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GPS comparison of training activities and game demands of professional rugby union
Abstract
Closely matching training session exertions with actual match play intensities ensures players are physically prepared for competition. The movement patterns of four typical rugby union training activities (traditional endurance, high-intensity interval, game based and skills training) were compared with match play using global positioning systems (GPS). The degree of difference from match play was determined by calculating Cohen’s effect size statistic. Training activities for players in different positions (tight forward, loose forward, scrumhalf, inside back and outside back) were similarly assessed. Movement patterns were measured as relative distance, distance walking (0-2m.s-1), jogging (2-4m.s-1), striding (4-6m.s-1) and sprinting (>6m.s-1), and sprint and acceleration (>2.75m.s-2) frequency. Overall, high-intensity interval training was the most similar to match play, and could be adopted as a primary training activity. Game based training failed to meet match intensity in all positions (Effect size (ES) = medium to large)). If game based training is used as the primary training activity, supplementary training is required to ensure players are adequately prepared for match demands.
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Background. Global positioning system (GPS) technology can provide accurate, non-invasive, real-time movement analysis of players participating in team sports. The application of this technology to rugby union will improve training practices by allowing improved understanding of movement characteristics and more individualised programmes. Objectives. To characterise the movement and impact patterns of South African professional rugby union players during match play and compare these to previously reported data. Methods. Nineteen professional rugby players were tracked using GPS systems during 24 matches during the 2013 rugby season. Players were grouped as (i) backs or forwards and (ii) tight forwards, loose forwards, scrumhalves, inside backs or outside backs. Movements were categorised in speed zones corresponding to walking (0-2 m.s-1), jogging (2-4 m.s-1), striding (4-6 m.s-1) and sprinting (>6 m.s-1). Walking and jogging were classified as low-intensity and striding and sprinting as high-intensity movement zones. An inbuilt triaxial accelerometer (sampling frequency 100 Hz) measured the total impacts >5G and high-intensity impacts >8G. All data were normalised to time on field and reported as mean (standard deviation). Results. There was no difference between forwards and backs in relative distance covered. Backs reached higher maximum speeds than forwards (backs 8.8 (1.1) v. forwards 7.6 (1.3) m.s-1 , effect size (ES) 1.0, and outside backs were the fastest positional group (9.4 (0.9) m.s-1 , ES 0.4-2.2). Players in all positions spent the majority of time walking (79-84%). Backs covered more distance than forwards in high-intensity speed zones (forwards 11 (5) v. backs 14 (4) m.min-1 , ES 0.7). Tight forwards covered the most distance in low-intensity zones (63 (6) m.min-1 , ES 0.3-1.7) while scrumhalves ran the most distance in high-intensity zones (20 (5) m.min-1 , ES 1.2-3.6). High-intensity : low-intensity running ratios ranged from 1:13 (tight forwards) to 1:3 (scrumhalves). Loose forwards and inside backs exhibited similar movement patterns. There was no difference in impact variables between forwards and backs. Inside backs sustained the least total impacts (6.5 (1.2) >5G.min-1 , ES 0.9-2.0) and high-intensity impacts (0.7 (0.2) >8G.min-1 , ES 0.5-1.4). Conclusions. There were notable differences in the movement of professional rugby union players in different positions, and effective training programmes should reflect these variations.
Purpose:
To determine the influence the number of contact efforts during a single bout has on running intensity during game-based activities and assess relationships between physical qualities and distances covered in each game.
Methods:
Eighteen semiprofessional rugby league players (age 23.6 ± 2.8 y) competed in 3 off-side small-sided games (2 × 10-min halves) with a contact bout performed every 2 min. The rules of each game were identical except for the number of contact efforts performed in each bout. Players performed 1, 2, or 3 × 5-s wrestles in the single-, double-, and triple-contact game, respectively. The movement demands (including distance covered and intensity of exercise) in each game were monitored using global positioning system units. Bench-press and back-squat 1-repetition maximum and the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15IFT) assessed muscle strength and high-intensity-running ability, respectively.
Results:
There was little change in distance covered during the single-contact game (ES = -0.16 to -0.61), whereas there were larger reductions in the double- (ES = -0.52 to -0.81) and triple-contact (ES = -0.50 to -1.15) games. Significant relationships (P < .05) were observed between 30-15IFT and high-speed running during the single- (r = .72) and double- (r = .75), but not triple-contact (r = .20) game.
Conclusions:
There is little change in running intensity when only single contacts are performed each bout; however, when multiple contacts are performed, greater reductions in running intensity result. In addition, high-intensity-running ability is only associated with running performance when contact demands are low.
Repeated-sprinting incorporating tackles leads to greater reductions in sprint performance compared with repeated-sprinting alone. However, the influence of physical contact on the running demands of game-based activities is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether the addition of physical contact altered pacing strategies during game-based activities.
Twenty-three elite youth rugby league players were divided into two groups. Group 1 played the contact game on day 1 whilst group 2 played the non-contact game; 72 hours later they played the alternate game. Each game consisted of off-side touch on a 30 m x 70 m field, played over two 8 min halves. Rules were identical between games except the contact game included a 10 s wrestle bout every 50 s. Microtechnology devices were used to analyse player movements.
