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Residues and contaminants in medicinal herbs—A review
Abstract
Abstract
With the increasing popularity and use of medicinal herbs, their global demand has gained momentum. Developing countries, including China, India and South East Asian (SEA) countries, are the centres of origin and major global suppliers for most of these traditionally used medicinal herbs. One of the factors affecting the quality of these herbs is the contamination of heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and fumigants. These contaminants can accumulate during the cultivation, storage and processing of herbs and may have adverse effects on consumer health. There have been various reports regarding the presence of these contaminants in medicinal herbs. This review discusses the important contaminants of medicinal herbs, the frequency and magnitude of their occurrences, the potential causes of contamination and their regulatory limits in medicinal herbs. The major challenge in the international trade of medicinal herbs is the lack of common guidelines, regulatory measures and monitoring body to strictly enforce their regulation.
... Analysis of pesticides residues, organic/inorganic contaminants, and toxic metabolites. Different types of pesticides, including herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides [12], have been used over the years to reduce losses that usually emanate from pest infestations [143]. Due to their harmful effects on humans [144,145], some of them have been banned; others are discouraged from usage, while some others are advisedly used with caution [146]. ...
... The conduct of tests for mycotoxins was also observed to be inadequate (2.5%, n = 3/118); especially when tests for microbial contamination were appreciable (23.7%, n = 28/118). Mycotoxins are the metabolites produced by some types of fungi and molds, mostly, species from the Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium genus [143,144,176]. The most common mycotoxins are classified as Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2), Ochratoxins (A, B), Trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol), and Fumonisins (B1, B2) [143]. ...
... Mycotoxins are the metabolites produced by some types of fungi and molds, mostly, species from the Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium genus [143,144,176]. The most common mycotoxins are classified as Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2), Ochratoxins (A, B), Trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol), and Fumonisins (B1, B2) [143]. Due to their high toxicity [143,144], their presence in HMs, especially where fungal growth is confirmed, should be of interest during quality assessments. ...
Background
In Africa, herbalism supplements allopathic medicine's efforts to ensure Universal Health Coverage attainment. This review was conducted to identify and to summarise current literature on methodological approaches used for quality control of herbal medicines in Africa, to evaluate the gaps associated with existing strategies within context of best practices, and make recommendations for future improvements.
Methods
A systematic search was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Articles were screened and assessed for eligibility.
Results
118 articles were included into the study. There was a high preference for impurity profiling tests (77%) indicating the prioritization for tests that guarantee safety despite the limited analytical resources available. Other classes of tests reported included identification tests (29%), physicochemical tests (18%), and content assays (12%). Although standard methods exist in preparing samples for impurity tests, different techniques were observed in different studies, and this could lead to differences in analytical outcomes. Content assays focused on single marker assessments, which may be inadequate to comprehensively assess the quality of products.
Conclusion
This review provides knowledge of existing strengths and challenges for herbal medicine quality assessments in Africa. For future it is recommended to implement more studies on contaminants (e.g. mycotoxins) and pharmaceutical adulterants. The use of chemometrics to develop analytical methods should be promoted. Also, stakeholders in the medicine quality industry in Africa need to effectively collaborate to establish a well co-ordinated and harmonized system to provide a sustainable framework for the GACP and GMP guided production and quality assurance of herbal medicines.
... roots, stems, and leaves) (Fuentes et al., 2006). The permissible limit for Cu in medicinal plants is up to 20 mg kg − 1 according to the US Food and Drug Administration (US-FDA), and up to 150 mg kg − 1 as stated by the Health Sciences Authority (HAS) in Singapore (Tripathy et al., 2015). Based on the different growth conditions, Cu concentration, types of Cu compounds, plant parts taken into consideration and different threshold levels of susceptibility to Cu stress, the effects of Cu toxicity on plants may vary (Yadav, 2010). ...
... Therefore, it is very important to evaluate the reaction of medicinal plants under the contamination of different environmental stresses. Contamination of the plant material is a major health issue concerning the commercial production of medicinal plants (Tripathy et al., 2015). Copper-contaminated soils under drought can reduce both the productivity of medical plants and the safety of their products as medicines and feeds (Sarma et al., 2011). ...
... During the last decades, food safety has been the main concern of consumers regarding medicinal plants because plant tissues may contain toxic elements due to contamination of soils (Tripathy et al., 2015). At Cu 150 , Cu accumulation was mainly in roots and slightly transferred to branches. ...
High concentrations of copper (Cu) can be extremely toxic for plant growth. Drought stress is also considered as a major environmental tension, as it reduces vegetative growth in medicinal plants. This study evaluated the singular and combined effects of several Cu concentrations (0, 50, 150, 300, and 400 mg kg⁻¹) and various drought stresses (non-stress, moderate, and severe) on the different vegetative traits, photosynthetic pigments, essential oils (EOs) yield, and Cu accumulation (in roots, shoots, and distilled plant material) of Fumaria parviflora Lam. under field conditions. The seeds were collected from four zones (Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4) located in two mineral regions (Askari and Rabor) of Kerman, Iran. Drought and Cu, both independently and combined, suppressed plant growth by decreasing different vegetative growth parameters. The Cu concentration of 50 mg kg⁻¹ yielded the highest values in all morphological traits and photosynthetic pigments. These included the dry weight and length of both shoot and root, chlorophyll content under non-drought stress, and carotenoid content under moderate drought stress. The growth parameters and photosynthetic pigments of F. parviflora declined sharply at Cu concentrations of 300 and 400 mg kg ⁻¹. The highest EOs yield (0.56% v/w) was obtained by applying 150 mg kg⁻¹ Cu under moderate drought stress conditions in zones Z3 and Z4. In the distilled plant material, Cu concentration was almost similar to its concentration in shoots before the distillation process. Under moderate drought and up to a Cu concentration of 150 mg kg⁻¹, the shoot growth parameters and photosynthetic pigments were slightly less than the control. Moreover, the EOs yield was at its highest, and Cu was mainly accumulated in the roots and only slightly transferred to the shoot. Therefore, to use the shoot and EOs of F.parviflora for medicinal purposes, it is recommended that this plant be cultivated under moderate drought in stressed soils at a maximum copper concentration of 150 mg kg⁻¹.
... The main objective of the legislation is to ensure the future existence of such products and to consider particular characteristics when assessing quality, efficacy, and safety. However, currently there is still a lack of guidelines and regulatory measures for these products in several countries (Knöss and Chinou, 2012;Li et al., 2013;Tripathy et al., 2015). ...
... Claviceps genera are responsible for the production of ergot alkaloids, whereas Alternaria species produce altenuene (ALT), alternariol (AOH), alternariol methyl ether (AME), altertoxin (ATX), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) (Marin et al., 2013). The occurrence of these toxic compounds has been reported in several studies (Tripathy et al., 2015), highlighting the importance of their determination in food matrices as they can cause adverse health effects, such as hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunosuppression, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, estrogenicity, neurotoxicity and diabetogenic effects (da Rocha et al., 2014). Moreover, it must be highlighted that some of them have been reported to be carcinogenic to humans according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). ...
Over recent years, consumer interest in natural products, such as botanicals has increased considerably. One of the factors affecting their quality is the presence of mycotoxins. This review focuses on exploring the mycotoxin occurrence in botanicals (raw material and ready-to-eat forms such as infusions or tablets) and the risk assessment due to their ingestion. Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin A, and Fumonisins are the most commonly studied mycotoxins and data in the literature report levels ranging from traces to 1000 μg/kg in raw materials. In general, the highest contents observed in raw materials decreased to unconcerning levels after the preparation of the infusions, reaching values that generally do not exceed 100 μg/L. Regarding botanical dietary supplements, the levels observed were lower than those reported for other matrices, although higher levels (of up to 1000 μg/kg) have been reported in some cases. Risk assessment studies in botanicals revealed a higher risk when they are consumed as tablets compared to infusions. Analytical methodologies implied in mycotoxin determination have also been contemplated. In this sense, liquid chromatography coupled to fluorescence detection has been the most frequently employed analytical technique, although in recent years tandem mass spectrometry has been widely used.
... The elemental composition of medicinal herbs partially contributes to the development of active constituents and the medicinal and nutritional properties are related (Tokalıoglu, 2012). The variation in elemental composition is characteristic of the type of medicinal herb and can be related to several factors, such as geographic origin, soil, and processing practices (Dalipi et al., 2018;Pohl et al., 2016;Tripathy et al., 2015). While some chemical elements are considered essential for the proper functioning of the human body at adequate levels, others do not perform known functions and some are toxic (WHO, 1996). ...
... The daily consumption of infusions prepared with medicinal herbs can contribute to the intake of essential and non-essential elements in human nutrition (Polechońska et al., 2015;Suliburska and Kaczmarek, 2012;Tripathy et al., 2015). In routine analysis, the determination of elemental composition is often employed using atomic spectrometry techniques that generally require liquid samples. ...
In this study, a microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method based on the natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) was developed for the Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn determination in medicinal herb samples. The experimental conditions were optimized and the method parameters were evaluated using certified reference material. The NADES composed of choline chloride-oxalic acid prepared in a microwave system showed better extraction rates and low-energy consumption. Optimal conditions in the MAE were obtained using 35 seconds of extraction time, 90% of microwave power, and a 50 mg/mL sample-solvent ratio. Recoveries in the range of 87 to 109% and relative standard deviation <8.45% were obtained. The limits of quantification (mg kg⁻¹) were: 0.0233 (Cd), 0.0229 (Cu), 1.10 (Fe), 0.06 (Mn), and 0.67 (Zn). The medicinal herbs were analyzed and daily intake values were estimated for Cu (<0.20%), Fe (<18.1%), Mn (<13.8%), and Zn (<0.64%); concentrations above threshold values for Cd were found. The optimization of experimental conditions combined and the use of an eco-friendly solvent provided excellent analytical parameters in the proposed method.
... Saponins are used in respiratory illness or disease which agrees with the traditionally reported use for G. viscosum [20,21]. Medicinal plant uses have already several regulations worldwide such as the European Pharmacopoeia, United State Food and Drug Administration, Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, etc [22]. Moreover, several countries have already developed their national guidelines to ensure satisfactory levels of heavy metals in medicinal plants [5]. ...
... Moreover, several countries have already developed their national guidelines to ensure satisfactory levels of heavy metals in medicinal plants [5]. A summary of heavy metal and trace elements limits are given in Table 3 [15,22,23]. In El Salvador, such regulations have not been established yet, however the established limits by WHO were used to compare the detected amounts of class 1, 2A and 3 elements. ...
Medicinal plant's quality and safety are becoming a great interest topic worldwide, especially due to contamination with heavy metals. The main objective of this study is to determine the phytochemical composition and quantify the concentration of heavy metals, trace and macro elements in fourteen medicinal plants purchased in the Central Market of San Salvador. Samples were dried and fractionated, subsequently digested and analyzed at first by phytochemical screening and then by atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentration of twelve elements was determined, only Matricaria chamomilla exceeded the established World Health Organization limit for Cd and Cu. Acourtia nudicaulis and Turnera diffusa exceeded the permitted concentration of Ni. The concentration of these elements must be inspected in medicinal plants sold in the informal markets of El Salvador to ensure the safety and quality. To our knowledge, this is the first study of heavy metals in medicinal plants conducted in El Salvador.
... Especially seeds and fruits are susceptible to mycotoxins contamination caused by various fungi with moldy growth and spoilage in a tropical climate (Paterson and Lima 2010;Yang et al. 2020). After ingestion, mycotoxins will cause several diseases in humans and animals (Tripathy et al. 2014;Thanushree et al. 2019). Therefore, mycotoxins contamination is very harmful to human and animal, and persistent efforts have been devoted to controlling and monitoring mycotoxins. ...
