The Development and Psychometric Properties of LIWC2015

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TheDevelopmentandPsychometric
PropertiesofLIWC2015
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JamesW.Pennebaker,RyanL.Boyd,
KaylaJordan,andKateBlackburn
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TheUniversityofTexasatAustin
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Emailcorrespondenceshouldbesenttopennebaker@mail.utexas.eduorryanboyd@utexas.edu.
OthercorrespondenceshouldbesenttoJamesW.Pennebaker,DepartmentofPsychology,The
UniversityofTexasatAustin,108E.DeanKeetonStopA8000,Austin,TX787121043.The
LIWC2015programisacommercialproductdistributedbyPennebakerConglomeratesfor
researchpurposesandbyReceptiviti,Incforcommercialpurposes.AllprofitstoPennebakerfor
theresearchbasedversionaredonatedtotheDepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofTexasat
Austin.
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Theofficialreferencetothispaperis:
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Pennebaker,J.W.,Boyd,R.L.,Jordan,K.,&Blackburn,K.(2015).Thedevelopmentand
psychometricpropertiesofLIWC2015

.Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasatAustin.DOI:
10.15781/T29G6Z
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LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page1
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TheDevelopmentandPsychometricPropertiesof
LIWC2015
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Thewayspeopleusewordsintheirdailylivescanproviderichinformationabouttheirbeliefs,
fears,thinkingpatterns,socialrelationships,andpersonalities.FromthetimeofFreud’swritings
aboutslipsofthetonguetotheearlydaysofcomputerbasedtextanalysis,researchersbegan
amassingincreasinglycompellingevidencethatthewordsweusehavetremendous
psychologicalvalue(Gottschalk&Glaser,1969;Stone,Dunphy,Smith,&Ogilvie,1966;
Weintraub,1989).
Althoughpromising,theearlycomputermethodsflounderedbecauseofthesheercomplexityof
thetask.Extensivesamplesoftextwerenotdigitized,computerswereslowandunwieldy,and
therewaslittleagreementaboutwhichfeaturesofnaturallanguageweremostrelatedto
psychologicalstates.Everythingchangedinthe1990swiththeadventofefficientdesktop
computers,improveddatastoragetechnology,andtheexplosionoftheinternet.Thesefactors
allowedfortheeasycollectionoflargestoresofbooks,conversations,andotherdigitizedtext
samples.
Inordertoprovideanefficientandeffectivemethodforstudyingthevariousemotional,
cognitive,andstructuralcomponentspresentinindividuals’verbalandwrittenspeechsamples,
weoriginallydevelopedatextanalysisapplicationcalledLinguisticInquiryandWordCount,or
LIWC.ThefirstLIWCapplicationwasdevelopedaspartofanexploratorystudyoflanguage
anddisclosure(Francis,1993;Pennebaker,1993).Thesecond(LIWC2001)andthird
(LIWC2007)versionsupdatedtheoriginalapplicationwithanexpandeddictionaryandamore
modernsoftwaredesign(Pennebaker,Francis,&Booth,2001;Pennebaker,Booth,&Francis,
2007).
Themostrecentevolution,LIWC2015(Pennebaker,Booth,Boyd,&Francis,2015),has
significantlyalteredboththedictionaryandthesoftwareoptions.Importantly,theLIWC2015
softwareanddictionaryarenew,ratherthanabasicupdatetopreviousversionsofLIWC.As
withpreviousversions,however,theprogramisdesignedtoanalyzeindividualormultiple
languagefilesquicklyandefficiently.Atthesametime,theprogramattemptstobetransparent
andflexibleinitsoperation,allowingtheusertoexploreworduseinmultipleways.
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TheLIWC2015Framework
BoththestandarddownloadableandwebbasedversionsoftheLIWC2015applicationrelyon
aninternaldefaultdictionarythatdefineswhichwordsshouldbecountedinthetargettextfiles.
NotethattheLIWC2015processorisanexecutablefileandcannotbereadoropened.Toavoid
confusioninthesubsequentdiscussion,wordscontainedintextsthatarereadandanalyzedby
LIWC2015arereferredtoastargetwords
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.WordsintheLIWC2015dictionaryfilewillbe
referredtoasdictionarywords
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.Groupsofdictionarywordsthattapaparticulardomain(e.g.,
negativeemotionwords)arevariouslyreferredtoassubdictionariesorwordcategories.