There were greater average reductions during the contact game for distance (25%, 38 m·min-1 vs. 10%, 20 m·min-1; ES = 1.78 ± 1.02) and low-speed distance (21%, 24 m·min-1 vs. 0%, 2 m·s-1; ES = 1.38 ± 1.02) compared with the non-contact game. There were similar reductions in high-speed running (41%, 18 m·min-1 vs. 45%, 15 m·min-1; ES = 0.15 ± 0.95).
The addition of contact to game-based activities causes players to reduce low-speed activity in an attempt to maintain high-intensity activities. Despite this, players were unable to maintain high-speed running whilst performing contact efforts. Improving a player's ability to perform contact efforts, whilst maintaining running performance should be a focus in rugby league players.
Global positioning systems (GPS) are widely used in sport settings to evaluate the physical demands on players in training and competition. The use of these systems in the design and implementation of rehabilitation and return-to-running programs has not yet been elucidated.
Objective
To demonstrate the application of GPS technology in the management of return to play in elite-club Rugby Union.
Design
Case series.
Setting
Professional Rugby Union club team.
Participants
8 elite Rugby Union players (age 27.86 ± 4.78 y, height 1.85 ± 0.08 m, weight 99.14 ± 9.96 kg).
Intervention
Players wore GPS devices for the entire duration of a club game.
Main Outcome Measures
Variables of locomotion speed and distance were measured.
Results
Differences in physical demands between playing positions were observed for all variables.
Conclusions
An analysis of the position-specific physical demands measured by GPS provides key information regarding the level and volume of loads sustained by a player in a game environment. Using this information, sports-medicine practitioners can develop rehabilitation and return-to-running protocols specific to the player position to optimize safe return to play.
The physical demands of rugby league, rugby union, and American football are significantly increased through the large number of collisions players are required to perform during match-play. Due to the labour-intensive nature of coding collisions from video recordings, manufacturers of wearable microsensor (e.g. global position system, GPS) units have refined the technology to automatically detect collisions, with several sport scientists attempting to use these microsensors to quantify the physical demands of collision sports. However, a question remains over the validity of these microtechnology units to quantify the contact demands of collision sports. Indeed, recent evidence has shown significant differences in the number of "impacts" recorded by microtechnology units (GPSports, Canberra, Australia) and the actual number of collisions coded from video. However, a separate study investigated the validity of a different microtechnology unit (minimaxX, Catapult Sports, Melbourne, Australia) that included GPS and tri-axial accelerometers, and also a gyroscope and magnetometer, to quantify collisions. Collisions detected by the minimaxX unit were compared with video-based coding of the actual events. No significant differences were detected in the number of mild, moderate, and heavy collisions detected via the minimaxX units and those coded from video recordings of the actual event. Furthermore, a strong correlation (r = 0.96, P<0.01) was observed between collisions recorded via the minimaxX units and those coded from video recordings of the event. These findings demonstrate that only one commercially available and wearable microtechnology unit (minimaxX) can be considered capable of offering a valid method of quantifying the contact loads that typically occur in collision sports. Until such validation research is completed, sport scientists should be circumspect of the ability of other units to perform similar functions.
Abstract The purpose of this investigation was to quantify the movement characteristics of elite rugby union players during competitive play and identify whether position-related differences exist. Ninety-eight elite players from eight English Premiership Clubs were tracked using global positioning systems (GPS) during 44 competitive matches throughout the 2010/2011 season. Player positions were defined as: (1) Backs or Forwards; (2) Front, Second and Back Rows, Scrum Half, Inside and Outside Backs; (3) 15 individual positions (numbers 1-15). Analysis revealed the game is predominantly played at low speeds with little distance covered 'sprinting' by either the Backs (50 ± 76 m) or the Forwards (37 ± 64 m). The Backs travelled greater (P < 0.05) absolute and relative distances than the Forwards. The Scrum Half covered the greatest total distance during a match (7098 ± 778 m) and the Front Row the least (5158 ± 200 m). The Back Row covered the greatest distances at 'sprinting' speeds, particularly the number 8 position (77 m). These findings reflect notable differences in the movement characteristics displayed by elite rugby union players in specific positional roles, and reinforce the contemporary view that training programmes for such players ought to be structured with this in mind.
This study attempted to use Global Positioning System (GPS) devices to obtain information on elite Under-19 rugby union forward and back players with regard to selected movement patterns, as well as impacts from collisions experienced by players. Seventeen Under-19 male rugby players from a provincial rugby institute in Stellenbosch, South Africa, were studied during five games in a Super League A competition. Data revealed that players covered on average 4469.95 ± 292.25 m during a game. Players spent 72.32 ± 4.77% of the total game time either standing or walking. Props and locks spent more time jogging (26.11 ± 3.77%), compared to outside backs (15.6 ± 2.3%). The outside backs spent more time sprinting (1.11 ± 1.18%) than inside backs (0.72 ± 0.30%) or the front and back row forwards (0.48 ± 0.23% and 48 ± 0.13%) respectively. Back row forwards had the highest total amount of impacts (measured in G-force, g) during the games (683.4 ± 295.04). The inside backs experienced the highest amount of severe impacts (>10g) (12.16 ± 3.18) per match. The intermittent nature of Under-19 rugby union match play, as well as the unique roles and requirements of positional groups, were confirmed. The use of GPS technology also offered valuable insight into the severity of impacts experienced by players in different positions, which was not previously available. An understanding of match-play requirements, as well as the number and intensity of collisions experienced by players, can assist coaches with planning specific training programmes, as well as adequate recovery between training sessions and games.