... Especially in South China, the foregoing medicinal and edible foods as major ingredients are very prone to occurrence of mycotoxins contamination in the moist climate. Moreover, multiple mycotoxins may be found in the same product because a single species of fungi can produce several toxic metabolites, even several species of fungi can be simultaneously present and produce different toxins (Tripathy et al. 2014;Thanushree et al. 2019;Yang et al. 2020). Up to now, there have been a few related reports about monitoring the mycotoxins in these medicinal and edible foods. ...
A novel method based on ultrasonic-assisted aqueous two-phase extraction (UAATPE) coupled with solidifying organic drop-dispersible liquid–liquid microextraction (SOD-DLLME) was developed for simultaneous determination of nine mycotoxins (aflatoxins of B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and patulin) in medicinal and edible foods by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode array detector (DAD) and fluorescence detector (FLD) in series. Using an aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) of acetonitrile and (NH4)2SO4 as the extractant, the effects of the ATPS composition, extraction temperature and time were investigated respectively to extract the mycotoxins from the samples. Also, SOD-DLLME conditions including type and volume of extractant and dispersant were optimized by the single factor experiments. The optimum conditions were as follows: the ATPS composition of 34.0% acetonitrile concentration (w/w) and 22.0% (NH4)2SO4 concentration (w/w), pH 6.0, extraction temperature 40 °C, ultrasonic time 10 min for UAATPE; 1-dodecanol 600 μL as extractant, acetonitrile 1.0 mL as dispersant, and vortex-assisted time 1.0 min for SOD-DLLME. By means of HPLC–DAD-FLD detection, nine mycotoxins had good linearity in the range of 0.5 − 200.0 ng/mL (R2 ≥ 0.9991). LODs and LOQs were in the range of 0.01563 − 0.5161 ng/mL and 0.05210 − 1.720 ng/mL, respectively. The average recoveries and intra-day and inter-day precisions were 82.77 − 103.2%, 1.1 − 3.4% and 1.5 − 4.3%, respectively. The proposed method was successfully applied to simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in black bean, black sesame, lotus seed, apricot kernel and litchi, demonstrating the presence of five different mycotoxins in these samples.
... Soil contaminants are formed as a result of agricultural use of fertilisers and plant protection agents, including pesticides and fungicides containing mercury and arsenic. The water environment is contaminated with heavy metals as a result of human activity related to wastewater treatment and drying, as well as with the disposal of sewage and sanitary wastes from households [7,8]. Toxic elements are widely proliferated in the environment and enter the food chain, appearing in various concentrations in food and feeds. ...
... Beans of Arabica coffee (roasted) (8). ...
The presented study was aimed at the determination of the level of contamination with heavy metals (Cd, Pb, As, and Hg) in 240 samples of plant materials, i.e., herbal raw materials, spices, tea, and coffee. Moreover, a probabilistic risk assessment (noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks) was estimated by models including target hazard quotient (THQ) and cancer risk (CR). The samples were subjected to microwave mineralisation with the use of HNO3 (65%), while the determination of the content of the elements was performed with the use of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) and a mercury analyser. The element which was characterised by the highest level of accumulation in the analysed samples was lead (from 0.010 to 5.680 mg/kg). Among the heavy metals under analysis, the lowest concentration was noted in the case of mercury (from 0.005 to 0.030 mg/kg). A notably higher level of contamination with heavy metals was noted in the analysed samples of herbs and spices (0.005-5.680 mg/kg), compared to samples of tea and coffee (0.005-0.791 mg/kg). According to the guidelines of the World Health Organisation (WHO) concerning the limits of contamination of samples of herbal raw materials with heavy metals, lead levels exceeding the limits were only noted in 24 samples of herbs (18%). In all of the analysed samples of spices, tea, and coffee, no instances of exceeded limits were noted for any of the analysed heavy metals. The values of TTHQmax (in relation to the consumption of the analysed products) were as follows: up to 4.23 × 10 −2 for spices, up to 2.51 × 10 −1 for herbs, up to 4.03 × 10 −2 for China tea, and up to 1.25 × 10 −1 for roasted coffee beans. As the value of THQ ≤1, there is no probability of the appearance of undesirable effects related to the consumption of the analysed group of raw materials and products of plant origin. The CR value for As (max. value) was 1.29 × 10 −5 , which is lower than the maximum acceptable level of 1 × 10 −4 suggested by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
... One of the major factors contributing to the poor quality of the medicinal herb is represented by their residues and contaminants. These residues (pesticides and other synthetic chemicals) and contaminants (heavy metals) can accumulate during cultivation of medicinal herbs and may have adverse effects on the consumer health [2]. In this regard, organic manures have several advantages like they supply plant nutrients, including micronutrients, and improve soil biological properties. ...
The present investigation entitled Effect of different organic sources of nutrients on quality and economics of ashwagandha [Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal] was carried out during Kharif 2021-22 at College Farm, College of Horticulture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Jagudan, Dist. Mehsana, Gujarat. Experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications and twenty treatments viz., T1: 100% RDN through FYM; T2: 100% RDN through Vermicompost; T3: 100% RDN through Neem cake; T4: 100% RDN through Poultry manure; T5: 80% RDN through FYM; T6: 80% RDN through Vermicompost; T7: 80% RDN through Neem cake; T8: 80% RDN through Poultry manure; T9: 60% RDN through FYM; T10: 60% RDN through Vermicompost; T11: 60% RDN through Neem cake; T12: 60% RDN through Poultry manure; T13: 80% RDN through FYM + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T14: 80% RDN through Vermicompost + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T15: 80% RDN through Neem cake+ Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T16: 80% RDN through Poultry manure + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T17: 60% RDN through FYM + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T18: 60% RDN through Vermicompost + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T19: 60% RDN through Neem cake + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB; T20: 60% RDN through Poultry manure + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB. Maximum chlorophyll a, b and total at 90 DAS (at full bloom stage) (1.92, 0.75 and 2.11 mg/g, respectively) and withanolides content (0.32%) at harvest were recorded with treatment T16. The maximum net income (₹ 1,38,707/ha) and benefit cost ratio (3.52) were also obtained in same treatment. Therefore, it can be concluded that the application of 80% RDN through poultry manure + Azotobacter + KSM + PSB (T16) was found beneficial for obtaining higher yield of better quality and economic returns in ashwagandha.
... It was determined that the potentially toxic element concentrations determined in the study materials were mostly within permissible limits. [22,[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116] In addition to T€ urkiye, some countries such as Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India, Malaysia, Singapore, European Union, the United Kingdom and Thailand have implemented their own programmes to ensure safe plant-based production regarding the potentially toxic element content (Table 4). ...
Medicinal plants have been used throughout history in the treatment of many diseases in traditional Anatolian folk medicine as well as all over the world. The rapid increase in agricultural and industrial activities due to the increasing population around the world causes air, water and soil pollution, and accumulation of potentially toxic elements in medicinal plants. In this study, plant mineral nutrients and potentially toxic elements analyzes were carried out in 38 plant species belonging to the medicinally important families Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae. The percentage of macroelements (in %) varies between 0.20 and 1.46 for calcium, 0.08 and 1.35 for potassium, 0.04 and 0.24 for magnesium, 0.01 and 0.34 for sodium, while concentrations of microelements and potentially toxic elements (in mg kg⁻¹) vary between 3.21 and 721.28 for aluminum, 41.33 and 231.01 for boron, 0.01 and 0.61 for cadmium, 1.09 and 47.79 for chromium, 12.90 and 43.13 for copper, 17.75 and 1109.39 for iron, 51.50 and 715.48 for manganese, 0.12 and 9.42 for nickel, 1.58 and 22.11 for lead and finally 80.82 and 260.08 for zinc. In addition, estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), and hazard index (HI) for potentially toxic elements, and Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) values for mineral nutrients were calculated. In some samples in industrial and mining areas, accumulation of some potentially toxic elements was slightly above the permissible limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). In Summary, the importance of collecting medicinal plants from protected areas such as mountainous rural areas, far from mining, close to clean rivers, and regular control of values with potentially toxic elements analyzes for human health has been understood once again.
... Nearly 80% of the world's populations use natural drugs for their daily medical needs [23]. The world's botanical drug market is huge, growing at a rate of 13% every year; by 2050, the market demand is estimated to reach 5 trillion USD [23,161,177]. ...
Medicinal plants have a wide range of uses worldwide. However, the quality of medicinal plants is affected by severe cadmium pollution. Cadmium can reduce photosynthetic capacity, lead to plant growth retardation and oxidative stress, and affect secondary metabolism. Medicinal plants have complex mechanisms to cope with cadmium stress. On the one hand, an antioxidant system can effectively scavenge excess reactive oxygen species produced by cadmium stress. On the other hand, cadmium chelates are formed by chelating peptides and then sequestered through vacuolar compartmentalization. Cadmium has no specific transporter in plants and is generally transferred to plant tissues through competition for the transporters of divalent metal ions, such as zinc, iron, and manganese. In recent years, progress has been achieved in exploring the physiological mechanisms by which medicinal plants responding to cadmium stress. The exogenous regulation of cadmium accumulation in medicinal plants has been studied, and the aim is reducing the toxicity of cadmium. However, research into molecular mechanisms is still lagging. In this paper, we review the physiological and molecular mechanisms and regulatory networks of medicinal plants exposed to cadmium, providing a reference for the study on the responses of medicinal plants to cadmium stress.
... For example, healthbased products are regulated in South Africa by the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority, yet aphrodisiacs marketed by street vendors and markets are not regulated. Metal pollution and associated human health effects have been reported in herbal medicines [23][24][25], but data on aphrodisiacs are still limited. In the current study, we have done an assessment of the metal composition in aqueous concoctions collected from traditional markets in two important cities in South Africa (Johannesburg and Durban) and used the measured concentrations to do a health risk assessment based on the permissible limits for metals in aqueous food sources recommended by various international organizations. ...
Consumption of aphrodisiacs is a common practice in South Africa. Hence, determining the levels of trace metals as potential pollutants is necessary to protect consumers’ health. The current study reports a health risk assessment due to metals in aphrodisiacs collected from herbal markets in Johannesburg and Durban, South Africa. Samples were digested using microwave-assisted digestion followed by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry analysis. The results showed that the concentrations of common metals (Na, K, Mg, and Ca) were within the guideline limits for human consumption, while the trace metals (Ni, Cr, Co, As, Cd, and Pb) were above the limits, recording values of 0.132–0.268, 0.209–0.308, 0.224–0.405, 0.0884–0.230, 0.0402–1.11, and 0.146–0.207 mg L−1, respectively. The source of the trace metals was traced to the tap water probably collected from dilapidated buildings where the water systems are ailing. A strong correlation for metals with similar sources was observed, notably for Pb and Cd that leach from water pipes. The aphrodisiacs had low consumption rates, and the health risk assessment gave a hazard quotient of 0.225 as a total for all studied metals. The group of aphrodisiacs investigated in the current study therefore poses minimal health risks and can be consumed without fear of metal contamination. More inclusive studies are, however, needed to have a better understanding of aphrodisiacs with the aim of potentially commercializing them like the other commercialized herbal concoctions currently distributed in South African markets and pharmacies.
... So spices have been used since ancient times as traditional medicine called ethnomedicine as well as pharmaceutical drug development [13,14]. Several reports and WHO have claimed that around 80% of the world population depends on spices as a primary medicine to cure [15][16][17][18][19]. People, particularly in the South Asian region, frequently are spending spices like cumin, coriander, black pepper, red pepper, turmeric, ginger, and garlic in daily food preparation, most of them in dry powder form [20]. ...