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page2
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TheLIWC2015MainTextProcessingModule
Becausethesoftwareapplicationiswritteninacrossplatformlanguage,itrunsidenticallyon
PCandMaccomputersviatheJavaVirtualMachine.LIWC2015isdesignedtoacceptwrittenor
transcribedverbaltextwhichhasbeenstoredasadigital,machinereadablefileinoneof
multipleformats,includingplaintext,PDF,RTF,orstandardMicrosoftWordfiles(i.e.,.docand
.docx).Unlikepreviousversions,thesoftwarecannowprocesstextonalinebylinebasiswithin
andacrosscolumnsinsideofmultiplespreadsheetformats,includingthosesavedas.xls,.xlsx,
and.csvfiles.
Duringoperation,LIWC2015accessesasingletextfile,agroupoffiles,ortextswithina
spreadsheetandanalyzeseachsequentially.Foreachfile,LIWC2015readsonetargetwordata
time.Aseachtargetwordisprocessed,thedictionaryfileissearched,lookingforadictionary
matchwiththecurrenttargetword.Ifthetargetwordismatchedwithadictionaryword,the
appropriatewordcategoryscale(orscales)forthatwordisincremented.Asthetargettextfileis
beingprocessed,countsforvariousstructuralcompositionelements(e.g.,wordcountand
sentencepunctuation)arealsoincremented.
Foreachtextfile,approximately90outputvariablesarewrittenasonelineofdatatoanoutput
file.Thisdatarecordincludesthefilenameandwordcount,4summarylanguagevariables
(analyticalthinking,clout,authenticity,andemotionaltone),3generaldescriptorcategories
(wordspersentence,percentoftargetwordscapturedbythedictionary,andpercentofwordsin
thetextthatarelongerthansixletters),21standardlinguisticdimensions(e.g.,percentageof
wordsinthetextthatarepronouns,articles,auxiliaryverbs,etc.),41wordcategoriestapping
psychologicalconstructs(e.g.,affect,cognition,biologicalprocesses,drives),6personalconcern
categories(e.g.,work,home,leisureactivities),5informallanguagemarkers(assents,fillers,
swearwords,netspeak),and12punctuationcategories(periods,commas,etc).Acompletelistof
thestandardLIWC2015scalesisincludedinTable1.

TheDefaultLIWC2015Dictionary
TheLIWC2015Dictionaryistheheartofthetextanalysisstrategy.ThedefaultLIWC2015
Dictionaryiscomposedofalmost6,400words,wordstems,andselectemoticons.Each
dictionaryentryadditionallydefinesoneormorewordcategoriesorsubdictionaries.For
example,thewordcried

ispartoffivewordcategories:sadness,negativeemotion,overallaffect,
verbs,andpastfocus.Hence,ifthewordcried

isfoundinthetargettext,eachofthesefive
subdictionaryscalescoreswillbeincremented.Asinthisexample,manyoftheLIWC2015
categoriesarearrangedhierarchically.Allsadnesswords,bydefinition,belongtothebroader
“negativeemotion”category,aswellasthe“overallaffectwords”category.Notetoothatword
stemscanbecapturedbytheLIWC2015system.Forexample,thedictionaryincludesthestem
hungr*

whichallowsforanytargetwordthatmatchesthefirstfiveletterstobecountedasan
ingestionword(includinghungry,hungrier,hungriest).Theasterisk,then,denotesthe
acceptanceofallletters,hyphens,ornumbersfollowingitsappearance.
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LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page3
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EachofthedefaultLIWC2015categoriesiscomposedofalistofdictionarywordsthatdefine
thatscale.Table1providesacomprehensivelistofthedefaultLIWC2015dictionarycategories,
scales,samplescalewords,andrelevantscalewordcounts.
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Table1.LIWC2015OutputVariableInformation