There has been no previous investigation of the concurrent validity and reliability of the current 5 Hz global positioning system (GPS) to assess sprinting speed or the reliability of integrated GPS-accelerometer technology. In the present study, we wished to determine: (1) the concurrent validity and reliability of a GPS and timing gates to measure sprinting speed or distance, and (2) the reliability of proper accelerations recorded via GPS-accelerometer integration. Nineteen elite youth rugby league players performed two over-ground sprints and were simultaneously assessed using GPS and timing gates. The GPS measurements systematically underestimated both distance and timing gate speed. The GPS measurements were reliable for all variables of distance and speed (coefficient of variation [CV] = 1.62% to 2.3%), particularly peak speed (95% limits of agreement [LOA] = 0.00 ± 0.8 km · h(-1); CV = 0.78%). Timing gates were more reliable (CV = 1% to 1.54%) than equivalent GPS measurements. Accelerometer measurements were least reliable (CV = 4.69% to 5.16%), particularly for the frequency of proper accelerations (95% LOA = 1.00 ± 5.43; CV = 14.12%). Timing gates and GPS were found to reliably assess speed and distance, although the validity of the GPS remains questionable. The error found in accelerometer measurements indicates the limits of this device for detecting changes in performance.
To investigate the physical demands of professional rugby league match-play using microtechnology, and to compare these demands with typical training activities used to prepare players for competition.
Prospective cohort study.
Thirty elite rugby league players participated in this study. Seven hundred and eighty-six. training data sets and 104 data sets from National Rugby League matches were collected over one playing season. Movement was recorded using a commercially available microtechnology unit (minimaxX, Catapult Innovations), which provided information on speeds, distances, accelerations, physical collisions and repeated high-intensity efforts.
Mean distances covered during match-play by the hit-up forwards, wide-running forwards, adjustables, and outside backs were 3,569 m, 5,561 m, 6,411 m, and 6,819 m, respectively. Hit-up forwards and wide-running forwards were engaged in a greater number of moderate and heavy collisions than the adjustables and outside backs, and more repeated high-intensity effort bouts per minute of play (1 bout every 4.8-6.3 min). The physical demands of traditional conditioning, repeated high-intensity effort exercise, and skill training activities were all lower than the physical demands of competition.
These results demonstrate that absolute distances covered during professional rugby league matches are greater for outside backs, while the collision and repeated high-intensity effort demands are higher for hit-up forwards and wide-running forwards. The specific physical demands of competitive play, especially those demands associated with collisions and repeated high-intensity efforts, were not well matched by those observed in traditional conditioning, repeated high-intensity effort exercise, and skills training activities. Further research is required to investigate whether modifications need to be made to these training activities to better prepare players for the demands of National Rugby League competition.
The purpose of the present study was to describe the match-play demands of professional rugby union players competing in Super 14 matches during the 2008 and 2009 seasons.
The movements of 20 players from Super 14 rugby union team during the 2008 and 2009 seasons were video recorded.
Using time-motion analysis (TMA), five players from four positional groups (front-row forwards, back-row forwards, inside backs and outside backs) were assessed.
Players covered between 4218 m and 6389 m during the games. The maximum distances covered in a game by the four groups were: front row forwards (5139 m), back row forwards, (5422 m), inside backs (6389 m) and outside backs (5489 m). The back row forwards spent the greatest amount of time in high-intensity exercise (1190 s), followed by the front row forwards (1015 s), the inside backs (876 s) and the outside backs (570 s). Average distances covered in individual sprint efforts were: front row forwards (16 m), back row forwards (14 m), inside backs (17 m) and outside backs (18 m). Work to rest ratios of 1:4, 1:4, 1:5, and 1:6 were found for the front row and back row forwards, and inside and outside backs respectively.
The Super 14 competition during 2008 and 2009, have resulted in an increase in total high-intensity activities, sprint frequency, and work to rest ratios across all playing positions. For players and teams to remain competitive in Super 14 rugby, training (including recovery practices) should reflect these current demands.
To investigate the relationship between training load and injury in professional rugby league players;
Prospective cohort study;
Seventy-nine professional rugby league players (mean±SD age, 23.3±3.8 years) participated in this four-year study. A periodized field, strength, and power training program was implemented, with training loads progressively increased in the general preparatory phase of the season and reduced during the competitive phase of the season. Training loads and injuries were recorded for each training session.
Training load was significantly related (P<0.05) to overall injury (r=0.82), non-contact field injury (r=0.82), and contact field injury (r=0.80) rates. Significant relationships were also observed between the field training load and overall field injury (r=0.68), non-contact field injury (r=0.65), and contact field injury (r=0.63) rates. Strength and power training loads were significantly related to the incidence of strength and power injuries (r=0.63). There was no significant relationship between field training loads and the incidence of strength and power injuries. However, strength and power training loads were significantly (P<0.01) associated with the incidence of contact (r=0.75) and non-contact (r=0.82) field training injuries.
These findings suggest that the harder rugby league players train, the more injuries they will sustain, and that high strength and power training loads may contribute indirectly to field injuries. Monitoring of training loads and careful scheduling of field and gymnasium sessions to avoid residual fatigue is warranted to minimize the effect of training-related injuries on professional rugby league players.