Technological advances and socioeconomic development of Bangladesh are leading to the best choice between branded and non-branded powdered spices. But toxic metal issues can be another factor to elect them. So lead (Pb) exposure and its consequence on the human body for these two categories of four common spices have been ascertained here. A validated laboratory method using hot plate digestion and flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) has been used for that. The obtained mean concentration of Pb in branded and non-branded spice powders followed the decreasing order of turmeric > coriander > red chili > cumin powder and turmeric > red chili > cumin > coriander powder, respectively, where, in any analysis mode, the non-branded items are potentially ahead of Pb exposure. The market-based mean concentration between these two categories was not a significant difference (t-test). Approximately 90% of the spice samples have shown within the maximum allowable limit by Bangladesh Standard. The sum of estimated daily intake indicated that most of the city market (67%) for non-branded items and some branded (33%) samples have crossed the maximum tolerable daily intake (> 0.21 mg/kg). So, the human health risk assumption for the inhabitant of studied areas suggests there is no significant level of risk for them due to the consumption of spices regarding non-carcinogenic risk factor (THQ and total THQ) and carcinogenic risk factor (CR). But the development of a quality control process for loose spice powders as well as toxic metal screening from raw materials to finish products urgently needed and continuous monitoring with identifying the source of toxic metal is highly recommended.
... The most studied types of products are Asian herbal medicines. To ensure the safety of consumers, Maximum Residual Levels (MRLs) were established for pesticides [299]. Wang et al. analyzed 1017 samples of 10 Chinese herbal medicines and determined 168 pesticides. ...
Even in modern times, the popularity level of medicinal plants and herbal medicines in therapy is still high. The World Health Organization estimates that 80% of the population in developing countries uses these types of remedies. Even though herbal medicine products are usually perceived as low risk, their potential health risks should be carefully assessed. Several factors can cause the toxicity of herbal medicine products: plant components or metabolites with a toxic potential, adulteration, environmental pollutants (heavy metals, pesticides), or contamination of microorganisms (toxigenic fungi). Their correct evaluation is essential for the patient’s safety. The toxicity assessment of herbal medicine combines in vitro and in vivo methods, but in the past decades, several new techniques emerged besides conventional methods. The use of omics has become a valuable research tool for prediction and toxicity evaluation, while DNA sequencing can be used successfully to detect contaminants and adulteration. The use of invertebrate models (Danio renio or Galleria mellonella) became popular due to the ethical issues associated with vertebrate models. The aim of the present article is to provide an overview of the current trends and methods used to investigate the toxic potential of herbal medicinal products and the challenges in this research field.
... As per the guidelines of the FAO for good agricultural practices (GAP), the use of agri-inputs such as agrochemicals should be avoided or used to a limited extent for cultivation [11]. Furthermore, the residues of pesticides and heavy metals in crops are a major global issue in the marketing of commodities [12]. ...
In recent decades, organic kiwifruit farming has come up as a feasible method for high-quality kiwi production without using chemical fertilizers. The primary objective of this research was to investigate how the sole application of organic and the combined application of organic manures affected the growth, yields, and quality of Allison kiwifruit, as well as the soil’s physicochemical characteristics. The field trial was conducted on cv. Allison to determine the efficacy of organic manures (OM) on growth, nutrient absorption, production and soil health. The experiment involved eight treatments, viz.: T1: 100% Dairy manure (DM); T2: 100% Vermicompost (VC); T3: 100% chicken manure (CM); T4: 50% DM + 50% CM; T5: 50% DM + 50% VC; T6: 50% CM + 50% VC; T7: DM + CM + VC in equal proportions; and T8: Recommended nutrients inorganic NPK + 40 kg DM. A randomized complete block design comprising three replicas was used in this investigation. The use of inorganic fertilizers (NPK) in combination with DM enhanced Spad Values Chlorophyll, fruit production, leaf number, leaf area, and stem diameter while also improving the soil’s chemical characteristics. The flower initiation was recorded with DM and Vermicompost (50:50). Furthermore, when compared to inorganic fertilizer treatment, OM treatment significantly improved fruit quality by improving fruit chemical composition in terms of soluble solids contents and leaf nutrient status, as well as improving soil’s physical properties with DM and Vermicompost (50:50). The study’s outcome revealed that OM had a significant impact on flowering time, fruit SSC, leaf nutritional status, and soil physical characteristics. In comparison to organic treatments, recommended fertilizer dosages (NPK+DM) improved plant growth, fruit yield, and soil chemical characteristics.
... cinerea), Pythium aphanidermatum (P. aphanidermatum), and so on [4]. To control soil-borne root rot disease in P. notoginseng, the application amounts of pesticides have increased, which has aggravated the potential safety hazards of the production environment [5]. ...
Due to the great threat of chemical pesticides to the ecosystem environment, it is a long-term goal to find environmentally friendly green pesticides. Essential oils (EOs) are considered weapons in plant chemical defense and are important sources of green pesticides. Therefore, the antifungal effects and action mechanisms of Cymbopogom citratus (C. citratus) EOs against seven kinds of Panax notoginseng (P. notoginseng) pathogenic fungi were investigated. Oxford Cup results showed that C. citratus EOs had an excellent detraction effects against seven fungi of P. notoginseng. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to construct the chemical profiles of C. citratus EOs, disclosed that the main categories are terpenes and oxygenated terpenes. In addition, compared with the hymexazol, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) showed that EOs and their main components had strong antifungal activities. Besides, EOs had a synergistic effect with hymexazol (a chemical pesticide). The antifungal mechanism of C. citratus EOs was studied by using Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum) as the dominant pathogen. C. citratus EOs may affect the metabolism of fungi and induce mycotoxins to destroy the cell wall to achieve antifungal effects. Finally, EOs were found to significantly retard P. notoginseng infection by F. oxysporum. According to our research, C. citratus EOs are potential green antifungal agent that can be used in the cultivation of P. notoginseng.
... Furthermore, the insecticide detection rate results in higher in the epigeal parts, while plants with roots and rhizomes are more likely to be polluted by organochlorines and growth regulators (Rai et al., 2008). Many medicinal herbs also come from India which, due to its rich biodiversity, is another of the world's largest suppliers, but it is not always possible to evaluate their quality (Tripathy et al., 2015) Pesticide residues have been also detected in medicinal herbs originating from Brazil (Rodrigues et al., 2007), Iran (Sarkhail et al., 2012), and Egypt (Farag et al., 2011). Several studies have revealed the presence of banned organochlorinated pesticides in American ginseng (Wu et al., 2011) and in commercial ginseng roots (Hayward and Wong, 2009;Wong et al., 2010) used as dietary supplements. ...
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by demyelination and axonal loss of the central nervous system (CNS). Despite its spread throughout the world, the mechanisms that determine its onset are still to be defined. Immunological, genetic, viral, and environmental factors and exposure to chemicals may trigger MS. Many studies have highlighted the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects of medicinal herbs, which make them a natural and complementary treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. A severe reduction of several MS symptoms occurs with herbal therapy. Thus, the request for medicinal plants with potential beneficial effects, for MS patients, is constantly increasing. Consequently, a production increase needs. Unfortunately, many medicinal herbs were untested and their action mechanism, possible adverse effects, contraindications, or interactions with other drugs, are poorly or not investigated. Keeping in mind the pathological mechanisms of MS and the oxidative damages and mitochondrial dysfunctions induced by pesticides, it is important to understand if pesticides used to increase agricultural productivity and their residues in medicinal plants, may increase the risk of developing MS in both workers and consumers. Studies providing some indication about the relationship between environmental exposure to pesticides and MS disease incidence are few, fragmentary, and discordant. The aim of this article is to provide a glance at the therapeutic potential of medicinal plants and at the risk for MS onset of pesticides used by medicinal plant growers and present in medicinal herbs.
... But some others, such as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg), are toxic and can cause serious illness (Singh, Gautam, Mishra, & Gupta, 2011). Medicinal plants are subjected to heavy metal and harmful element contamination due to both the environment (soil, water, and air) they grow and the anthropogenic sources such as mining activities, waste incineration fertilizer, and vehicle emission (Wu & Xue, 2013;Tripathy, Basak, Varghese, & Saha, 2015). It should be specially explained that due to the wide presence of heavy metals and harmful elements in the environment, their residues in medicinal plants have been frequently reported from different origins, such as globe artichoke in Uruguay, Cetraria Islandica from the European market, and herbal teas collected in the US (Machado, Dol, Rodríguez-Arce, Cesio, & Pistón, 2016;Giordani et al., 2017;de Oliveira et al., 2018). ...
Objective
Heavy metal and harmful element contamination are frequently reported in Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs), and roots and rhizomes parts showed a higher content than other parts. To investigate the residue level and assess the potential human health risk of heavy metals and harmful elements in roots and rhizomes, 720 batches of the sample representing 20 species of herbs from different sources were collected.
Methods
The content of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, and Cu in the digests was determined using ICP-MS. The chronic hazard index estimate based on non-cancer hazard quotient (HQ) was applied for potential health risk assessment of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, and Cu via consumption of CHMs.
Results
Compared with the Chinese limit standard (Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2020 edition) of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, and Cu in Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, the exceedance percentage of Pb in total samples was 14.1%, which were generally far higher than Cd, As, Hg, and Cu. Health risk assessment results based on hazard quotient calculating showed that total HQ of Cu, Pb, As, Cd, and Hg in Pulsatillae Radix and Clematidis Radix et Rhizoma exceeded 1, with the value of 1.543 and 1.235. Besides, Arsenic had the highest HQ value (0.957) in Pulsatillae Radix.
Conclusion
Consuming raw materials of Pulsatillae Radix and Clematidis Radix et Rhizoma may pose a potential risk and Arsenic residues in Pulsatillae Radix deserved special attention.
... In India, Sharma et al. [10] noted different species of Aspergillus and Penicillium in giloy stem, while two other studies by Khati and Swami and Naagrathan [ 11 , 12 ] reported the occurrence of several species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium in ashwagandha, satavari and safed musli. In China, Brazil and Spain, mycotoxins such as AFs, OTA , ZEA , DON, T-2 and HT-2 have been reported in medicinal herbs [13] . Due to the toxicity of these mycotoxins, many countries have [14][15][16][17]. ...
While medicinal plants are in high demand worldwide for their therapeutic properties, they can constitute a health concern to consumers when contaminated with mycotoxins. The unavailability of standardised methods for multiclass mycotoxin analysis to assess health risks has thus been realised. This study reports a simple, robust and precise method to estimate nine regulated mycotoxins in a range of Indian medicinal plant matrices including giloy (Tinospora cordifolia), ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum), satavari (Asparagus racemosus) and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum). The sample preparation method involved extraction of homogenised matrices (12.5 g) using methanol:water (8:2, 100 mL) followed by cleanup through a multi-mycotoxin immunoaffinity column (IAC), which significantly reduced matrix interferences. The method was initially developed and validated using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the simultaneous analysis of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2), ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 toxin. Later, it was validated using LC-fluorescence (LC-FLD) for aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone. The optimised sample preparation protocol and analytical method provided acceptable results. Compared to LC-FLD, it was possible to attain a lower limit of quantification (LOQ) with LC-MS/MS for all the tested analytes except aflatoxins. However, LOQs of both instruments were lower than the maximum limits (MLs), with recoveries ranging between 71 and 110% and precision (RSD) of ≤10% across matrices. Despite matrix-induced signal suppressions in LC-MS/MS analysis, the matrix-matched calibrations corrected all recoveries. Considering its accuracy, reliability, robustness and time-effectiveness, this method is recommended for regulatory testing purposes.
... Due to which they are most frequent contaminants detected worldwide in agricultural food commodities including spices [14]. Screening and profiling of pesticide residues in culinary/medicinal spices and herbs has been significantly reported time to time due to well-known adverse health and environmental impacts of different agro-pesticide residues [15][16]. A research study on surveillance of pesticides, mycotoxins and heavy metals in commercial spices also emphasised the present status of contamination and adulteration [17]. ...