Category

Abbrev

Examples
Wordsin
category
Internal
Consistency
(Uncorrectedα)
Internal
Consistency
(Correctedα)
Wordcount
WC




SummaryLanguageVariables





Analyticalthinking
Analytic




Clout
Clout




Authentic
Authentic




Emotionaltone
Tone




Words/sentence
WPS




Words>6letters
Sixltr




Dictionarywords
Dic




LinguisticDimensions





Totalfunctionwords
funct
it,to,no,very
491
.05
.24
Totalpronouns
pronoun
I,them,itself
153
.25
.67
Personalpronouns
ppron
I,them,her
93
.20
.61
1stperssingular
i
I,me,mine
24
.41
.81
1stpersplural
we
we,us,our
12
.43
.82
2ndperson
you
you,your,thou
30
.28
.70
3rdperssingular
shehe
she,her,him
17
.49
.85
3rdpersplural
they
they,their,they’d
11
.37
.78
Impersonalpronouns
ipron
it,it’s,those
59
.28
.71
Articles
article
a,an,the
3
.05
.23
Prepositions
prep
to,with,above
74
.04
.18
Auxiliaryverbs
auxverb
am,will,have
141
.16
.54
CommonAdverbs
adverb
very,really
140
.43
.82
Conjunctions
conj
and,but,whereas
43
.14
.50
Negations
negate
no,not,never
62
.29
.71
OtherGrammar





Commonverbs
verb
eat,come,carry
1000
.05
.23
Commonadjectives
adj
free,happy,long
764
.04
.19
Comparisons
compare
greater,best,after
317
.08
.35
Interrogatives
interrog
how,when,what
48
.18
.57
Numbers
number
second,thousand
36
.45
.83
Quantifiers
quant
few,many,much
77
.23
.64
PsychologicalProcesses





Affectiveprocesses
affect
happy,cried
1393
.18
.57
Positiveemotion
posemo
love,nice,sweet
620
.23
.64
Negativeemotion
negemo
hurt,ugly,nasty
744
.17
.55
Anxiety
anx
worried,fearful
116
.31
.73
Anger
anger
hate,kill,annoyed
230
.16
.53
Sadness
sad
crying,grief,sad
136
.28
.70
Socialprocesses
social
mate,talk,they
756
.51
.86
Family
family
daughter,dad,aunt
118
.55
.88

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page4

Category
Abbrev
Examples
Wordsin
category
Internal
Consistency
(Uncorrectedα)
Internal
Consistency
(Correctedα)
Friends
friend
buddy,neighbor
95
.20
.60
Femalereferences
female
girl,her,mom
124
.53
.87
Malereferences
male
boy,his,dad
116
.52
.87
Cognitiveprocesses
cogproc
cause,know,ought
797
.65
.92
Insight
insight
think,know
259
.47
.84
Causation
cause
because,effect
135
.26
.67
Discrepancy
discrep
should,would
83
.34
.76
Tentative
tentat
maybe,perhaps
178
.44
.83
Certainty
certain
always,never
113
.31
.73
Differentiation
differ
hasn’t,but,else
81
.38
.78
Perceptualprocesses
percept
look,heard,feeling
436
.17
.55
See
see
view,saw,seen
126
.46
.84
Hear
hear
listen,hearing
93
.27
.69
Feel
feel
feels,touch
128
.24
.65
Biologicalprocesses
bio
eat,blood,pain
748
.29
.71
Body
body
cheek,hands,spit
215
.52
.87
Health
health
clinic,flu,pill
294
.09
.37
Sexual
sexual
horny,love,incest
131
.37
.78
Ingestion
ingest
dish,eat,pizza
184
.67
.92
Drives
drives

