
second testing session took place. During the second testing session participants started with a 5-
min warm up on the Aerodyne Ergometer and then began the squat warm up. The participant
completed at least 4 back squat warm up sets with approximately 1-min between sets. During these
warm up sets a marked coin was flipped to randomly assign which substance the participant would
inhale first. Two minutes rest was given prior to completing the maximal exertion set (ME) set which
consisted of performing as many reps as possible with 85% of their predicted 1RM. Three seconds
before initiating the ME set the participant inhaled either the AI or VVR (placebo). The AI was in
liquid form and VVR in gel form, both were contained within a micro-centrifuge tube. During testing
the substance inhaled was unknown to the participant and to the researcher who administered it.
After the ME set was completed there was a 5-min break prior to beginning the bench press warm up.
After 4 sets of bench press warm up the participant also completed their ME set at 85% 1RM. Three
seconds prior to the ME set the participant will once again inhaled either the AI or VVR. The same
substance was inhaled for both the bench press and back squat. The third testing session was 2 to 4
days (at least 48-h and no more than 96-h) after the second session. The third session was identical
to the second testing session except the participant inhaled the substance that they did not inhale
during the second session.
Statistical Analyses
Using SPSS (v19.0) a Paired Samples t-test was utilized to measure differences in the number
of repetitions completed after inhaling the AI or the VVR. A One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
was used to measure any differences in the calculated 1RM’s of all three sessions (pre-test, AI, and
VVR).
3
RESULTS
The results were based on 25 male participants who completed all 3 testing sessions. Three
participants did not finish the study due to scheduling issues. Participants who completed the study
reported no physical injuries due to the testing protocol. There was no significant difference between
the amount of repetitions performed in the back squat (AI = 6.7 ± 2.3 vs. VVR = 6.4 ± 1.8; p = 0.403)
or the bench press (AI = 5.4 ± 1.2 vs. VVR = 5.2 ± 1.6; p = 0.422) after inhaling the AI compared to
the VVR. There was also no significant difference between the calculated 1RM for both back squat
and bench press when using AI, VVR or initial testing session (no substance inhaled).
DISCUSSION
The results of this study have revealed no significant differences in the AI testing sessions
compared to the VVR sessions in the back squat and bench press. People with respiratory issues like
asthma should avoid using AIs due to the potential for the lungs to become irritated. It is also
recommended that AIs not be used to aid head and neck injuries due to the risk of a sudden,
unexpected reflex (10).
Potential limitations to this study include the amount of Ammonia that was inhaled by each
participant. Although each participant inhaled the ammonia from the same size capsule, the amount
of inhalation by each participant may have been much different. Another issue that will have to be
answered in future research is how the AI would affect back squat and bench press performance at a
higher percentage of a 1RM, greater than 85% of 1RM. It is understood that anecdotal reports
suggest that AIs are used for short anaerobic bursts of strength. It may be possible that with when
using AIs the amount of weight someone can perform after two or three reps decreases significantly
Utilizing a weight closer to predicted maximum could potentially create a more realistic picture of a
powerlifting or sport-specific activity. Further research must be done to examine this issue.
Although more research is needed on the effects of AIs relating to exercise performance, our
data suggests that there may be no significant link between the two. A placebo effect interaction due
to participants not inhaling substances before lifting on a regular basis could somewhat explain the
results. While there were no differences in performance, this study does not account for any potential
psychological impact of AIs. Subjects reported anecdotally that the substances “made them feel like
they were more aroused and awake.” Therefore, if an individual has no pre-existing medical
conditions and feels that AIs do improve their performance then there are no known contraindications
to use in low doses.
The practical significance due to a psychological impact of the AIs is an area that should be
explored by subsequent research. Determining if AIs impact the nervous system in a way that
improves motor unit firing, biomechanics or muscle fiber activity could help explain the anecdotal
accounts of the participants. Further research is needed to determine if this effect is repeatable with
other substances used as a control.