Sixteen types of common culinary spices available in local market were procured and analyzed to observe the level of contamination of pesticide residues with special reference to organochlorines (OCs) and synthetic pyrethroids (SPs). A total twenty-four pesticides, i.e., fourteen types of OCs and ten OPs were analyzed using Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe: QuEChERS method. Method validation was performed satisfactorily prior to analysis. The percent (%) recovery, limit of detection (LOD) and retention time (RT) of 24 pesticides in 16 different spices sample matrix were also assessed. The level of pesticide residues in various spices were also compared with their maximum residues limit (MRL) as per food safety act/Codex guidelines. Maximum spice samples (90%) were found free from pesticide contamination. γ-HCH, endosulfan and dicofol were detectable amongst OCs in a limited number of samples of turmeric, coriander, red chilli, cumin and nutmeg. Isomers of cypermethrine as well as cyfluthrin were significant OPs observed in traces in a few samples of turmeric and aniseed. Contaminations of pesticide residues may occur during harvesting of post harvesting practices including prolong storage conditions. A periodic monitoring and assessment are needful for safe commercial and domestic uses of culinary spices.
... The results obtained from our study were also compared with the permissible limits set for medicinal plants by FAO/ WHO and the American Herbal Products Association (AHPA). It was detected that the heavy metal concentrations determined in the study materials were mostly within the permissible limits [111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122]. ...
Heavy metal accumulation in medicinal plants has increased dramatically in recent years due to agricultural and industrial activities leading to pollution of natural sources. This study is focused on the concentration of trace elements and heavy metals in aboveground parts of 33 medicinal plants from the Eastern Mediterranean of Turkey. Results showed that the Al concentrations varied between 4.368 and 1104.627, the B level varied between 47.850 and 271.479, Ca values ranged between 1971.213 and 22,642.895, Cd concentrations ranged between 0.011 and 0.651, Cr contents varied between 1.371 and 41.692, Cu values varied between 13.278 and 42.586, Fe concentrations varied between 20.705 and 1276.783, K levels ranged between 652.143 and 14,440.946, Mg concentrations varied from 336.871 to 1869.486, Mn contents varied between 46.383 and 849.492, Na concentrations varied between 167.144 and 3401.252, Ni values varied between 0.065 and 9.968, Pb levels ranged between 1.311 and 16.238, and Zn concentrations ranged between 67.250 and 281.954 mg kg-1, respectively. Furthermore, Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) values for trace elements and estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), and hazard index (HI) for heavy metals were calculated. The concentrations of heavy metals in some studied plants distributed in industrial and mining regions were found as slightly higher than the acceptable limits determined by WHO. Consequently, in order to prevent this heavy metal accumulation, when collecting medicinal aromatic plants, rural areas, close to clean rivers, or mountainous areas should be preferred, away from highway, mining, and industrial areas.
... At the same time, due to the enormous demand for energy supply, thermochemical conversion and utilization of HR, including gasification, pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization, have drawn an increase attention. Tripathy et al. [5] reported that the heating value of HR is about 12 to 14 MJ/kg, proving HR could be considered an ideal energy feedstock. However, similar to other traditional fibrous structure biomass, thermochemical conversion of HR encounters some problems, such as high oxygen content and high moisture content [6]. ...
The serious environmental issues are risen by the high-moisture herb residue (HR). Thermochemical conversion of HR shows the potential for not only clean treatment, but also utilizing its energy. In this study, microwave torrefaction (MT) and conventional torrefaction (CT) were integrated with gasification respectively, for the HR treatment. The systems were simulated and comparatively investigated by Aspen Plus. The modeling of MT was achieved for the first time, and it was validated by the experimental data. The effects of torrefaction on gasification performance were evaluated by exergy and energy analyses. The results showed that the exergy of MT-HR was 17.68 MJ/kg, which was higher than the raw HR and CT-HR, indicating the significant improvement for HR by MT. Meanwhile, the exergy of gasification syngas reached the highest as 7.93 MJ/h with MT, while and the exergy of tar was the lowest as 3.13 MJ/h. It was proved by energy analysis that MT could achieve self-powered in the integrated process, although MT consumed some energy. MT-gasification showed the best performance for electricity yield, due to MT could not only improved the gasification and combustion efficiency, but also reduce the negative influence of tar. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation for the application of MT, and it demonstrates the potential of MT as a promising pretreatment for thermal conversion of biomass waste.
... where MOE is the margin of exposure for BaP or PAH4 (dimensionless), BMDL 10 is Benchmark Dose Level 10, which means the lowest dose that causes adverse reactions in 10% of the population, the BMDL 10 value of BaP and PAH4 were of 70 µg/kg bw/d, and 340 µg/kg bw/d, respectively [41]. ...
The four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon markers (PAH4) of benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) are indicators showing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination levels in Chinese medicine raw materials (CMRMs), extracts and health food products; Samples of herbal medicine, herbal extracts, and food supplements were extracted with n-hexane, then cleaned up sequentially on Florisil and EUPAH solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns. A gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method for the determination of four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon markers in Chinese medicine raw material, extracts, and health food products was established; In spiked-recovery experiments, the average recovery was about 78.6–107.6% with a precision of 2.3–10.5%. The limit of quantification (LOQ) and limit of detection (LOD) of the PAH4 markers in this method were 2.0 μg/kg and 0.7 μg/kg, respectively. When the developed method was utilized to determine PAH4 contents in 12 locally available health food products, 3 samples contained over 10.0 μg/kg BaP, and 5 samples contained over 50.0 μg/kg PAH4. The European Union (EU) limits for BaP and PAH4 are 10 and 50.0 μg/kg, respectively; therefore, more attention must be drawn to the exposure risk of BaP and PAH4 in CMRMs, their extracts, and health food products. According to the risk assessment based on the Margin of Exposure (MOE) method, it is recognized that the products mentioned in this study pose a low risk.
... Determination of Aflatoxins, heavy metals, and pesticide residue is a prerequisite criterion for the export of herbal drugs to foreign countries. Hence, this serves as a vital measure for defining the quality of herbal drugs or products [20]. The HPLC chromatogram obtained from the Aflatoxins analysis in the sample is depicted in Fig. 1. ...
Background
Piper nigrum L. is one of the widely used herbs in Ayurvedic medicine. Piperine is a major phytoconstituent that is responsible for most of the activity of the herb. Quality assessment and standardization of such phytoconstituents is the need of the hour. The present study aims at developing a Quality by design (QbD)-based RP-HPLC Method for marker-based standardization of Piper nigrum L. fruits along with its quality assessment.
Results
The quality assessment of the crude sample was carried out by evaluating pharmacognostic parameters and analysis of toxic contaminants. The analytical target profile and critical quality attributes were determined and 2 ² factorial design was employed for optimization of the method. By performing the experiments as per the QbD concept the optimized mobile phase was identified as Acetonitrile and Water with 0.05% Acetic acid in the ratio of 70:30, with a flow rate of 1 mL/min and UV detection at 342 nm. The retention time of Piperine was found to be 5.5 min and the amount of Piperine in crude P. nigrum fruits and its extract was found to be 3.6% w/w 5.62% w/w, respectively. The Pharmacognostic parameters showed the results within specified limits and the crude drug sample showed the absence of toxic contaminants in it thus indicating the purity of the drug.
Conclusion
The utilization of the QbD approach leads to the development of a more precise and reliable method for the quantification of phytocompounds.
... These natural habitats are being contaminated because of increasing industrial activities and can result in accumulation of heavy metal in the tissues of MP (Asgari Lajayer et al., 2017) and thereby in raw material and herbal products (Bolan et al., 2017). In India, MP related trade is facing a serious challengebecause of increase in accumulation of heavy metalsin plant tissues (Tripathy et al., 2015). Quality assessment of MP is a prerequisite for ensuring efficacy and safety of MP based formulations (WHO, 2003;Govindaraghavan and Sucher, 2015). ...
Increased usage and demand of medicinal plants (MP) in recent times has consequently resulted in increased requirement of quality raw material. Reports of heavy metal contamination of MP has been a major cause of concern in this regard. Studies to determine the source and level of metal in MP are important to assess the risk to human health. The present study was conducted to determine the metal content of MP sold in a major Indian wholesale market-Khari Baoli. Samples of fifteen widely used MP were collected and analyzed for heavy metal load using atomic absorption spectrometer. Presence of heavy metals such as Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu) and Iron (Fe) was detected in MP samples. The highest concentrations detected were of Cd in Anacyclus pyrethrum (0.027 ± 0.011 ppm), Pb in Swertia chirayita (0.090 ± 0.025 ppm), Zn in Stevia rebaudiana (4.41 ± 0.00 ppm), Cu in Piper longum (1.031 ± 0 ppm), Ni and Fe in Nardostachys jatamansi (0.307 ± 0.192 ppm, 8.716 ± 0.386 ppm respectively). Heavy metals detected in all the test samples were within permissible limits set by the World Health Organization, thus ascertained to be fit for consumption. Potential health risk to humans posed by these metals was calculated using estimated daily intake (EDI) and target hazard quotient (THQ), and was found to be significant for Cd metal. Amongst the plants Eclipta sp. was ascertained to have a significant THQ for all the metals tested. The study confirms that MP raw materials need to be monitored regularly and consumed in moderation to reduce toxicity risk due to bioaccumulation.
... As demonstrated above, PGRs significantly and positively affected aescin production in SEs, indicating that aescin production might be manipulated and further increased by the use of elicitors. Finally, the presence of heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, fumigants and other contaminants in herbal preparations has been documented [143,144]; phytochemical production from tissue culture-derived plant material comes with no such risks and could be considered a clean and safe technology. ...
Species of the genus Aesculus are very attractive woody ornamentals. Their organs contain numerous health‑promoting phytochemicals. The most valuable of them—aescin—is used in commercial preparations for the treatment of venous insufficiency. The industrial source of aescin is horse chestnut seeds because the zygotic embryos are the main site of its accumulation. Horse chestnut somatic and zygotic embryos contain similar amount of aescin, hence somatic embryos could be exploited as an alternative source of aescin. Somatic embryogenesis, androgenesis and de novo shoot organogenesis were successfully achieved in several Aesculus species, as well as secondary somatic embryogenesis and shoot organogenesis, which enables mass production of embryos and shoots. In addition, an efficient method for cryopreservation of embryogenic tissue was established, assuring constant availability of the plant material. The developed methods are suitable for clonal propagation of elite specimens selected as the best aescin producers, the most attractive ornamentals or plants resistant to pests and diseases. These methods are also useful for molecular breeding purposes. Thus, in this review, the medicinal uses and a comprehensive survey of in vitro propagation methods established for Aesculus species, as well as the feasibility of in vitro production of aescin, are presented and discussed.
... There is a great variety of CMHR's. The main chemical compositions vary depending on the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content of the different CMHR's (Tripathy et al., 2015). Therefore, the heat treatment of drugs has become a research emphasis in recent reports. ...
The current research studied the performance of novel and cheap catalysts, ultra-stable Y zeolites (USY) and cobalt-modified USY for the efficient production of aromatics from the ginkgo Biloba residue (GBR) using a pyrolysis reactor. Cobalt-modified USY improved the quality of the pyrolysis products e.g. removed unwanted impurities from bio-oil, increased the yield of gases, and overall boosted the GBR conversion. Under the action of USY modified with cobalt, the yield of CO, CH 4, and CO 2 in the gas production increased significantly, while the yield of H 2 was dropped. The selectivity of naphthalene and 1-methylnaphthalene gradually decreased. The composition of aromatic hydrocarbons was reduced, while the content and selectivity ratios of toluene and xylene were increased. This study describes a high-value method using GBR, which could be used as a sustainable resource for the production of hydrocarbons, especially for the preparation of high-quality toluene and phenols.
... Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are typically used in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as a natural source of biologically active compounds [24], and are increasingly cultivated on a commercial scale to sustain the expansion of the market demand. Contamination of the plant material is a major health issue concerning the commercial production of MAPs [25]. On the other hand, the physiological markers of plant response to metal-induced stress are often beneficial bioactive secondary metabolites, mainly antioxidants such as phenolic compounds or essential oils constituents [26][27][28][29]. ...