This study described the number and intensity of collisions experienced by professional rugby league players during pre-season and in-season skills training sessions using microtechnology (e.g. accelerometers, gyroscopes). Short, medium, and long recovery periods between matches were accounted for and the incidence of collision injuries sustained in the training environment was also assessed. Thirty professional rugby league players (mean±SD age, 23.6±3.8yr) participated in this study. The number and intensity of collisions and the incidence of collision injuries were monitored during 117 skills training sessions. Over the course of the season, an average of 77 collisions occurred per player, per session. The average number of mild, moderate, and heavy collisions performed by each member of the squad per session was 24, 46, and 7, respectively. A total of 37 collision injuries were recorded during training over the season, equating to an injury incidence of 6.4 per 10,000 collisions. Over half (54.1%) of all collision injuries resulted in no loss of training time, and less than 14% of collision injuries resulted in a missed match. The greatest number of collisions occurred during training sessions in the weeks with the longest recovery between matches (10 days). The incidence of collision injuries also peaked during the 10 day between match recovery cycle. These findings demonstrate that while significant physiological demands are placed on rugby league players as a result of the large number and intensity of physical collisions performed in training, these collisions are associated with minimal injury risk.
Pre-season rugby training develops the physical requisites for competition and consists of a high volume of resistance training and anaerobic and aerobic conditioning. However, the effects of a rugby union pre-season in professional athletes are currently unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of a 4-week pre-season on 33 professional rugby union players. Bench press and box squat increased moderately (13.6 kg, 90% confidence limits +/-2.9 kg and 17.6 +/- 8.0 kg, respectively) over the training phase. Small decreases in bench throw (70.6 +/- 53.5 W), jump squat (280.1 +/- 232.4 W), and fat mass (1.4 +/- 0.4 kg) were observed. In addition, small increases were seen in fat-free mass (2.0 +/- 0.6 kg) and flexed upper-arm girth (0.6 +/- 0.2 cm), while moderate increases were observed in mid-thigh girth (1.9 +/- 0.5 cm) and perception of fatigue (0.6 +/- 0.4 units). Increases in strength and body composition were observed in elite rugby union players after 4 weeks of intensive pre-season training, but this may have been the result of a return to fitness levels prior to the off-season. Decreases in power may reflect high training volumes and increases in perceived of fatigue.
This study investigated the physiological demands of women's field hockey competition and compared these demands to those experienced during game-based training activities. Fourteen elite women field hockey players (mean +/- SD; age, 23.3 +/- 3.2 years; maximal oxygen consumption, 53.5 +/- 4.3 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) participated in this study. Global positioning satellite (GPS) system analysis was completed during 19 training appearances and 32 Australian Hockey League (AHL) appearances. All training sessions consisted of game-based activities (i.e., small-sided training games) that were played on a reduced-sized pitch. Movement was recorded by a global positioning satellite unit sampling at 5 Hz. Data were categorized into discreet movement velocity bands, corresponding to low-intensity (0-1 m.s(-1)), moderate-intensity (1-3 m.s(-1) and 3-5 m.s(-1)), and high-intensity (5-7 m.s(-1) and >7 m.s(-1)) activities. Players covered 6.6 km (range: 3.4-9.5 km) over the course of the match. Midfielders spent more time and covered greater distances in high-intensity running (i.e., >5 m.s(-1)) than strikers and defenders. The number of high-velocity and high-acceleration efforts over the course of a match was greater in midfielders. In comparison to competition, game-based training sessions resulted in more time spent in low-intensity (i.e., 0-1 m.s(-1)) activities and less time spent in moderate (i.e., 1-3 m.s(-1) and 3-5 m.s(-1)) and high-intensity (i.e., 5-7 m.s(-1) and >7 m.s(-1)) activities. Although game-based training is likely to be useful for improving the skill levels of players, the skill activities used in the present study did not reflect the physiological demands of competition, with players spending more time in low-intensity activities and less time in high-intensity activities than competition. Modifications in training group size and/or drill design and complexity may better simulate the physiological demands of competition.
The validity and reliability of three commercial global positioning system (GPS) units (MinimaxX, Catapult, Australia; SPI-10, SPI-Pro, GPSports, Australia) were quantified.
Twenty trials of cricket-specific locomotion patterns and distances (walking 8800 m, jogging 2400 m, running 1200 m, striding 600 m, sprinting 20- to 40-m intervals, and run-a-three) were compared against criterion measures (400-m athletic track, electronic timing). Validity was quantified with the standard error of the estimate (SEE) and reliability estimated using typical error expressed as a coefficient of variation.
The validity (mean +/- 90% confidence limits) for locomotion patterns walking to striding ranged from 0.4 +/- 0.1 to 3.8 +/- 1.4%, whereas for sprinting distances over 20 to 40 m including run-a-three (approx. 50 m) the SEE ranged from 2.6 +/- 1.0 to 23.8 +/- 8.8%. The reliability (expressed as mean [90% confidence limits]) of estimating distance traveled by walking to striding ranged from 0.3 (0.2 to 0.4) to 2.9% (2.3 to 4.0). Similarly, mean reliability of estimating different sprinting distances over 20 to 40 m ranged from 2.0 (1.6 to 2.8) to 30.0% (23.2 to 43.3).
The accuracy and bias was dependent on the GPS brand employed. Commercially available GPS units have acceptable validity and reliability for estimating longer distances (600-8800 m) in walking to striding, but require further development for shorter cricket-specific sprinting distances.