CONCLUSIONS
While there were no differences in performance, this study did not account for any potential
psychological impact of AIs. Therefore, if an individual feels that AIs do improve their performance,
and has no pre-existing medical conditions that would present harm with AI use, then there are no
contraindications for use in low doses. However, given the lack of a significant impact of AIs on back
squat and bench press performance, AIs should not be prescribed universally by trainers and
strength coaches.
4
Address for correspondence: Richmond SR, PhD, Department of Kinesiology, Missouri State
University, Springfield, MO USA, 65897. Phone: (417) 836-8481, Email:
ScottRichmond@MissouriState.edu
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supplement on acute multi-joint resistance exercise. J Sports Sci Med 10: 261-266, 2010.
3. Herrick RT, Herrick S. Allergic reaction to aromatic ammonia inhalant ampule. A case report. Am
J Sports Med 11: 28, 1983.
4. McCrory P. Smelling salts. Br J Sports Med 40: 659-660, 2006.
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and Measures of Sport Performance. Kinesiology 43: 163-168, 2011.
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general and activity specific warm-up protocols. J Sports Sci Med 11: 279-285, 2012.
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Disclaimer
The opinions expressed in JEPonline are those of the authors and are not attributable to JEPonline,
the editorial staff or the ASEP organization.
5
Tables
Table 1. Repetitions performed with 85% of 1RM.
Back Squat Bench Press
VVR 6.4 1.8 5.2 1.6
AI 6.7 2.3 5.4 1.2
Mean SD Abbreviations: VVR; Vick’s® VapoRub®, AI; Ammonia Inhalant
Table 2. Predicted 1RM.
Conditions Back Squat Bench Press
Pre-test (kg) 170.7 33.1 129.2 20.4
VVR (kg) 176.4 35.5 128.9 21.4
AI (kg) 177.4 33.9 129.7 21.2
Mean SD Abbreviations: VVR; Vick’s® VapoRub®, AI; Ammonia Inhalant
6
Figures
Figure 1. Overall timeline of events
Figure 2. Sample timeline of 85% of 1RM trial
7
... As presented in Table 1, those studies had between 7 and 104 participants, for a total of n = 421 participants. Out of these 19 studies, 18 had an experimental design [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26], while one study had a quasi-experimental nonrandomized design [27]. All 19 studies assessed the effect of certain odors on PA characteristics like strength, cardiovascular capacity, precision, and balance. ...
... As presented in Table 1, studies took place in Belgium [19], Iran [9,12,18], Japan [13,16], Korea [14,15], Palestine [27], Philippines [20,21], the United Kingdom [22,25], and the United States of America [10,11,17,23,24,26]. Most of those studies were conducted on young athletes [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][24][25][26][27] and the rest on adults [9,23]. ...
... As presented in Table 1, studies took place in Belgium [19], Iran [9,12,18], Japan [13,16], Korea [14,15], Palestine [27], Philippines [20,21], the United Kingdom [22,25], and the United States of America [10,11,17,23,24,26]. Most of those studies were conducted on young athletes [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][24][25][26][27] and the rest on adults [9,23]. Each study had an intervention time ranging from 1 [12,13,[15][16][17][18]24] to 10 [9] sessions. ...
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... AIs are a common example of a stimulant-based ergogenic aid used within competitive sport; yet, despite their popularity, there has been little research into their effect on sporting performance. Greater anaerobic power has been observed with AI use in a fatigued state (Secrest, Jones, & Faries, 2015), but they have been shown not to impact lower limb or full body static strength (Bartolomei et al., 2018;Perry, Pritchard, & Barnes, 2016), dynamic strength (Richmond, Potts, & Sherman, 2014;Vigil, Sabatini, Hill, Swain, & David Branch, 2018), or number of repetitions to fatigue (Richmond et al., 2014). However, no previous study has assessed the influence of AIs on isolated upper body strength only. ...