1103
.39
.80
Affiliation
affiliation
ally,friend,social
248
.40
.80
Achievement
achieve
win,success,better
213
.41
.81
Power
power
superior,bully
518
.35
.76
Reward
reward
take,prize,benefit
120
.27
.69
Risk
risk
danger,doubt
103
.26
.68
Timeorientations
TimeOrient




Pastfocus
focuspast
ago,did,talked
341
.23
.64
Presentfocus
focuspresent
today,is,now
424
.24
.66
Futurefocus
focusfuture
may,will,soon
97
.26
.68
Relativity
relativ
area,bend,exit
974
.50
.86
Motion
motion
arrive,car,go
325
.36
.77
Space
space
down,in,thin
360
.45
.83
Time
time
end,until,season
310
.39
.79
Personalconcerns





Work
work
job,majors,xerox
444
.69
.93
Leisure
leisure
cook,chat,movie
296
.50
.86
Home
home
kitchen,landlord
100
.46
.83
Money
money
audit,cash,owe
226
.60
.90
Religion
relig
altar,church
174
.64
.91
Death
death
bury,coffin,kill
74
.39
.79
Informallanguage
informal

380
.46
.84
Swearwords
swear
fuck,damn,shit
131
.45
.83
Netspeak
netspeak
btw,lol,thx
209
.42
.82
Assent
assent
agree,OK,yes
36
.10
.39
Nonfluencies
nonflu
er,hm,umm
19
.27
.69
Fillers
filler
Imean,youknow
14
.06
.27

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page5

Table1Notes:“Wordsincategory”referstothenumberofdifferentdictionarywordsandstemsthatmakeupthe
variablecategory.Allalphaswerecomputedonasampleof~181,000textfilesfromseveralofourlanguage
corpora(seeTable2).UncorrectedinternalconsistencyalphasarebasedonCronbachestimates;correctedalphas
arebasedonSpearmanBrown.SeetheReliabilityandValiditysectionbelow.NotethattheLIWC2015dictionary
generallyarrangescategorieshierarchically.Therearesomeexceptionstothehierarchyrules.Forexample,Social
processes

includealargegroupofwordsthatdenotesocialprocesses,includingallnonfirstpersonsingular
personalpronounsaswellasverbsthatsuggesthumaninteraction(talking,sharing)manyofthesewordsdonot
belongtoanyoftheSocialprocesses

subcategories.AnotherexampleisRelativity

,whichincludesalargenumber
ofwordsthatcannotbefoundinanyofitssubcategories.

LIWC2015DictionaryDevelopment
TheselectionofwordsdefiningtheLIWC2015categoriesinvolvedmultiplestepsoverseveral
years.Originally,theideawastoidentifyagroupofwordsthattappedbasicemotionaland
cognitivedimensionsoftenstudiedinsocial,health,andpersonalitypsychology.Withtime,the
domainofwordcategoriesexpandedconsiderably.
Themostrecentversionofthedictionary,LIWC2015,isacompletelynewversioncomparedto
earlierones.Dictionariescannowaccommodatenumbers,punctuation,andevenshortphrases.
Theseadditionsallowtheusertoread"netspeak"languagethatiscommoninTwitterand
Facebookposts,aswellasSMS(shortmessagingservice,a.k.a.“textmessaging”)andSMSlike
modesofcommunication(e.g.,Snapchat,instantmessaging).Forexample,"b4"iscodedasa
prepositionand":)"iscodedasapositiveemotionword.
Ahandfulofnewcategorieshavebeenaddedandasmallnumberhavebeenremoved.Withthe
adventofmorepowerfulanalyticmethodsandmorediverselanguagesamples,wehavebeen
abletobuildmoreinternallyconsistentlanguagedictionaries.Thismeansthatmanyofthe
dictionariesinpreviousLIWCversionsmayhavethesamename,butthewordsmakingupthe
dictionarieshavebeenaltered(categoriessubjectedtomajorchangesarepresentedbelow).We
presenthereacompleteoverviewoftheprocessusedtocreatetheLIWC2015dictionary.
Step1.WordCollection.