Increased professionalism in rugby has resulted in national unions developing high-performance models for elite player development, of which physical preparation is an important component, to ensure success in future years. This article presents a 5-step framework for the physical preparation of elite players in a development program. Competition movement patterns and the physical profiles of elite players are used as the basis of the framework and reinforce the repeated high-intensity nature of Rugby Union. Physical profiling highlights a player's strengths and weaknesses in the areas of strength, speed, endurance, and body composition. These qualities need to be managed with an understanding of their interaction. This framework should be implemented within the yearly plan to ensure that benefits are maximized from the training undertaken. The success of the framework in developing elite players' progression can be evaluated using standardized physical, performance, and competency tests.<
Increased professionalism in rugby has elicited rapid changes in the fitness profile of elite players. Recent research, focusing on the physiological and anthropometrical characteristics of rugby players, and the demands of competition are reviewed. The paucity of research on contemporary elite rugby players is highlighted, along with the need for standardised testing protocols.
Recent data reinforce the pronounced differences in the anthropometric and physical characteristics of the forwards and backs. Forwards are typically heavier, taller, and have a greater proportion of body fat than backs. These characteristics are changing, with forwards developing greater total mass and higher muscularity. The forwards demonstrate superior absolute aerobic and anaerobic power, and muscular strength. Results favour the backs when body mass is taken into account. The scaling of results to body mass can be problematic and future investigations should present results using power function ratios. Recommended tests for elite players include body mass and skinfolds, vertical jump, speed, and the multi-stage shuttle run. Repeat sprint testing is a possible avenue for more specific evaluation of players.
During competition, high-intensity efforts are often followed by periods of incomplete recovery. The total work over the duration of a game is lower in the backs compared with the forwards; forwards spend greater time in physical contact with the opposition while the backs spend more time in free running, allowing them to cover greater distances. The intense efforts undertaken by rugby players place considerable stress on anaerobic energy sources, while the aerobic system provides energy during repeated efforts and for recovery.
Training should focus on repeated brief high-intensity efforts with short rest intervals to condition players to the demands of the game. Training for the forwards should emphasise the higher work rates of the game, while extended rest periods can be provided to the backs. Players should not only be prepared for the demands of competition, but also the stress of travel and extreme environmental conditions.
The greater professionalism of rugby union has increased scientific research in the sport; however, there is scope for significant refinement of investigations on the physiological demands of the game, and sports-specific testing procedures.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in endurance fitness of elite-level rugby union players (n = 35) undertaking skill-based conditioning games for a 9-week preseason training period. Metabolic conditioning was conducted exclusively in the form of skill-based conditioning games in conjunction with heart rate (HR) telemetry. Two markers of cardiorespiratory fitness were assessed at weekly intervals via the recording of HR responses to an intermittent multistage shuttle test. Significant differences post-training were observed for the percentage of maximal HR (% HRmax) reached during the final test stage and the percentage of HR recovery (% HR recovery) from the end of the final stage to the end of the final 1-minute rest period. Significant improvements were demonstrated for % HR recovery at week 7 (p < 0.05) and week 9 (p < 0.01), and % HRmax in the final test stage was significantly lower at weeks 4, 5, and 7 (p < 0.05) and week 9 (p < 0.01). Further improvements from mid-preseason to the end of the preseason training period were observed for % HR recovery scores in week 8 (p < 0.01) and week 9 (p = 0.012) and for % HRmax reached in the final test stage at week 9 (p < 0.05). These results indicate skill-based conditioning games were successful at improving markers of cardiorespiratory endurance for the duration of a 9-week training period in the elite-level professional rugby union players studied. The HR monitoring was demonstrated to be an effective and practical means of quantifying intensity in the conditioning games format and of tracking changes in cardiorespiratory fitness.
Field-based team sports, such as soccer, rugby and hockey are popular worldwide. There have been many studies that have investigated the physiology of these sports, especially soccer. However, some fitness components of these field-based team sports are poorly understood. In particular, repeated-sprint ability (RSA) is one area that has received relatively little research attention until recent times. Historically, it has been difficult to investigate the nature of RSA, because of the unpredictability of player movements performed during field-based team sports. However, with improvements in technology, time-motion analysis has allowed researchers to document the detailed movement patterns of team-sport athletes. Studies that have published time-motion analysis during competition, in general, have reported the mean distance and duration of sprints during field-based team sports to be between 10-20 m and 2-3 seconds, respectively. Unfortunately, the vast majority of these studies have not reported the specific movement patterns of RSA, which is proposed as an important fitness component of team sports. Furthermore, there have been few studies that have investigated the physiological requirements of one-off, short-duration sprinting and repeated sprints (<10 seconds duration) that is specific to field-based team sports. This review examines the limited data concerning the metabolic changes occurring during this type of exercise, such as energy system contribution, adenosine triphosphate depletion and resynthesis, phosphocreatine degradation and resynthesis, glycolysis and glycogenolysis, and purine nucleotide loss. Assessment of RSA, as a training and research tool, is also discussed.