... AIs are a common example of a stimulant-based ergogenic aid used within competitive sport; yet, despite their popularity, there has been little research into their effect on sporting performance. Greater anaerobic power has been observed with AI use in a fatigued state (Secrest, Jones, & Faries, 2015), but they have been shown not to impact lower limb or full body static strength (Bartolomei et al., 2018;Perry, Pritchard, & Barnes, 2016), dynamic strength (Richmond, Potts, & Sherman, 2014;Vigil, Sabatini, Hill, Swain, & David Branch, 2018), or number of repetitions to fatigue (Richmond et al., 2014). However, no previous study has assessed the influence of AIs on isolated upper body strength only. ...
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Many athletes seek to enhance their performance using legal ergogenic aids, including ammonia inhalants (AIs). AIs trigger the inhalation reflex and increase blood pressure, respiration and heart rate; but, despite their widespread use, there is little evidence for the benefits of AI on exercise performance. We aimed to determine the psychological and neuromuscular impact of acute ammonia inhalation. Fourteen non-resistance trained males completed three trials: control, experimental (AI), and sham. The order of the sham and experimental trials was randomized. Participants completed handgrip and knee extension maximal voluntary contractions (MVC), and countermovement jump (CMJ). Heart rate and alertness were recorded at rest and immediately following control, experimental or sham treatment, followed by functional performance measurements. Reaction time, electromechanical delay, rate of force development and peak force were calculated from MVCs, and peak power from CMJ. On completion of trials, perceived performance was recorded. Statistical significance was accepted at P<0.05. Heart rate (P<0.001), alertness (P=0.009) and perceived performance (P=0.036) were elevated by AIs. Markers of functional performance were unaltered by AIs. Alertness was moderately correlated with perceived performance in control (r=0.61) and sham conditions (r=0.54), and very-highly correlated in the experimental condition (r=0.90). AI elevates alertness and perceived physical performance, but not peak strength, power, or neuromuscular drive. AIs may be a useful psychological stimulant to increase focus and mental preparation, however it is unlikely that this will improve functional performance in an untrained population. Our data suggest however, that ammonia inhalants may improve the perception of an individual's performance.
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... In addition, because of the lack of peer-reviewed articles, a manual search from the reference list of all retained articles was performed until April 2020. Despite these efforts and generous search criteria, the search procedure only resulted in a total of 4 peer-reviewed studies (3,39,43,55). Therefore, to increase the breadth of this review, we also included 6 conference abstracts (2,32,33,44,49,59) and 1 master's thesis (17). ...
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... Despite the high prevalence of AI use by powerlifters, well-controlled research on the efficacy of AI use is almost nonexistent. AI was ineffective in increasing back squat and bench press repetitions at 85 percent of 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) (24) or maximal mid-thigh pull force, rate of force development, or electromyography activity (19), but increased Wingate test peak and mean anaerobic power was observed following a simulated American football game (25). To our knowledge, no studies have examined the ergogenic effect of AI on the 1-RM of any competitive weight lifting event. ...
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Article
  • Sep 2017
The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of ammonia inhalants on lower body power and maximal isometric strength in trained men. Twenty experienced resistance trained men (age = 26.7 ± 3.7 y; body weight = 80.59 ± 9.0 kg; body height = 179.5 ± 5.7 cm) were tested for counter movement jump power (CMJP), maximal force and rate of force development (pRFD20) expressed during an isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). Assessments were performed using either an ammonia salt inhalants (AI), a placebo (PL) or no inhalants (N). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures was used to compare strength and power performance between the different trials. A significant (p < 0.01) increase in pRFD20 was detected following the use of AI. No significant effects of trial were noted for CMJP and IMTP maximal force (p = 0.251 and p = 0.075, respectively). Results of the present study showed a potential ergogenic effect of AI on rate of force development (i.e, explosive force output), with a trend towards an improvement in maximal force production. The mechanism of action may be related to the stimulatory action of AI often reported by athletes as a "psyching-up" effect. The positive effect of AI on the rate of force development may represent an advantage in sports requiring high rates of force production.
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... Athletes are often looking for ways to gain an advantage on their competitors. Previous research has shown that the use of smelling salts or ammonia inhalants (AI) have little to no impact on resistance training performance and during anaerobic bouts of exercise (1,2). However, other inhalation substances have also been thought to show ergogenic properties (3,4). ...