InthedesignanddevelopmentoftheLIWCcategoryscales,setsof
wordswerefirstgeneratedforeachconceptualdimension,usingtheLIWC2007dictionaryasa
startingpoint.WithinthePsychologicalProcessescategory,forexample,theemotion
subdictionarieswerebasedonwordsfromseveralsources,includingpreviousversionsofthe
LIWCdictionary.Wedrewoncommonemotionratingscales,suchasthePANAS(Watson,
Clark,&Tellegen,1988),Roget’sThesaurus,andstandardEnglishdictionaries.Followingthe
creationofpreliminarycategorywordlists,26judgesindividuallygeneratedwordlistsforeach
category,thengroupbrainstormingsessionsamong48judgeswereheldinwhichwords
relevanttothevariousscalesweregeneratedandaddedtotheinitialscalelists.Similarschemes
wereusedfortheothersubjectivedictionarycategories.
Step2.JudgeRatingPhase.

Oncethegrandlistofwordswasamassed,eachwordinthe
dictionarywasexaminedbyagroupof48judgesandqualitativelyratedintermsof“goodness
offit”foreachcategory.Inorderforawordtoremaininagivencategory,amajorityofjudges
hadtoagreeonitsinclusion.Incasesofdisputes,severalcorporaandonlinesourceswere
referencedtodetermineaword’scommonuse,inflection,andmeaning.Wordsforwhichjudges
couldnotdecideonappropriatecategoryplacementwereremovedfromthedictionary.

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page6

Step3.BaseRateAnalyses.

Onceaworkingversionofthedictionarywasconstructedfrom
judges’ratings,textsfromseveralsourceswereanalyzedusingtheMeaningExtractionHelper
(MEH;Boyd,2015)todeterminehowfrequentlydictionarywordswereusedinvarious
contexts.Thesesourcesincludedblogposts,spokenlanguagestudies,Twitter,Facebook,novels,
studentwritings,andseveralothers.Dictionarywordsthatdidnotoccuratleastonceinmultiple
corporawereomittedfromthedictionary.
Step4.CandidateWordListGeneration.

Inordertoexpandthedictionary,weexploredseveral
sourcesoflanguageforhighfrequencywordsthathadnotbeenaddedbyjudges.UsingMEH,
highfrequencywordswerequantifiedasapercentageoftotalwordsforhundredsofthousands
oftextfilesfrommultiplestudiesandsources.Forseverallinguisticcategories(e.g.,verbs,
adjectives),theStanfordNaturalLanguageToolkit(NLTK;Toutanova,Klein,Manning,&
Singer,2003)wasusedinconjunctionwithMEHtoidentifycommonwords.Allcandidate
wordswerethencorrelatedwithalldictionarycategoriesinordertodetectcommonwordsthat
werenotyetincludedinthedictionary.Wordsthatcorrelatedpositivelywithdictionary
categorieswereaddedtoalistofcandidatewordsforpossibleinclusion.Followingthis,48
judgesreviewedthecandidatelistandvotedon1)whetherwordsshouldbeincludedinthe
dictionaryand2)whetherwordswereasoundconceptualfitforspecificdictionarycategories.
Judges’ratingprocedureswereparalleltothoseoutlinedinStep2

.
Step5.PsychometricEvaluation.

Followingallpreviouslydescribedsteps,eachlanguage
categorywasseparatedintoitsconstituentwords.Eachwordwasthenquantifiedasapercentage
oftotalwordsfor~181,000textfileshailingfrom5corpora,totalling~231,000,000words(see
Table2).Allwordsforeachcategoryweretreatedasa“response”andusedtocomputeinternal
consistencystatisticsforeachlanguagecategoryasawhole.Wordsthatweredetrimentaltothe
internalconsistencyoftheiroverarchinglanguagecategorywereaddedtoacandidatelistof
wordsforomissionfromthefinaldictionary.Agroupof28judgesthenreviewedthelistof
candidatewordsandvotedonwhetherwordsshouldberetained.Wordsforwhichnomajority
couldbeestablishedwereomitted.Severallinguisticcategories,suchaspronouns

andadverbs

,
constituteestablishedlinguisticconstructsandwerethereforenotapartoftheomissionprocess.
Wediscussthepsychometricevaluationproceduresinextensivedetailinthenextsection.
Step6.RefinementPhase.