The aim of this study was to quantify the movement patterns of various playing positions during professional rugby union match-play, such that the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways to performance could be estimated. Video analysis was conducted of individual players (n=29) from the Otago Highlanders during six "Super 12" representative fixtures. Each movement was coded as one of six speeds of locomotion (standing still, walking, jogging, cruising, sprinting, and utility), three states of non-running intensive exertion (rucking/mauling, tackling, and scrummaging), and three discrete activities (kicking, jumping, passing). The results indicated significant demands on all energy systems in all playing positions, yet implied a greater reliance on anaerobic glycolytic metabolism in forwards, due primarily to their regular involvement in non-running intense activities such as rucking, mauling, scrummaging, and tackling. Positional group comparisons indicated that while the greatest differences existed between forwards and backs, each positional group had its own unique demands. Front row forwards were mostly involved in activities involving gaining/retaining possession, back row forwards tended to play more of a pseudo back-line role, performing less rucking/mauling than front row forwards, yet being more involved in aspects of broken play such as sprinting and tackling. While outside backs tended to specialize in the running aspects of play, inside backs tended to show greater involvement in confrontational aspects of play such as rucking/mauling and tackling. These results suggest that rugby training and fitness testing should be tailored specifically to positional groups rather than simply differentiating between forwards and backs.
We investigated the movement patterns of small-sided training games and compared these movement patterns with domestic, national, and international standard competition in elite women soccer players. In addition, we investigated the repeated-sprint demands of women's soccer with respect to the duration of sprints, number of sprint repetitions, recovery duration, and recovery intensity. Thirteen elite women soccer players [age (mean +/- SD) 21 +/- 2 years] participated in this study. Time-motion analysis was completed during training (n = 39) consisting of small-sided (i.e., three versus three and five versus five) training games, domestic matches against male youth teams (n = 10), Australian national-league matches (n = 9), and international matches (n = 12). A repeated-sprint bout was defined as a minimum of three sprints, with recovery of less than 21 seconds between sprints. The overall exercise to rest ratios for small-sided training games (1:13) were similar to or greater than domestic competition against male youth teams (1:15) and national-league (1:16) and international (1:12) competitions. During the international matches analyzed, 4.8 +/- 2.8 repeated-sprint bouts occurred per player, per match. The number of sprints within the repeated-sprint bouts was 3.4 +/- 0.8. The sprint duration was 2.1 +/- 0.7 seconds, and the recovery time between sprints was 5.8 +/- 4.0 seconds. Most recovery between sprints was active in nature (92.6%). In contrast to international competition, repeated-sprint bouts were uncommon in small-sided training games, domestic competition against male youth teams, and national-league competition. These findings demonstrate that small-sided training games simulate the overall movement patterns of women's soccer competition but offer an insufficient training stimulus to simulate the high-intensity, repeated-sprint demands of international competition.
The aim of this study was to assess the physical demands of elite English rugby union match-play. Player movements were captured by five distributed video cameras and then reconstructed on a two-dimensional plane representing the pitch. Movements based on speeds were categorized as standing, walking, jogging, and medium-intensity running (low-intensity activity), and high-intensity running, sprinting, and static exertion (scrummaging, rucking, mauling, and tackling) (high-intensity activity). Position groups were defined as forwards (tight and loose) and backs (inside and outside). Backs travelled more total distance than forwards (6127 m, s=724 vs. 5581 m, s=692; P<0.05) and greater distances in walking (2351 m, s=287 vs. 1928 m, s=2342; P<0.001) and high-intensity running (448 m, s=149 vs. 298 m, s=107; P<0.05). Forwards performed more high-intensity activity than backs (9:09 min:s, s=1:39 vs. 3:04 min:s, s=1:01; P<0.001), which was attributable to more time spent in static exertion (7:56 min:s, s=1:56 vs. 1:18 min:s, s=0:30; P<0.001), although backs spent more time in high-intensity running (0:52 min:s, s=0:19 vs. 1:19 min:s, s=0:26; P=0.004). Players travelled a greater distance in the first 10 min compared with 50-60 and 70-80 min, but there was no difference in the amount of high-intensity activity performed during consecutive 10-min periods during match-play. These results show the differing physical demands between forwards and backs with no evident deterioration in high-intensity activity performed during match-play.
The specificity of contemporary training practices of international rugby sevens players is unknown. We quantified the positional group-specific activity profiles and physiological demands of on-field training activities and compared these to match demands. Twenty-two international matches and 63 rugby-specific training drills were monitored in 25 backs and 17 forwards from a national squad of male rugby sevens players over a 21-month period. Drills were classified into three categories: low-intensity skill-refining (n = 23 drills, 560 observations), moderate- to high-intensity skill-refining (n = 28 drills, 600 observations), and game-simulation (n = 12 drills, 365 observations). Movement patterns (via GPS devices) and physiological load (via heart rate monitors) were recorded for all activities and differences between training and matches quantified using magnitude-based inferential statistics. Distance covered in total and at ≥3.5 m·s, maximal velocity, and frequency of accelerations and decelerations were lower in forwards during competition compared with backs by a small but practically important magnitude. No clear positional group differences were observed for physiological load during matches. Training demands exceeded match demands only for frequency of decelerations of forwards during moderate- to high-intensity skill-refining drills and only by a small amount. Accelerations and distance covered at ≥6 m·s were closer to match values for forwards than backs during all training activities, but training drills consistently fell below the demands of international competition. Coaches could therefore improve physical and physiological specificity by increasing the movement demands and intensity of training drills.
Unlabelled:
In rugby union, published analyses of actions and movements of players during matches have been limited to small samples of games at regional or national level.
Objectives:
To analyse movements and activities of players in international rugby union matches with a sample size sufficient to clearly delineate positional roles.
Design:
Observational study.
Methods:
Actions of 763 players were coded from video recordings of 90 international matches played by the New Zealand national team (the All Blacks) from 2004 to 2010. Movements of players were coded for 27 of these matches via a semi-automated player-tracking system. Movements and activities of all players from both teams were coded.