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Effect of Odor Stimulations on Physical Activity: A Systematic Review
Article
  • Nov 2023
  • PHYSIOL BEHAV
To download a free copy of our review paper on Smell and olfaction (before January 9th 2024) https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1i7RK7Gm%7EMvZ7
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Ammonia Inhalants Enhance Psychophysiological Responses and Performance During Repeated High Intensity Exercise
Article
  • Aug 2022
Purpose: Ammonia inhalants (NH3) are anecdotally used in competition by athletes for their purported stimulant effects. However, evidence on the efficacy of NH3 is conflicting, and little to no studies to date have investigated its effect on repeated exercise. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of NH3 on psychophysiological responses and performance during repeated high-intensity exercise. Methods: In a counterbalanced crossover design, physically active females completed two repeated high-intensity sprint trials with a different treatment: Control (CON; water) or Ammonia Inhalants (NH3; 0.33 cc). For each trial, participants completed 3 × 15s Wingate anaerobic tests (WAnT) separated by 2 min of active recovery. Prior to each WAnT, participants took a single 3-s inhale of the corresponding treatment. After the succession of each WAnT, heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were documented. Subjective feelings of alertness and “psyched up” energy were measured using a visual analog scale. Trials were separated by at least 48 hr. Results: The results indicate that over the WAnTs, mean power (p = .017) and peak power (p = .006) were significantly higher with NH3 compared to CON despite a lack of changes in fatigue index (p = .928). HR (p = .101) and RPE (p = .897) were not different with varying treatments. Perceived alertness (p = .010) and psyched-up energy (p = .002) were significantly higher with NH3 versus CON. Conclusion: These findings provide empirical support for the use of NH3 to improve repeated high-intensity exercise performance in females that may be underpinned by alterations in subjective alertness and energy.
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A Review of the Efficacy of Weight Training Aids
Article
  • Jun 2016
THIS ARTICLE WILL REVIEW THE EFFICACY OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT WEIGHT TRAINING AIDS THAT ARE AVAILABLE FOR USE BY RECREATIONAL WEIGHT TRAINERS AND ALSO COMPETITIVE ATHLETES IN THE SPORTS OF WEIGHTLIFTING AND POWERLIFTING. SOME OF THESE AIDS HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED BY RESEARCHERS WHILE INFORMATION REGARDING THE USE OF OTHERS HAS BEEN LEFT TO PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE. THIS REVIEW WILL DISCUSS THE USE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF MANY WEIGHT TRAINING AIDS, THEREBY OFFERING PRACTITIONERS THE ABILITY TO MAKE AN INFORMED DECISION ON THEIR USE.
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Effect of a Pre-Workout Energy Supplement on Acute Multi-Joint Resistance Exercise
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2011
  • J SPORT SCI MED
The effect of a pre-workout energy supplement on acute multijoint resistance exercise was examined in eight resistancetrained college-age men. Subjects were randomly provided either a placebo (P) or a supplement (S: containing caffeine, taurine, glucuronolactone, creatine, β-alanine, and the amino acids; leucine, isoleucine, valine, glutamine and arginine) 10 minutes prior to resistance exercise. Subjects performed 4 sets of no more than 10 repetitions of either barbell squat or bench press at 80% of their pre-determined 1 repetition-maximum (1RM) with 90 seconds of rest between sets. Dietary intake 24 hours prior to each of the two training trials was kept constant. Results indicate that consuming the pre-workout energy drink 10 minutes prior to resistance exercise enhances performance by significantly increasing the number of repetitions successfully performed (p = 0.022) in S (26.3 ± 9.2) compared to P (23.5 ± 9.4). In addition, the average peak and mean power performance for all four sets was significantly greater in S compared to P (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). No differences were observed between trials in subjective feelings of energy during either pre (p = 0.660) or post (p = 0.179) meaures. Similary, no differences between groups, in either pre or post assessments, were observed in subjective feelings of focus (p = 0.465 and p = 0.063, respectively), or fatigue (p = 0.204 and p = 0.518, respectively). Results suggest that acute ingestion of a highenergy supplement 10 minutes prior to the onset of a multi-joint resistance training session can augment training volume and increase power performance during the workout.