AfterSteps1through5werecomplete,theywererepeatedintheir
entirety.Thiswasdonetocatchanypossiblemistakes/oversightsthatmighthaveoccurred
throughoutthedictionarycreationprocess.Notethatthepsychometricsofeachlanguage
categorychangednegligiblyduringeachrefinementphase.Duringthelaststageofthefinal
refinementphase,twojudgesreviewedthedictionaryformistakes.
Step7.AdditionofSummaryVariables.
AmajorchangefromearlierversionsofLIWCistheinclusionoffournewsummaryvariables:
analyticalthinking(Pennebakeretal.,2014),clout(Kacewiczetal.,2012),authenticity
(Newmanetal.,2003),andemotionaltone(Cohnetal.,2004).Eachsummaryvariablewas
derivedfrompreviouslypublishedfindingsfromourlabandconvertedtopercentilesbasedon
standardizedscoresfromlargecomparisonsamples.Itmustbeemphasizedthatthesummary
variablesaretheonlynontransparentdimensionsintheLIWC2015output.


LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page7

ANoteabouttheLIWC2015LanguageCategories
ForthosewhoarefamiliarwithLIWC2007,someoftheLIWC2015categoriesandresultswill
beabitjarring.Someoftheoriginalcategorieshavebeenremoved,largelyduetotheir
consistentlylowbaserates,lowinternalreliability,ortheirinfrequentusebyresearchers:

Pasttenseverbs
Presenttenseverbs
Futuretenseverbs
Humanwords
Inhibitionwords
Inclusives
Exclusives


Thefollowingisalistofcategoriesthatareeithera)newtoLIWC2015,orb)substantially
differentfromtheircounterpartsinpreviousversions.WhileotherLIWC2015categoriesmay
alsobeslightlydifferentfromthoseinpreviousversions,categoriesfrompreviousversionsof
LIWCthatarepresentedinthelistbelowhaveundergonesubstantialrevision.

Commonverbs
Commonadjectives
Commoncomparison
words
Interrogatives
Femalereferences
Malereferences
Cognitiveprocesses
Differentiationwords
Drives
Affiliationwords
Achievementwords
Powerwords
Riskwords
Rewardwords
Pastfocuswords
Presentfocuswords
Futurefocuswords
Informallanguage
Netspeakwords
Quantifiers

NotethattheLIWC2015applicationcomeswiththeoriginalinternaldictionariesforboth
LIWC2001andLIWC2007forthosewhowanttorelyonolderversionsofthedictionaryaswell
astocompareLIWC2015analyseswiththoseprovidedbyolderversionsofthesoftware.

LIWC2015:InternalReliabilityandExternalValidity
Assessingthereliabilityandvalidityoftextanalysisprogramsisatrickybusiness.Onthe
surface,onewouldthinkthatyoucoulddeterminetheinternalreliabilityofaLIWCscalethe
samewayitisdonewithaquestionnaire.Withaquestionnairethattapsangeroraggression,for
example,participantscompleteaselfreportaskinganumberofquestionsabouttheirfeelingsor
behaviorsrelatedtoanger.Reliabilitycoefficientsarecomputedbycorrelatingpeople’s
responsestothevariousquestions.Themorehighlytheycorrelate,thereasoninggoes,themore
thequestionnaireitemsallmeasurethesamething.Voila!Thescaleisdeemedinternally
consistent.
Asimilarstrategycanbeusedwithwords.Butbewarned:thepsychometricsofnaturallanguage
usearenotasstraightforwardaswithquestionnaires.Thereasonisobviousonceyouthink