Results:
Cluster analysis of activities and time-motion variables produced five subgroups of forwards (props, hookers, locks, flankers, Number 8 forwards) and five subgroups of backs (scrum-half, fly-half, midfield backs, wings and fullbacks). Forwards sustained much higher contact loads per match than backs, via scrums, rucks, tackles and mauls. Mean distance covered per match ranged from 5400 to 6300m, with backs generally running further than forwards. There were marked differences between positional groups in the amount of distance covered at various speeds. The amount of play per match varies by position due to differences in rates at which players are substituted.
Conclusions:
The distance covered by players at relatively fast running speeds (in excess of 5ms(-1)) appears to be higher during international matches than when competing at lower levels of the professional game. The specific match demands for positional groups need to be considered when managing player workloads.
Small-sided games (SSGs) have been suggested as a method for concurrently training physical, technical and tactical capabilities of rugby union players. Therefore, it is important to understand how prescriptive variables such as player number and field size influence the training stimulus during rugby-specific SSGs. Twenty semiprofessional rugby union players participated in a series of SSGs of varying player numbers (4 vs. 4, 6 vs. 6, and 8 vs. 8) on small- (32 × 24 m) and large-sized fields (64 × 48 m). The physiological (blood lactate concentration and heart rate [HR]), perceptual (rating of perceived exertion [RPE]), and time-motion demands were assessed for each different SSG format. There were significant differences between the 4 vs. 4, 6 vs. 6, and 8 vs.8 SSG formats in mean speed (meters per minute), high-speed running (HSR) distance (meters), and RPE (all p < 0.05). Blood lactate was greater in 4 vs. 4 compared with that in 8 vs. 8 SSGs. The mean speed, HSR distance, number of sprints, peak speed, blood lactate concentration, and RPE were all significantly different between large- and small-field size (all p < 0.05). There were no significant difference between game formats (4 vs. 4, 6 vs. 6, and 8 vs. 8) or field size (small or large) for either percent HRmax or time spent >85% HRmax. These results show that SSGs with fewer players and larger field sizes elicit greater physiological and perceptual responses and time-motion demands. In contrast, the HR response was similar between all SSG formats, which may be attributable to high levels of individual variability in the HR response. This study provides new information about the influence of player number and field size on the training stimulus provided by rugby-specific SSGs.
This research described the physiological demands of participation in adolescent rugby union including positional differences and the degree to which training practices replicate game demands. Between 2003 and 2008, 118 male adolescent rugby players aged 14 to 18 years were recruited from 10 teams representing 3 levels of adolescent rugby. Time-motion analyses using global positioning satellite tracking devices (SPI10; GPSports Systems Pty Ltd 2003) and computer-based tracking software (Trak Performance; Sports Tec Pty Ltd) applied to video footage determined player movement patterns 161 times during rugby training sessions and 53 times during rugby games. Compared with rugby training, rugby games were consistently characterized by more time spent jogging (14 vs. 8%), striding (3.2 vs. 1.3%), and sprinting (1.3 vs. 0.1%) (p < 0.001). Players also covered greater distances (4000 ± 500 vs. 2710 ± 770 m) and performed more sprints (21.8 vs. 1) during games compared with training (p < 0.001). The average sprint duration of 2 seconds was similar in games and training; however, the frequency of sprint efforts in training sessions was low (1 per hour). A major finding of this study is the disparity between physical game demands and on-field rugby training practices in adolescent players determined using time-motion analyses. Sprint pattern differences between games and training in particular could have important implications for player performance during competition. Results of this study should assist in the development of game-specific training sessions and drills that provide the kinds of physically demanding experiences observed in games. Additionally, coaches could assist in the management of adolescent players' participation loads by increasing the intensity and specificity and decreasing the volume of training.
The current case study attempted to document the contemporary demands of elite rugby union. Players (n = 2) were tracked continuously during a competitive team selection game using Global Positioning System (GPS) software. Data revealed that players covered on average 6,953 m during play (83 minutes). Of this distance, 37% (2,800 m) was spent standing and walking, 27% (1,900 m) jogging, 10% (700 m) cruising, 14% (990 m) striding, 5% (320 m) high-intensity running, and 6% (420 m) sprinting. Greater running distances were observed for both players (6.7% back; 10% forward) in the second half of the game. Positional data revealed that the back performed a greater number of sprints (>20 km x h(-1)) than the forward (34 vs. 19) during the game. Conversely, the forward entered the lower speed zone (6-12 km x h(-1)) on a greater number of occasions than the back (315 vs. 229) but spent less time standing and walking (66.5 vs. 77.8%). Players were found to perform 87 moderate-intensity runs (>14 km x h(-1)) covering an average distance of 19.7 m (SD = 14.6). Average distances of 15.3 m (back) and 17.3 m (forward) were recorded for each sprint burst (>20 km x h(-1)), respectively. Players exercised at approximately 80 to 85% VO2max during the course of the game with a mean heart rate of 172 b x min(-1) ( approximately 88% HRmax). This corresponded to an estimated energy expenditure of 6.9 and 8.2 MJ, back and forward, respectively. The current study provides insight into the intense and physical nature of elite rugby using "on the field" assessment of physical exertion. Future use of this technology may help practitioners in design and implementation of individual position-specific training programs with appropriate management of player exercise load.