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Effects of Dynamic and Static Stretching Within General and Activity Specific Warm-Up Protocols
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2012
  • J SPORT SCI MED
The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of static and dynamic stretching protocols within general and activity specific warm-ups. Nine male and ten female subjects were tested under four warm-up conditions including a 1) general aerobic warm-up with static stretching, 2) general aerobic warm-up with dynamic stretching, 3) general and specific warm-up with static stretching and 4) general and specific warm-up with dynamic stretching. Following all conditions, subjects were tested for movement time (kicking movement of leg over 0.5 m distance), countermovement jump height, sit and reach flexibility and 6 repetitions of 20 metre sprints. Results indicated that when a sport specific warm-up was included, there was an 0.94% improvement (p = 0.0013) in 20 meter sprint time with both the dynamic and static stretch groups. No such difference in sprint performance between dynamic and static stretch groups existed in the absence of the sport specific warm-up. The static stretch condition increased sit and reach range of motion (ROM) by 2.8% more (p = 0.0083) than the dynamic condition. These results would support the use of static stretching within an activity specific warm-up to ensure maximal ROM along with an enhancement in sprint performance. Key pointsActivity specific warm-up may improve sprint performance.Static stretching was more effective than dynamic stretching for increasing static range of motion.There was no effect of the warm-up protocols on countermovement jump height or movement time.
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The Use of Ammonia Inhalants Among Athletes
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2011
AMMONIA INHALANTS (AI) ARE COMMONLY USED BY ATHLETES AS POSSIBLE ERGOGENIC AIDS DURING TRAINING OR COMPETITION. VIRTUALLY, NO RESEARCH EXISTS THAT HAS EXAMINED AI EFFECTIVENESS, SAFETY, OR PREVALENCE AMONG ATHLETES. ANECDOTALLY, AI USE IS WIDESPREAD, WITH SOME ADVERSE REACTIONS HAVING BEEN REPORTED. THE PRESENT ARTICLE SERVES AS AN INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF AIS AND EXAMINES THE ANECDOTAL USE OF AIS AMONG THE ATHLETIC POPULATION, AS WELL AS THEIR EFFECTIVENESS, PRACTICES, AND SAFETY. STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROFESSIONALS, COACHES, AND SPORTS MEDICINE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE FAMILIAR WITH THEIR USE AND CONTRAINDICATIONS BECAUSE ADVERSE REACTIONS HAVE BEEN REPORTED.
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Relationship between core power and measures of sport performance
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2011
Development of core muscle strength and power to improve sport performance has been a controversial issue yielding mixed results. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between two core field tests emphasizing power and measures of sport performance. Participants were twenty healthy, recreationally active males (age 23.40±1.88 yrs, height 174.63±5.81 cm, mass 76.08±7.67 kg). Participants were tested on four performance variables (40-yd sprint, shuttle run [5-10-5], vertical jump, and 1RM back squat) and two core field tests (front abdominal power throw [FAPT] and side abdominal power throw [SAPT]). Results demonstrated significant moderate correlations between the FAPT and 1RM back squat (r=.652) and relative back squat (r=.509). No other significant correlations were found. Results indicate that although the FAPT and SAPT tests are easy to perform in the field, most, but not all, performance measures were unrelated to core power. In order to properly assess the core and its role in human performance, it is necessary to evaluate sport-specific muscle actions and movements.