Heavy metal contamination is a major health issue concerning the commercial production of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) that are used for the extraction of bioactive molecules. Copper (Cu) is an anthropogenic contaminant that, at toxic levels, can accumulate in plant tissues, affecting plant growth and development. On the other hand, plant response to metal-induced stress may involve the synthesis and accumulation of beneficial secondary metabolites. In this study, hydroponically grown Pelargonium graveolens plants were exposed to different Cu concentrations in a nutrient solution (4, 25, 50, 100 μM) to evaluate the effects Cu toxicity on plant growth, mineral uptake and distribution in plants, some stress indicators, and the accumulation of bioactive secondary metabolites in leaf tissues. P. graveolens resulted in moderately tolerant Cu toxicity. At Cu concentrations up to 100 μM, biomass production was preserved and was accompanied by an increase in phenolics and antioxidant capacity. The metal contaminant was accumulated mainly in the roots. The leaf tissues of Cu-treated P. graveolens may be safely used for the extraction of bioactive molecules.
... In this regard, aromatic spices are a perfect sample for this exploration because of the 29 . Thus, various aspects of quality control of this product are vital to the sustainability of its market [30][31][32][33] . Prominent examples are the development of analytical methods [34][35][36] to detect adulteration by cheaper materials, e.g., pepper husk or papaya seed, and to uncover geographical origins of peppers 37 . ...
With increasing demands for more rapid and practical analyses, various techniques of ambient ionization mass spectrometry have gained significant interest due to the speed of analysis and abundance of information provided. Herein, an ambient ionization technique that utilizes corona discharge was applied, for the first time, to analyze and categorize whole seeds of black and white peppers from different origins. This setup requires no solvent application nor gas flow, thus resulting in a very simple and rapid analysis that can be applied directly to the sample without any prior workup or preparation. Combined with robust data pre-processing and subsequent chemometric analyses, this analytical method was capable of indicating the geographical origin of each pepper source with up to 98% accuracies in all sub-studies. The simplicity and speed of this approach open up the exciting opportunity for onsite analysis without the need for a highly trained operator. Furthermore, this methodology can be applied to a variety of spices and herbs, whose geographical indication or similar intellectual properties are economically important, hence it is capable of creating tremendous impact in the food and agricultural industries.
... They utilize plants on regular basis for food, shelter and for the requirement of other basic needs. (1,2) These plants are considered as ecological health marker. (3,4) The drugs derived from medicinal plants are known as herbal drugs or phytomedicines which have been used for treating several health related problems since ancient times. ...
Medicinal herbs have a rich history of their utilization for variety of ailments. India is categorized among those countries which have produced vast variety of medicinal plants. India is also called as “Botanical garden of the world”. Medicinal plants are the source of discovery of new drugs across the world. Most of the drugs available today have some herbal content of plants in them. Rubia Cordifolia (Manjishtha) is a climber herb having small flowers of greenish white colour which are grouped around the purplish fleshy fruits. The roots of Rubia cordifolia imparts red colour from where dye is obtained which is due to the presence of brownish red bark. This plant is mainly cultivated in the hilly areas. Manjishtha has a very significant place in Ayurveda which is one of the most ancient health care systems of the world. Charaka categorized this medicinal herb as varnya (for the enhancement of skin complexion), jvarahara (anti-pyretic), visaghna (a detoxifier) and a rasayana (rejuvenator). While it is categorized as pittasamsamana (one which maintains the pitta dosha of the body i.e. the fire component of the body) by Acharya Sushrut. Manjishtha has potential to pacifiy the pitta dosha. The phytochemical constituents of Rubia Cordifolia (Manjishtha) are associated with wide range of therapeutic properties. In this review, summary of its phytochemistry, its uses in different medicinal systems like Ayurveda and folk system and its scientific therapeutic properties are reported.
... Herbal materials cover different parts of medicinal plants including root, stem, leaf, skin, flower, fruit, or even the whole plant. Several material categories of CHM comprised excessive toxic heavy metals beyond the national (Table 3) (Guo et al., 2017;Li et al., 2018;Tripathy et al., 2015). ...
Heavy metals are widely distributed in the environment due to the natural processes and anthropogenic human activities. Their migration into no contaminated areas contributing towards pollution of the ecosystems e.g. soils, plants, water and air. It is recognized that heavy metals due to their toxicity, long persistence in nature can accumulate in the trophic chain and cause organism dysfunction. Although the popularity of herbal medicine is rapidly increasing all over the world heavy metal toxicity has a great impact and importance on herbal plants and consequently affects the quality of herbal raw materials, herbal extracts, the safety and marketability of drugs. Effective control of heavy metal content in herbal plants using in pharmaceutical and food industries has become indispensable. Therefore, this review describes various important factors such as ecological and environmental pollution, cultivation and harvest of herbal plants and manufacturing processes which effects on the quality of herbal plants and then on Chinese herbal medicines which influence human health. This review also proposes possible management strategies to recover environmental sustainability and medication safety. About 276 published studies (1988–2021) are reviewed in this paper.
... Herb medicine is widely used for disease treatment [12]. As a special solid waste, the by-product herb residue (HR) has advantages such as easy collection, low price, good reaction activity, low ash content which is considered as a promising biomass resource [13,14]. The main components of HR are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, which are essentially the same as biomass fiber. ...
Isotactic poly (1-butene) (iPB) has excellent properties which are recognized as a green and energy saving product. However, the most stable and valuable crystal form I had a spontaneous transformation that took as long as seven days to complete. As a special solid waste, the herb residue (HR) is rich in cellulose which has great potential to accelerate the crystal transformation of the iPB. However, the polarity of HR results in the interface compatibility with non-polar iPB. In this study, the HR was modified by silane coupling agent (KH570) to obtain KHR and the iPB/HR composite was prepared. The FTIR spectrum was indicated that the organic functional groups of KH570 successfully graft onto the surface of HR and the water contact angle test was indicated that the hydrophilicity of the KHR was greatly decreased. The complete crystal transformation time is 7 days for iPB, 6 days for iPB+5% HR but only 3 days for iPB+5% KHR. The addition of the HR and KHR improve the thermal stability of the composite and this beneficial effect is more obvious for KHR. After annealing for 5 days, the physical properties value include tensile strength, flexural strength, and HDT of iPB+5% HR reach that of pure iPB after annealing for 7 days, but only 3 days for iPB+5% KHR. The TG analysis and SEM photographs give clear evidence that the beneficial effect of KH570 modified HR on improving the interface compatibility with iPB.
... The residues remained in the spices could cause allergenic effects in human health such as cancer, neurological and reproductive disorders, immunotoxicity, kidney, liver and lungs functionality problems (Akoto et al., 2015;Fiamegos et al. 2016;Yavuz et al. 2016). Heavy metals are also accumulated in aromatic plants from the water, air and soil and they are not biodegradable (Tripathy et al., 2015;Makanjuola & Osinfade, 2016). ...
The use of seasonings is important in food industry because the bioactive compounds contained in these dried aromatic plants improve the taste and the flavor of food. These dried aromatic plants can often be contaminated with some heavy metals, polycyclic carbohydrates residues and pesticides which may occur during the cultivation operation, drying process, manufacture and conditioning. The aim of this study is to determine the contamination with heavy metals (lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel and cobalt) of basil (B), rosemary (R) and peppermint (M) seasonings used in Romanian cuisine. The concentration of lead ranged 0.058 - 0.643 mg.kg-1 (M), 0.209 - 0.493 mg.kg-1 (R), 0.077 - 0.139 mg.kg-1 (B). The concentration of cadmium varied: 0.004 - 0.035 mg.kg-1 (M), 0.004 - 0.007 mg.kg-1 (R), 0.002 - 0.009 mg.kg-1 (B). The concentration of chromium ranged 0.304 - 0.403 mg.kg-1 (M), 0.450 - 0.457 mg.kg-1 (R), 0.208 - 0.336 mg.kg-1 (B). The concentration of nickel varied from 0.376 - 0.848 mg.kg-1 (M), 0.354 - 0.427 mg.kg-1 (R), 0.230 - 0.334 mg.kg-1 (B). The concentration of cobalt ranged 0.037 - 0.167 mg.kg-1 (M), 0.065 - 0.137 mg.kg-1 (R), 0.112 - 0.156 mg.kg-1 (B).
... The absence of health risk associated with taking Improved Traditional Medicines in human and animal populations is permitted by a number of successive procedures. First, testing for possible impurities is necessary to ensure that DTI is exempt from contaminants and organic pollutants capable of lingering on plants 30,31 . The formulation of Improved Traditional Medicines from plants requires periodic interventions in the field to assess the cultivation route, good harvesting practices and ensure the absence of contaminants in the plant organs that will be used 28 . ...
This article aims to present the current state of the fight against gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants from Improved Traditional Drugs (DTI). A host of scientific documents were consulted by means of search engines to gather the information useful for this synthesis. The failure of conventional treatments has led to the use of new methods to treat digestive pathologies due to internal parasitism in herds of sheep and goats. These include, among others, herbal medicine, homeopathy, aromatherapy, the mixed grazing system for small and large ruminants, ... All plant parts of plants can be used in the preparation of remedies. Several scientific studies show that plants are full of chemical compounds that cause anthelmintic effects on gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants. Literature searches have revealed that studies on DTIs in the management of gastrointestinal nematodes in small ruminants are non-existent. In addition to the forms (decocted, macerated, infused, etc.) traditionally used by breeders, there are other forms that can be used to make DTIs from plant extracts. There are capsules, capsules, tablets etc. The placing on the market of DTIs requires official authorization based on the safety and reproducibility of the products. From the documents consulted, it appears that scientific research has not yet focused on the formulation of DTIs for the treatment of gastrointestinal parasitic nematodes in small ruminants. It will be useful to manufacture them to facilitate access to veterinary care and the sustainable management of animal health. Keywords: Improved Traditional Drugs; Gastrointestinal nematodes; Small ruminants, West Africa; Central Africa.
A range of analytical methods (GC-MS, LC-MS, voltammetry, microbiological and microscopic techniques, PCR) was used to assay a range of potential chemical and biological contaminants in soil and dandelion samples. The results provide the first comprehensive safety analysis of dandelion as a herbal product. Samples were collected from three different sites in Poland where the local population collects dandelion plants for their own consumption: Rudenka (a mountain meadow in the European Ecological Network of Natura 2000 protection area, free of agrotechnical treatments for over 30 years), Warszawa 1 (dense single-family housing with heavy traffic), and Warszawa 2 (recreation area with heavy traffic near a coal-fired heat and power plant). The assays of heavy metals and other chemical pollutants (PAHs, PCBs, dioxins, pesticides, mycotoxins) confirm that all collected soil and dandelion samples were chemically pure; however, 95 species of pathogenic bacteria were detected, including "carnivorous" Vibrio vulnificus, zoonotic Pasteurella pneumotropica, Pasteurella canis, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus lentus and Francisella tularensis as well as 14 species of pathogenic fungi and one protozoan parasite (Giardia intestinalis). The discovery of septicemia agents V. vulnificus, Fusobacterium mortiferum and Rahnella aquatilis in the soil surrounding dandelion roots and in the flowers, G. intestinalis in dandelion leaves and roots samples, all collected in Warsaw, is highly disturbing. This finding underlines the need for increased caution when collecting dandelion in densely populated areas with a large population of pets. Thorough washing of the harvested plants is necessary before using them for consumption, especially in the case of making salads from fresh dandelion leaves, which is becoming increasingly popular among people leading healthy and an environmentally friendly lifestyle.
Because of the excellent efficacy of ethnic medicines, their market demand is increasing rapidly. There are few methods to detect and screen banned pesticides in ethnic medicines. Therefore, it is highly urgent to establish a detection method for banned pesticides in ethnic medicines, which has important practical significance for the quality and safety supervision of ethnic medicines. This study aimed to establish a method for the simultaneous and rapid determination of 25 banned pesticides in ethnic medicine by QuEChERS combined with HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS. The limits of quantification were less than 8 ng/ml. The recoveries of most pesticides were between 70 and 110%, and their RSDs were less than 20%. To evaluate the applicability of this method, pesticide residues in 46 batches of ethnic medicines were analyzed, and the matrix effect behavior of pesticides in ethnic medicines was analyzed, providing a reference for the analysis of pesticide residues in ethnic medicine matrices of a similar type. Using matrix-matched calibration, it was found that one positive sample contained fonofos and four positive samples contained phorate pesticides. The contents of these pesticides exceeded the limits set by the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an atomic spectrum analysis method with the advantages of simple, rapid, and multi-element analysis. It has great application potential for the analysis of heavy metal...