There is limited information regarding the validity and reliability of global positioning system (GPS) devices for measuring movement during team sports. The aim of this study was to assess the validity and intra-model reliability of different GPS devices for quantifying high-intensity, intermittent exercise performance. Two moderately trained males each completed eight bouts of a standard circuit that consisted of six laps around a 128.5-m course involving intermittent exercise. Distance and speed were collected concurrently at 1-Hz using six GPS devices (2 SPI-10, 2 SPI Elite and 2 WiSPI, GPSports, Canberra, Australia). Performance measures were: (1) total distance covered for each bout and each lap; (2) high-intensity running distance (>14.4 km h(-1), HIR); very high-intensity running distance (>20 km h(-1), VHIR) during each bout. Peak speed was also measured during a 20-m sprint at the start of each lap of the circuit (N=192). Actual distance was measured using a measuring tape. Mean (+/-SD) circuit total distance was significantly different between each of the GPS devices (P<0.001); however, all devices were within 5m of the actual lap distance and had a good level of reliability (coefficient of variation (CV) <5%). The CV for total distance (3.6-7.1%) and peak speed (2.3-5.8%) was good-to-moderate, but poor for HIR (11.2-32.4%) and VHIR (11.5-30.4%) for all GPS devices. These results show that the GPS devices have an acceptable level of accuracy and reliability for total distance and peak speeds during high-intensity, intermittent exercise, but may not be provide reliable measures for higher intensity activities.
The development of performance in competition is achieved through a training process that is designed to induce automation of motor skills and enhance structural and metabolic functions. Training also promotes self-confidence and a tolerance for higher training levels and competition. In general, there are two broad categories of athletes that perform at the highest level: (i) the genetically talented (the thoroughbred); and (ii) those with a highly developed work ethic (the workhorse) with a system of training guiding their effort. The dynamics of training involve the manipulation of the training load through the variables: intensity, duration and frequency. In addition, sport activities are a combination of strength, speed and endurance executed in a coordinated and efficient manner with the development of sport-specific characteristics. Short- and long-term planning (periodisation) requires alternating periods of training load with recovery for avoiding excessive fatigue that may lead to overtraining. Overtraining is long-lasting performance incompetence due to an imbalance of training load, competition, non-training stressors and recovery. Furthermore, annual plans are normally constructed in macro-, meso- and microcycles around the competitive phases with the objective of improving performance for a peak at a predetermined time. Finally, at competition time, optimal performance requires a healthy body, and integration of not only the physiological elements but also the psychological, technical and tactical components.
his paper serves as a companion to our recent study of the movement patterns and game activities of players (from five different positions) during matches in the 2000 Australian Football League season. Using lapsed-time video analysis, the same individual players (n= 11) as filmed in matches were also monitored during 21 in-season, main training sessions conducted by their clubs in order to assess the degree to which training activities matched game demands. In general, the training sessions did not involve physical pressure; therefore there were very few contested marks and ground balls or tackles, shepherds and spoils, thereby not matching these game demands. Players typically had more possessions (kicks and handballs) at training than in games. They also spent a greater percentage of total time standing and less time walking at training than in games. Fast-running and sprinting efforts at training were almost all for durations of <6 secs, which matched game demands, as did changes of direction when sprinting, which were almost all in a 0-90 degrees arc. However, across all players filmed, high intensity (fast-running and sprinting) movements were not performed as frequently at training (one every 76 secs) as in games (one every 51 secs). Therefore, while some game demands were adequately replicated at training, others were not closely simulated, suggesting that, after careful interpretation of these results, some improvements in training practices could be made.
The purpose of this study was to characterize sprint patterns of rugby union players during competition. Velocity profiles (60 m) of 28 rugby players were initially established in testing from standing, walking, jogging, and striding starts. During competition, the individual sprinting patterns of 17 rugby players were determined from video by using the individual velocity profiles. Forwards commenced sprints from a standing start most frequently (41%), whereas backs sprinted from standing (29%), walking (29%), jogging (29%), and occasionally striding (13%) starts. Forwards and backs achieved speeds in excess of 90% maximal velocity (Vmax) on 5 +/- 4 and 9 +/- 4 occasions ( approximately 50% of the sprints performed), respectively, during competition. The higher frequency of sprinting for the backs compared with the forwards highlights the importance of speed training for this positional group. The similar relative distribution of velocities achieved during competition for forwards and backs suggests both positional groups should train acceleration and Vmax qualities. The backs should have a higher total volume of sprint training. Sprinting efforts should be performed from a variety of starting speeds to mimic the movement patterns of competition.
A prospective cohort study was used to assess the influence of training volume on injuries sustained by 502 professional rugby union players in England. Training volumes (excluding warm-ups, cool-downs, and recovery sessions), player injuries, and player match exposure times were reported weekly. Higher training volumes (>9.1 hours per week) did not increase the incidence of match or training injuries. However, higher training volumes did increase the severity of match injuries, particularly during the second half, and consequently resulted in a significant increase in the number of days' absence due to match injuries. Although lower-limb injuries were the most common match and training injuries, shoulder dislocations/instabilities resulted in more days' absence during weeks of higher training volumes, but the differences were not significant. The least number of days lost due to injuries occurred during weeks of intermediate training volumes (6.2-9.1 h per week). Training volume was not correlated with final league position. Fitness testing, defence, and rucking and mauling components were identified as being very high- or high-risk training activities. Our results provide evidence of the benefits of modifying the volume and content of rugby union training to reduce the risk associated with injuries to professional players.
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