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Effects of 28 days of resistance exercise while consuming commercially available pre- and post-workout supplements, NO-Shotgun (R) and NO-Synthesize (R) on body composition, muscle strength and mass, markers of protein synthesis, and clinical safety markers in males
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2011
  • NUTR METAB
The effects of 28 days of heavy resistance training while ingesting the pre- and post-workout supplements, NO-Shotgun® and NO-Synthesize® were determined on body composition, muscle strength and mass, markers of protein synthesis, and clinical safety markers. Nineteen non-resistance-trained males participated in a resistance training program 4 times/week for 28 days while either ingesting 27 g/day of carbohydrate (CARB) or NO-Shotgun® 30 min pre-exercise and 27 g/day of carbohydrate or NO- Synthesize® 30 min post-exercise (NOSS). Data were analyzed with separate 2 × 2 ANOVA (p < 0.05). Total body mass was increased in both groups (p = 0.001), but not different between groups. Fat mass was unchanged with CARB, but NOSS decreased fat mass (p = 0.026). Both groups increased fat-free mass (p = 0.001); however, the increases were greater with NOSS (p = 0.023). NOSS underwent greater increases in upper-body (p = 0.023) and lower-body (p = 0.035) strength than CARB. Myofibrillar protein significantly increased in both groups (p = 0.041), with NOSS being greater than CARB (p = 0.049). All of the MHC isoforms were significantly increased in both groups; however, NOSS was greater than CARB for MHC 1 (p = 0.013) and MHC 2A (p = 0.046). All of the myogenic regulatory factors were significantly increased in both groups; however, NOSS was greater than CARB for Myo-D (p = 0.038) and MRF-4 (p = 0.001). For the whole blood and serum clinical chemistry markers, all variables remained within normal clinical ranges. Heavy resistance training for 28 days, with NO-Shotgun® and NO-Synthesize® ingested before and after exercise, respectively, significantly improved body composition and increased muscle mass and performance without abnormally impacting any of the clinical chemistry markers.
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Muscle damage and amino acid supplementation: Does it aid recovery from muscle damage?
Article
  • Jan 2007
  • INT SPORTMED J
Following unaccustomed exercise consisting of lengthening (eccentric) contractions, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) develops together with muscle weakness, and these symptoms persist for several days. DOMS and the impairment of muscle function due to muscle damage affect training and athletic performance; thus effective measures to prevent or reduce muscle damage, or enhance recovery from damage, are important. Since it is known that amino acid supplementation stimulates the transport of amino acids into the skeletal muscles, and administration of exagenous amino acids after exercise increases protein synthesis while reducing protein breakdown, it is plausible that amino acid supplementation is effective for reducing muscle damage and/or enhancing recovery from muscle damage. Several studies have investigated the effects of amino acid supplementation on DOMS and other markers of muscle damage, and some of them found positive effects while others did not. It should be noted that few studies found a positive effect of amino acid supplementation on recovery of muscle function, and no previous studies have investigated whether amino acid supplement facilitates regeneration of damaged contractile and/or non-contractile elements. It cannot be concluded from currently available information that amino acid supplementation is effective for recovery from muscle damage. However, it appears that the effects of amino acid supplementation on muscle damage, if any, are affected by the timing and amount of supplementation, the magnitude and cause of muscle damage, composition of amino acids in the supplement, and other food intake in addition to the supplement. These should be investigated further before concluding whether amino acid supplementation contributes to attenuation of muscle damage and enhances recovery of muscle function after damaging exercise.
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Thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: Skill-focus or performance worries?
Article
  • Jan 2011
  • ANXIETY STRESS COPIN
Choking under pressure in sport has been explained by either explicit attention to skill execution (self-focus theories), or attention to performance worries (distraction theories). The aim of the present study was to find out which focus of attention occurs most often when expert athletes perform under pressure. Two retrospective methods were employed, namely, verbal reports and concept mapping. In the verbal reports, 70 expert athletes indicated their main focus of attention when performing under high pressure in competition. For concept mapping seven expert athletes generated statements about their focus of attention in such high-pressure situations. These statements were clustered and rated on how often they occurred and how important they were for choking. Both methods revealed that under pressure attention of expert athletes was often focused on worries and hardly ever on movement execution. Furthermore, the athletes reported that they focused attention on external factors and that they reverted to positive monitoring in an attempt to maintain performance. These results are more in line with distraction theories than self-focus theories, suggesting that attention to performance worries rather than to skill execution generally explains choking.
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Smelling salts
Article
  • Sep 2006
  • BRIT J SPORT MED
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