Matrix effects (MEs) can heavily affect the accuracy and reproducibility of pesticide a residue analysis method, especially in complex matrices. Therefore, it is of great importance to assess MEs of pesticides in complex herbal matrices. In this research, the MEs of 28 pesticides and their metabolites in five types of herbs representing different medicinal parts were evaluated by UHPLC-MS/MS analysis after QuEChERs pretreatment. Suppression MEs were found for most organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides while enhancement MEs were also observed for sulfonylurea. Besides, stronger inhibition effects were observed early or late elution pesticides and in matrices of Lonicerae japonicae flos and Perillae folium. Some pesticides were observed with enhancement MEs in Astragali radix. These results indicated that MEs were mainly affected by the retention time of the analytes, the ionization mode of the precursor ions, the overall structure of the compounds, and the chemical composition of the matrices.
Cholesterol-coated nickel foam (NF) was prepared by coating with tetraethyl orthosilicate, functionalization with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, and modification with cholesterol. The subsequent characterization was carried out by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The cholesterol-coated NF was applied as the adsorbent for the dispersive solid-phase extraction of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the indigowoad leaves traditional Chinese medicine. The primary experimental parameters affecting extraction were investigated with analysis by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The limits of detection were from 0.6 to 11.5 ng/mL and the relative standard deviations were from 0.84% to 9.8%. The recoveries were between 69.8% and 149.2%. The developed protocol was employed for the determination of PAHs in traditional Chinese medicines. The total mean concentrations of 16 PAHs, which are priority pollutants, were 1452.04 μg/kg. The most abundant component in indigowoad leaves was acenaphthene (198.23 μg/kg). The results demonstrated that the established method provided favorable performance and the cholesterol-coated NF adsorbent possessed high adsorption properties.
In this study, we investigated the content of soil heavy metals, the level of heavy metal pollution and the characteristics of soil enzyme activity under three different land use patterns of Uncaria rhynchophylla base, forestland and wasteland in Jianhe County, Qiandongnan Prefecture, Guizhou Province, revealing the intrinsic correlation between heavy metal content and soil enzyme activity to reveal the relationship between soil enzyme activity and heavy metal content under different land use patterns in the Uncaria rhynchophylla production area. The results showed that soil Cd and Hg contents in Uncaria rhynchophylla base both exceeded the national soil background value. The single pollution index indicated that Cd had the greatest contribution to Pn, and the comprehensive pollution index (Pn) demonstrated no heavy metal pollution in the soil of Uncaria rhynchophylla-producing areas. Under different land use patterns, the enzyme activity was forestland > wasteland > Uncaria rhynchophylla base, and catalase and acid phosphatase activities presented significant spatial differences (p < 0.05). The correlation between soil enzyme activity and heavy metal content was uncertain due to the changes in land use patterns and heavy metal species. The proportions of positive correlation and negative correlation between soil enzyme activity and heavy metals in Uncaria rhynchophylla base were 50%, respectively. In the forestland, soil enzyme activity was positively correlated with heavy metals, while in the wasteland, soil enzyme activity was negatively correlated with heavy metals. This study revealed that the changes in heavy metal content should be focused on for the soil quality in Uncaria rhynchophylla-producing areas under different land use patterns. The results of the study provide some basic theoretical references for the improvement of soil quality in the production area of Uncaria rhynchophylla under different land use practices.
Introduction . Usage of organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) in agriculture, including farming of medical herbs, is a necessary measure for producing regular harvest. In order to maintain an adequate degree of herbal medicines security a variety of countries developed normative documents that regulate the limits of proportion of pesticides (including OPPs) in herbal substances. These documents contain the recommended methods of residual pesticides analysis as well.
Text . The article describes the recently conducted information-analytical research of limits of permissible proportion of OPPs in herbal substances and food production and of methods of extraction and analysis of OPPs mentioned in the State Pharmacopoeia of the Russian Federation XIV, international pharmacopeias, WHO information sources and the normative documents on food production. The authors specify physical-chemical characteristic of OPPs and the main mechanism of impact of this class of pesticides onto a human body. The research demonstrates that HPLC-MS and GC-MS are the most perspective analytical methods of detection of OPPs in herbal substances.
Conclusion . In the information-analytical review the authors specify a physical-chemical characteristics of OPPs, describe the mechanism of the toxic impact of this type of pesticides, provide the generalized summary of limits of permissible proportion of OPPs in herbal substances and in food production. The study shows that the rationing of OPPs proportion is harmonized in a majority of issues of modern pharmacopeias. The paper presents modern methods of detection of OPPs in herbal substances and food production. Finally, the authors demonstrate an advantage of the modern approach to rationing of OPPs in herbal substances (specification of presence and proportion of a single pesticide in combination with its toxic metabolites). The key issue is a necessity of developing a sensible and selective methodic of analysis of OPPs in accordance with physical-chemical properties of these types of pesticides in different kinds of herbal substances and phytopreparations.
The development and application of new materials for the extreme fluoride pollution problem has drawn increasingly wide attention. Here, Chinese medicine residue, FeSO4.7 H2O, FeCl3.6 H2O and Al(NO3)3 were used as raw materials to create an novel Al-loaded magnetic Chinese medicine residue-derived biochar (Al/Fe3O4/CMRB) adsorbent for effective fluoride adsorption. Al/Fe3O4/CMRB was characterized and used to conduct fluoride adsorption. In the pH range of 4–11, the fluoride adsorption reduced from 37.38 mg/g to 15.84 mg/g. The pseudo-second-order equation and Freundlich equation was the ideal model to describe the adsorption. The thermodynamic study confirmed the spontaneous and exothermic nature of fluoride adsorption by Al/Fe3O4/CMRB. Chloridion, nitrate, and sulfate had no influence on fluoride adsorption when a single anion and all three anions were present. phosphate created a more significant reduction of fluoride adsorption with rising concentrations, whether or not the other three anions were present. Al/Fe3O4/CMRB was an potential composite for aqueous fluoride removal. In addition, Al/Fe3O4/CMRB showed high separation efficiency in a contactless magnetic field, which demonstrated its potential use for large-scale applications in real samples.
Presently, consumption of herbal raw materials (HRMs) has been an emerging concern owing to therapeutic potential against broad range of human diseases. However, there are various cases available reporting the fungal and mycotoxin contaminations. These HRMs after collection undergo severe extent of deterioration, leading to degradation of their active principles. Different chemical preservatives have been frequently used to protect HRMs from fungal and mycotoxin contamination, however, their indiscriminate use could lead to adverse effects on human health and environment due to residual toxicity. The use of essential oils (EOs) based formulations has been recommended as a green alternative of synthetic preservatives having greater safety profile and biodegradable nature. Nanoencapsulation maintains the stability of EOs and facilitate the controlled delivery with improvement in maintenance of bioactive principles of HRMs against fungal and mycotoxin mediated biodeterioration to boost pharmaceutical sectors. This review summarizes the pharmacological properties of some HRMs, the extent of degradation by fungal and mycotoxin contamination, preservation through nanoencapsulated EOs, mode of action, patenting of EOs as preservatives, and finally future opportunities to mitigate the associated problems.
In this study, co-pyrolysis experiments were carried out by blending coal slime (CS) and traditional Chinese medicine residue (CMR) in different proportions under nitrogen atmosphere using thermogravimetry-Fourier infrared spectroscopy-mass spectrometry (TG-FTIR-MS). Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) and Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) were used to calculate the activation energy (E) of samples with different conversion rates (α). The PCA method was used to analyze and compare the contribution of samples with different blending ratios to the principal components, and draw its score and load graph. A variety of artificial neural network models composed of different network topologies are selected to simulate and predict the remaining mass of the CS and CMR mixture pyrolysis, and the optimum model is obtained.
In recent years, the growth of the field of medicinal herbs and the increased demand for plant-derived products have raised questions about their safety for consumer health. The evaluation of mycotoxins and pesticide residues in these matrices are among the major concerns.
For this reason, forty-seven samples of different medicinal herbs were purchased from Italian herbal shops and the presence of these contaminants was assessed.
AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 and OTA A were characterised using high-performance chromatography with a FLD detector (LOQs were set at 0.375 μg/kg for aflatoxins and 1.0 μg/kg for ochratoxin A).
A QuEChERS modified method was used for pesticide residue determination followed by GC–MS/MS and LC–MS/MS analysis (LOQ was set at 0.005 mg/kg). The two strategies proved to be complementary and contributed to a greater pesticide residues characterisation.
About thirty percent of the samples analysed were found to be contaminated. Data highlighted the importance and the need to implement international monitoring in these types of matrices.
Modern intensive agriculture everywhere uses chemical means to protect agricultural plants from harmful environmental factors-pesticides. They are also used for sanitary and hygienic purposes: for the treatment of foci of the spread of blood-sucking arthropods-carriers of dangerous diseases, and the destruction of unwanted vegetation on communication facilities. At the same time, pesticides themselves can become a factor of negative impact on the human body when their residual doses get into medicinal plant raw materials, both grown and wild.The article deals with the problem of micro-contamination by pesticides of medicinal plants. The ways of getting toxic chemicals into the radar are indicated. There is an increase in polluted areas in the Russian Federation. The issues of monitoring of pesticide contamination of both the areas from which plant medicinal raw materials are collected and the plant itself are raised. It is noted that the problem of monitoring is complicated by the duration of preservation of some types of pesticides in the natural environment.
during the covid lockdown there was an increased consumption of both natural and synthetic supplements. the aim of this thesis is to analyze the heavy metal amount in spices and plants used to create the supplements
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have come to the fore in the last two decades with the increasing interest of consumers in natural nutrition and life. Turkey has an important place in terms of MAPs thanks to its geographical location, climate, and plant diversity. MAPs, which show a wide variety, are available in various forms (whole, ground, powder, extract (liquid extract), extract (dry extract), hydrosol or essential oils) due to their flavor, odor, taste, antimicrobial, antioxidant and therapeutic effects. Due to the secondary metabolites in their composition, their use as a functional food ingredient and food supplement besides medicine and pharmacy is also important. In recent years, globalization, urbanization, changing living conditions and divergence of nutritional habits have led consumers to supplementary foods. Necessary regulations have been made in this field with the use of more MAPs in the food supplements market. In this review, some information about MAPs and their use in the production of food supplements are included.
With increasing demands for more rapid and practical analyses, various techniques of ambient ionization mass spectrometry have gained interest due to its speed of analysis and the abundance of information provided. Herein, an ambient ionization technique that utilizes corona discharge was applied, for the first time, to analyze whole seeds of black and white peppers. This setup requires no solvent application or gas flow, thus resulting in a very simple and rapid analysis that can be applied directly to the sample without any prior workup or preparation. Combined with robust data pre-processing and subsequent chemometric analyses, this analytical method was capable of indicating the geographical origin of each pepper source with up to 98% accuracies in all sub-studies. The simplicity and speed of this approach open up the exciting opportunity for onsite analysis without the need for a highly trained operator. Furthermore, this methodology can be applied to a variety of spices and herbs, whose geographical indication or similar intellectual properties are economically important, hence it is capable of creating tremendous impact in food and agricultural industries.
This study is the development of a new solid phase extraction method based on using magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotubes impregnated with 1-(2-pyridylazo)2-naphthol (PAN) for separation, preconcentration, and flame atomic absorption spectrometric determination of Pb(II) and Cu(II). Optimization of the method was done by investigating pH effect, amount of magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotubes impregnated with PAN, eluent type and volume, matrix effects, and volume of the sample. The optimum adsorbent amount was found to be 75 mg and the optimum pH value was found as 5.5. The detection limits were 16.6 μg L-1 for Pb(II) and 18.9 μg L-1 for Cu(II). The relative standard deviations (RSD%) were less than 4%. Two certified reference materials: SPS-WW2 wastewater and NCS-DC73349 (bush branches and leaves) were used to test the validation of the method. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of Pb(II) and Cu(II) ions in daisy, mint, paprika, sage, rosemary, daphne leaves, heather, green tea, andViburnum opulussamples.
A method using Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) for the determination of hexachlorobenzene, lindane, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, 4,4'-DDT and 4,4'-DDE in leaves of Mikania laevigata, Maytenus ilicifolia and Cordia verbenacea was developed. Extraction of the pesticides was carried out by solid-liquid extraction (SLE), followed by clean-up in solid phase mixed cartridge (Florisil and silica-gel). Quantification was performed using GC-MS in the selected ion monitoring mode. Mean recovery rates of 70 to 124% were obtained. The inter-assay precision of a sample fortified with 200 ng g-1 of each pesticide was in the range of 1.0 to 7.3%. The quantitation limits ranged from 3.0 to 30 ng g-1 and were below the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) for all the pesticides under study. The method was employed to analyze samples of Mikania laevigata, Maytenus ilicifolia and Cordia verbenacea from an experimental field in Paulinia, SP, Brazil. The samples presented contamination with dieldrin above the MRL established by the European Pharmacopoeia (50 ng g-1).
Heavy metals occur as a natural constituent of earth’s crust. Due to the indiscriminate human activities there is drastic change in geochemical and biochemical balance which results in accumulation of metals in plant parts having secondary metabolites with particular pharmacological activity. All over the world the concentration of essential and non-essential heavy metals such as Cadmium, Copper, Lead, Nickel and Zinc beyond permissible limit is a matter of great concern for public wellbeing. Molecular understanding of plant metal accumulation is essential as it has many biotechnological implications.
The melanoma differentiation-associated gene-7 (mda-7)/interleukin-24 (IL-24) can induce apoptosis in a wide variety of tumor cell types, whereas it has no toxicity in normal cells. However, recombinant human mda-7/IL-24 is difficult to obtain from Escherichia coli because of its insolubility.
In this study, we improved the structure of inclusion bodies (IBs) by optimizing the induction temperature, pH, concentrations of inducer, and metal ion additives. Statistically designed experimental analyses of three metal ion factors were performed using the Box-Behnken design. Induction temperature of 30°C, pH 7.0, and 0.1 mM isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) were selected, and the optimized levels for the factors predicted by the model comprised the following: Mg2+ (15.7 mM), Ca2+ (16.6 mM), and Mn2+ (3.0 mM). The optimized culture conditions improved the structure of the IBs, which was validated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the increase of IBs solubility.
After optimization, IB solubility and renatured mda-7/IL-24 increased by 51% and 84%, respectively. This study also provided a simple purification method of specific IB washing steps. Manipulating the fermentation parameters to optimize the refolding and purification process is likely to be widely applicable to other proteins.
It is important to monitor the quality of the phytopharmaceutical product as its therapeutic potential depends on standardized delivery of active ingredients present in the botanical source. Minimal presence of toxic impurities like heavy metals (HMs) is warranted to ensure product safety and prevent hazardous health impacts. In the present study, conducted as part of the development of a novel phytopharmaceutical product, the chemical profile of 13 heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ni, Co, Mo, V, Cr, As, Pb, Hg, and Cd) was studied in the whole plant, fruit, and rhizome of Bacopa monnieri, Hippophae rhamnoides, and Dioscorea bulbifera, respectively, from environmentally diverse regions in India. Most samples had HM profiles within permissible limits as established by regulatory authorities, with the exception of Cd and Hg in low-altitude regions. This study indicates geographical regions in India suitable for procuring raw materials to develop and manufacture phytopharmaceutical products.
In this study, honeysuckle, a common Chinese herbal medicine, produced from different areas was investigated for total arsenic and arsenic species concentration. The total arsenic concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and ranged from 275 to 635 μg kg(-1). A microwave-assisted procedure with 1 % phosphoric acid (v/v) was used for the extraction of arsenic species in honeysuckle. The total arsenic species concentration found by liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LC-ICP-MS) was in agreement with the total arsenic concentration determined by the ICP-MS analysis after the microwave digestion. Arsenate (As(V)) with an average proportion of 54.3 % was the predominant arsenic species in honeysuckle. The order of concentration is as follows: As(V) > arsenite (As(III)) > dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) > arsenobetaine (AsB) > monomethylarsonic acid (MMA). The proportion of organic arsenic (24.7 %) was higher than that in most terrestrial plants. Moreover, the distributions of arsenic species in the honeysuckle from different producing areas were significantly different. This study provides useful information for better understanding of the distribution of arsenic species in terrestrial plants.
In order to assure the safety and efficacy of the Chinese Medicines in Europe, the quality of TCM herbals should be guaranteed so that they can be freely imported in the European Union and other Western European Countries which are signatories of the European Pharmacopoeia Convention. Consequently, new Ph Eur TCM herbal drug Monographs should be elaborated, based on preexisting Monographs in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP) 2010.
IntroductionWe report a rapid and accurate method to determine the natural occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) B1, B2, G1 and G2 in medicinal herbs and the analysis of 174 commercial samples by this method.Objective
The aim of the present work is to examine the occurrence of the aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in common medicinal herbs.MethodologyThe AFs were extracted, purified by immunoaffinity column and analysed by high‐performance liquid chromatography–tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry with electrospray ionisation (HPLC–MS/MS).ResultsThe AFs can be separated within 6 min using an Agilent XDB C18‐column. The target analyte AFB1 could be detected at 0.14 µg/kg. A good linear relationship was found for AFG1 and AFB1 in 1–100 pg and AFG2 and AFB2 in 0.8–30 pg (r > 0.9995). The analyte recovery under three different spiking levels was 64–100% with the relative standard deviations (RSD) below 8.19%.Conclusion
This simple and accurate method effectively eliminates false positive detection and can be used to determine the AFs in medicinal herbs to control product quality. We found that in the 174 samples tested, 27 were contaminated with AFs. The incidences of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 in the samples tested were 15.52%, 14.37%, 6.32% and 2.30%, respectively. We proposed 10 µg/kg total AFs and 5 µg/kg AFB1 as the reasonable maximum limits (ML) in medicinal herbs, and there are 10 samples (5.71% occurrence) in our test that exceeded this proposed limit. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The increasing prevalence of environmental pollution, especially soil contamination with heavy metals has led to their uptake in the human food chains through plant parts. Accumulation and magnification of heavy metals in human tissues through consumption of herbal remedies can cause hazardous impacts on health. Therefore, chemical profiling of nine heavy metals (Mn, Cr, Pb, Fe, Cd, Co, Zn, Ni and Hg) was undertaken in stem and leaf samples of ten medicinal plants (Acacia nilotica, Bacopa monnieri, Commiphora wightii, Ficus religiosa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Hemidesmus indicus, Salvadora oleoides, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula and Withania somnifera) collected from environmentally diverse regions of Haryana and Rajasthan states in North-Western India. Concentration of all heavy metals, except Cr, was within permissible limits in the tested stem and leaf samples. Leaf samples had consistently more Cr compared to respective stem samples with highest concentration in leaf samples of Bacopa monnieri (13.19 ± 0.0480 ppm) and stem samples of Withania somnifera (4.93 ± 0.0185 ppm) both collected from Bahadurgarh (heavy industrial area), Haryana. This amount was beyond the permissible limit of 2.0 ppm defined by WHO for raw herbal material. Other two most perilous metals Pb (2.64 ± 0.0260) and Cd (0.04 ± 0.0274) were also recorded in Bahadurgarh region, although below permissible limits. Concentration of Hg remained below detectable levels in all the leaf and stem samples tested. These results suggested that cultivation of medicinal plants and other dietary herbs should be curtailed near environmentally polluted especially industrial areas for avoidance of health hazards.
Purpose:
The intention of the proposed work is to study the presence of the aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in medicinal plants, namely Mucuna pruriens, Delphinium denudatum and Portulaca oleraceae.
Methodology:
The aflatoxins were extracted, purified by immunoaffinity column chromatography and analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry with electrospray ionisation (HPLC-MS/MS). Fungal count was carried out in PDA media.
Results:
A good linear relationship was found for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 at 1-10 ppb (r>0.9995). The analyte accuracy under three different spiking levels was 86.7-108.1 %, with low per cent relative standard deviations in each case. The aflatoxins can be separated within 5 to7 min using an Agilent XDB C18-column. We found that AFB1 and AFB2 were in trace amounts below the detection limit in M. pruriens whilst they were not detected in D. denudatum. P. oleraceae was found to be contaminated with AFB1 and AFB2. AFG1 and AFG2 were not detected in M. pruriens, P. oleraceae and were below the detection limit in D. denudatum. This was consistent with very low numbers of fungal colonies observed after 6 hr of incubation.
Conclusion:
The analytical method developed is simple, precise, accurate, economical and can be effectively used to determine the aflatoxins in medicinal plants and therefore to control the quality of products. The aflatoxin levels in the plant extracts examined were related to the minimal fungal load in the medicinal plants examined.
Organically produced spices and herbs were analyzed for determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by ELISA using immunoaffinity column. For this purpose 93 organic spices and 37 organic herbs were randomly selected from organic markets and organic shops in Turkey. AFB1 was detected in 58 organic spice and 32 organic herb samples. Among organic spice samples, the maximum value was detected in cinnamon sample (53 μ g/kg). AFB1 was not detected in thyme samples. AFB1 levels of 41 organic spice samples were above the EU regulatory limit (5 μ g/kg). Among organic herb samples the highest concentration of AFB1 (52.5 μ g/kg) was detected in a rosehip sample. AFB1 levels of 21 organic herb samples were above the regulatory limits of the European Union. These results showed that more stringent measures must be taken for the prevention of mold contamination in the production of organic spices and herbs.
The objective of this study was to investigate the occurrence of aflatoxins in herbal medicines distributed in South Korea. A total of 700 herbal medicine samples (10 samples each for 70 types of herbal medicine) were analyzed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)), and levels of total aflatoxins were quantified and confirmed by liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The levels of recovery of the methods were 84.30 to 102.68% (ELISA for AFB(1)) and 72.17 to 90.92% (LC-MS/MS for total aflatoxins). Fifty-eight (8.29%) of 700 samples were AFB(1) positive by ELISA, and 17 (2.43%) of them were finally confirmed as positive for total aflatoxins by LC-MS/MS. Total aflatoxin levels in the herbal medicines were from 4.51 to 108.42 μg/kg. Among the 17 samples, the AFB(1) content of 6 samples (11.95 to 73.27 μg/kg) and the total aflatoxin content of 10 (12.12 to 108.42 μg/kg) samples exceeded the legal limits set by the Korea Food and Drug Administration for AFB(1) (10 μg/kg) and by the European Commission for total aflatoxins (10 μg/kg), respectively. These results demonstrate the risk to consumers of herbal medicine contamination by aflatoxins and encourage further studies to investigate the transfer rate of mycotoxins to decoction, which is the final product for consumption.
Nearly all cultures, from ancient times to today, have used plants as a source of medicine. In many developing countries, traditional medicine is still the mainstay of health care and most of the drugs and cures used come from plants. In developed countries many people are turning to herbal remedies. With this widespread use has come the assumption that plants identified as having medicinal qualities will be available on a continuing basis. However no concerted effort has been made to ensure this and in the face of the threats of increasing demand, a vastly increasing human population and extensive forest destruction, there can be no guarantee that we will continue to benefit indefinitely from this valuable resource. In light of this situation the World Health Organisation held a meeting in 1988. This book is the outcome of that meeting, detailing in a series of papers by leading experts the problems of which need to be addressed, the existing experiences from a range of countries and the future direction which must be taken to ensure the conservation of the world's medicinal plants.
A total of 84 medicinal plant samples and spices were examined for the contamination of molds and mycotoxins. Ten fungal genera of different taxonomic groups were detected. Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. niger, Fusarium oxysporum, and Penicillium viridicatum occurred most often on the medicinal plant samples. Direct determination of mycotoxins in medicinal plant samples revealed aflatoxin B-1 in 17 samples at an average of from 10 to 160 mu gkg(-1), ochratoxin-A in 3 samples at an average of from 20 to 80 mu gkg(-1), and no detection of penicillic acid, zearalenone, or T-toxin. Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. oryzae were aflatoxin-producers, whereas, A. ochraceus, P. viridicatum, and P. variable were ochratoxin-A producers. In addition P. viridicatum, P. chrysogenum, and P. commune were penicillic acid-producers. The molds produced high concentrations of mycotoxins in synthetic medium and low to zero concentrations in the medicinal plants.
In the present study 15 samples of Chinese therapeutic foods and herbs that are frequently consumed by people in both the East and West are analyzed, for the content of cadmium, mercury, lead, arsenic, cuprum and zinc, by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The results showed that the highest mean value for Cd(0.49 mg·kg-1), Hg(0.34 mg·kg-1), Pb(9.01 mg·kg-1), As(3.26 mg·kg-1), Cu(33.56 mg·kg-1) and Zn(38.32 mg·kg-1) were found in Radix Salviae Miltitorrhizae, Radix Puerariae, Radix Salviae Miltitorrhizae , Radix Sophorae Flavescentis , Fructus Crataegi , Herba andrographis , respectively. The Cd levels of two samples and Cu levels of one sample were found to be higher than the recommended values of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and World Health Organization (WHO), and may constitute a health hazard for consumers. Mercury, lead, and arsenic levels of one sample were higher than the recommended limit of China Pharmacopoeia, but it were below the WHO and FDA. All other heavy metals in other medicinal plants were found below the recommended tolerable limits.
This article presents an overview of the current scientific status of traditional/herbal medicinal products and the regulatory framework implemented by major regulatory authorities and organizations. It discusses the challenges ahead and makes recommendations to address them.
Rasa Bhasma is a multi-ingredient herbo-mineral or herbo-metallic formulation used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The quality of prepared Rasa Bhasma depends on the quality of raw material and standard manufacturing practice. Standardization techniques help in ensuring the safety and efficacy of the product. Hence the prepared Rasa Bhasma was subjected to both the traditional and modern standardization techniques. Result of the present study suggest that the prepared Rasa bhasma satisfied the required criteria of traditional standardization techniques and the modern standardization techniques confirmed the presence of metals such as Iron, Copper, Manganese, Zinc, Nickel, Cobalt, Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead and Mercury in the prescribed pharmacopeial limit. Infrared spectra analysis confirmed the absence of organic compounds. Hence the quality of the prepared Rasa Bhasma was established using traditional and modern standardization techniques.
One hundred thirty two samples of fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices collected from Egyptian local markets were analyzed for pesticide residues. Contamination with pesticide residues reached 54.55% while samples free from contamination reached 45.45%. Only one sample from 132 analyzed samples violated the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) of the Codex Committee. From the 132 analyzed samples, 72 samples (54.55%) were contaminated, from which 43.18% contaminated with residues from one pesticide residue, 6.06% with 2 residues and 5.3% with more than 2 residues. In addition, 2 caraway and one fennel samples contained 4 pesticide residues, one sample of marjoram contained 5 pesticide residues and one mint sample contained 6 pesticide residues. Six of the pesticides detected as residues in the analyzed food items were considered to be carcinogens at different levels of assurance.
Since 1991, the Medical Toxicology Unit (MTU) at Guys’ Hospital, London, has been assessing the toxicological problems associated with the use of traditional and herbal remedies and dietary supplements. This assessment was carried out by evaluating reports to the National Poisons Information Service (London) [NPIS(L)] which provides emergency information to medical professionals. Relevant telephone enquiries to NPIS(L) were identified. Further case details were obtained by follow-up questionnaire, clinical consultation, toxicological analysis of samples from patients and/or products and botanical identification of plant material.
Of 1297 symptomatic enquiries evaluated there was a possible/confirmed association in 785 cases. Case series have been identified which substantiate previous reports, including liver problems following the use of Chinese herbal medicine for skin disorders, allergic reactions to royal jelly and propolis and heavy metal poisoning caused by remedies from the Indian subcontinent. Although the overall risk to public health appears to be low, certain groups of traditional remedies have been associated with a number of potentially serious adverse effects.
Considering the extent of use of herbal remedies and food supplements a comprehensive surveillance system for monitoring the adverse health effects of these products is essential. Surveillance of a large population is needed for the complex task of identifying the uncommon and unpredictable adverse effects which are potentially serious. In the UK, the Medicines Control Agency responded to the MTU report by recognising the need for vigilance and by incorporating adverse reactions reporting on unlicensed herbal remedies into their drug reaction monitoring function. As a further step to safeguard the patients/consumers an effective single regulatory system is required which would ensure the safety and quality of all herbal remedies and food supplements available in the UK.
Analytical methods of aflatoxins (AFs: B1, B2, G1 and G2) in herbal medicines (HMs) and health functional foods (HFFs) were optimized, which were used to analyze the representative samples that were directly collected from the users (total 2348 examinees) of HMs and HFFs. Two analytical methods, trifluoroacetic acid and Kobra cell derivatization methods, were compared; The latter was selected based on high linearity and sensitivity. The limits of detection of AFs using the Kobra cell method were 0.07–0.32 ng g−1. Recoveries of AFs using various matrixes such as solid, semi-solid, liquid samples and CRM were 81.81–119.87%. The Z-score and linearities of calibration curves were 0.53 and 0.9996–0.9999, respectively. Among 241 samples, only Angelica gigas NAKAI extract products (2 products) were detected to have 7.93 and 5.70 ng g−1 of aflatoxin G2.
An investigation of mycoflora and associated mycotoxins was carried out from dried market samples of stem portions of Tinospora cordifolia, an important medicinal plant of India . These samples were collected from various wholesale and retail shops of eight districts of Jammu and Kashmir state viz., Kathua, Jammu, Udhampur, Rajouri, Poonch, Doda, Srinagar and Leh. A total of 39 fungal species representing 18 genera were recovered by using surface washing technique. Assessment of mycobial load of T. cordifolia showed the presence of many such fungal species that are widely acknowledged as the most important mycotoxin producers. Analyses of samples for mycotoxin contamination was done by multimycotoxin detection method. The dried samples of Tinospora cordifolia were detected to be contaminated with aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, ochratoxin A, patulin and citrinin. Among the various mycotoxins detected, aflatoxins were present in maximum number of samples, which is probably because Aspergillus flavus was recovered from all the investigated samples. However, fusarial species and their toxins were not detected from the investigated samples. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v3i2.17839 Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. & Tech. 3 (2): 16-21, December, 2013
The heavy metals (Zn, Pb and Zn) concentrations in soil and medicinal plant samples from Aba city, Nigeria using atomic absorption spectrophotometer UNICAM 919 model was evaluated in a randomized complete block design. The results showed that there was a clear accumulation of metals in soil and medicinal plants in relation to vehicular emission in the city. A highest concentration of Zn (133.56±7.70 mg/kg) in soil was obtained from X2, Pb (29.71±1.56 mg/kg) and Cd (21.11±1.28 mg/kg) was in X5. The levels of Zn, Pb and Cd in soil were 15.85±18.03 -133.56±7.70 mg/kg, 10.06±0.36 -29.71±1.56 mg/kg and 1.07±0.08 -21.11±1.28 mg/kg, respectively. In medicinal plants, the highest concentration of Zn was obtained in Azadiractha indica (34.58±2.07 mg/kg), Pb was in Psidium guajava (10.47±0.93 mg/kg) and levels of Zn, Pb and Cd were 9.02±1.40 -34.58±2.07 mg/kg, 1.55±0.35 -10.47±0.93 mg/kg and 0.02±0.0 -1.44±0.11 mg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of metals in soil and medicinal plant were in decreasing order: Zn>Pb>Cd. Zinc in soil significantly correlated positively with Zn (0.956, p<0.01) and Cd (0.631, p<0.01) in plants; Pb in soil significantly correlated positively with Zn (0.825, p<0.01), Pb (0.810, p<0.01), Cd (0.578, p<0.05) in plants. The level of Cd in soil reflected significant pollution compared to concentrations in soils of urban cities in developing countries.
The Zn, Cd and Pb content of selected ready-to-use herbal remedies in Southeast Nigeria were determined by Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (Model 2380 Perkine Elmer Inc., Norwalk, CT, USA) after acid digestion with 5:1:1 HNO3: HClO4: H2SO4. The concentration levels of Pb, Cd were generally high and above the safe limits set by WHO/FAO. Only Tunya B.fil, Virgy virgy worm expeller and Sekin powder had Zn concentrations above international safe limits representing 20% of the tested herbal remedies. The consumers of these herbal products are inadvertently exposed to heavy metal poisoning. It is important that regulators should intensify efforts to minimize human exposure risk.
Spices can be heavily contaminated with Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus ochraceus, which develop during cultivation and after harvest if relative humidity is not controlled during storage. The present study was undertaken with the aim to provide an analytical method to detect OTA in spices commercialized in China, specifically to develop a simple and rapid method for the determination of Ochratoxin A content in spices via immunoaffinity column and high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The recovery (75.0–102.0%) and repeatability (RSD < 12) are acceptable according to the requirements of the Commission Regulation (EC) No. 401/2006. The method is accurate, sensitive and rapid. A total of 480 spice products were analyzed with the amended analytical methods used in our study, which involved the extraction of OTA, immunoaffinity cleanup and high performance liquid chromatography determination with fluorescence detection. This report is the first describing the OTA presence in retail spices (pepper, chili, prickly ash, cinnamon, aniseed, fennel, curry powder and cumin) in China. The percentage of OTA contamination in spice product is 9.6%, and two chili products were above the levels permitted by the EU for safe consumption. Surveillance of a large number of suspected spice products should be continuous and widespread.
The levels of 16 US Environmental Protection Agency polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (EPA PAHs) in 10 medicinal plants in different used parts of plant (leaves and flowers) have been determined. The analytical method consists of sample preparation by ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane followed by silica gel clean-up. Subsequently, the analysis was carried out by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to both ultraviolet and fluorescence detections in series to insure the detection of all 16 EPA PAHs. It was observed that the sum of the 16 PAHs (ΣPAHs) in the investigated medicinal plants ranged from 47 to 890 μg kg–1 where the highest ΣPAHs was found in Sage plant sample. Light PAHs were dominants in all studied medicinal plants. The sum of eight genotoxic PAHs (ΣPAH8) have shown a better indicator of the degree of contamination with carcinogenic PAHs compared to benzo[a]pyrene in these products.
Twenty-four samples including 14 functional foods and 10 spices obtained from Chinese markets were examined for their mould profile. The mycotoxin contamination levels were also determined by an optimized HPLC-FLD method. 124 fungal isolates belonging to four different genera were recovered with Aspergillus and Penicillium as predominant fungi, with an incidence of 66.1% and 15.3%, respectively. In functional foods Aspergillus niger section (57.1%) was isolated more frequently, followed by Aspergillus flavi section (50.0%) and Aspergillus ochraceus section (21.4%), with the most contaminated samples being Coix seeds. Similar fungal presence and frequency were encountered in spice with A. niger section group (60.0%) and A. flavi section (40.0%) as main fungi. Cumin and Pricklyash peel samples showed the highest fungal contamination. Four functional foods and three spices were found to be positive at low levels for mycotoxins including aflatoxin B1 (up to 0.26μg/kg) and ochratoxin A (OTA) (5.0μg/kg). The more frequently detected mycotoxin was AFB1 (16.7%).