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aboutit.Onceyousaysomething,yougenerallydon’tneedtosayitagaininthesameparagraph
oressay.Thenatureofdiscourse,then,isweusuallysaysomethingandthenmoveontothenext
topic.Repeatingthesameideaoverandoveragainisgenerallybadforminlanguage,yetthisis
astapleofselfreportquestionnairedesign.Itisimportant,then,tounderstandthatacceptable
boundariesfornaturallanguagereliabilitycoefficientsarelowerthanthosecommonlyseen
elsewhereinpsychologicaltests.
TheLIWCAngerscale,forexample,ismadeupof230angerrelatedwordsandwordstems.In
theory,themorethatpeopleuseonetypeofangerwordinagiventext,themoretheyshoulduse
otherangerwordsinthesametext.Totestthisidea,wecandeterminethedegreetowhich
peopleuseeachofthe230angerwordsacrossaselectgroupoftextfilesandthencalculatethe
intercorrelationsoftheworduse.Indeed,inTable1,weincludetheseinternalreliability
statistics,includingthoseofAngerwherethealphareliabilitiesrangebetween.52(corrected)
and.07(uncorrected)dependingonhowitiscomputed.Inordertocalculatethesestatistics,each
dictionarywordwasmeasuredasapercentageoftotalwordspertext.Thesescoreswerethen
enteredasan“item”inastandardCronbach’salphacalculation,providingrawalphascoresfor
eachwordcategory,separatelyforeachcorpora.UncorrectedalphasinTable1areaveragesof
eachcorpora’salphascore.Importantly,theuncorrectedmethodtendstogrosslyunderestimate
reliabilityinlanguagecategoriesduethehighlyvariablebaseratesofwordusagewithinany
givencategory.CorrectedalphaswerecomputedusingtheSpearmanBrownpredictionformula
(Brown,1910;Spearman,1910),andaregenerallyamoreaccurateapproximationofeach
category’s“true”internalconsistency.
Issuesofvalidityarealsoabittricky.Wecanhavepeoplecompleteaquestionnairethatassesses
theirgeneralmoodsandthenhavethemwriteanessaywhichwethensubjecttotheLIWC
program.Wecanalsohavejudgesevaluatetheessayforitsemotionalcontent.Inotherwords,
wecangetselfreported,judged,andLIWCnumbersthatallreflectaparticipant’sanger.
OneofthefirsttestsofthevalidityoftheLIWCscaleswasundertakenbyPennebakerand
Francis(1996)aspartofanexperimentinwhichfirstyearcollegestudentswroteaboutthe
experienceofcomingtocollege.Duringthewritingphaseofthestudy,72Introductory
Psychologystudentsmetasagrouponthreeconsecutivedaystowriteontheirassignedtopics.
Participantsintheexperimentalcondition(n=35)wereinstructedtowriteabouttheirdeepest
thoughtsandfeelingsconcerningtheexperienceofcomingtocollege.Thoseinthecontrol
condition(n=37)wereaskedtodescribeanyparticularobjectoreventoftheirchoosinginan
unemotionalway.Afterthewritingphaseofthestudywascompleted,fourjudgesratedthe
participants’essaysonvariousemotional,cognitive,content,andcompositiondimensions
designedtocorrespondtoselectedLIWCDictionaryscales.UsingLIWCoutputandjudges’
ratings,PearsoncorrelationalanalyseswereperformedtotestLIWC’sexternalvalidity.The
findingssuggestedthatLIWCsuccessfullymeasurespositiveandnegativeemotions,anumber
ofcognitivestrategies,severaltypesofthematiccontent,andvariouslanguagecomposition
elements.Thelevelofagreementbetweenjudges’ratingsandLIWC’sobjectivewordcount
strategyprovidessupportforLIWC’sexternalvalidity.
SincethefirstversionofLIWC,hundredsofstudieshavefoundtheLIWCcategoriestobevalid
acrossdozensofpsychologicaldomains.Asastartingpointforexploringthisbodyofliterature,
werecommendaclosereadingofTausczikandPennebaker(2010).

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BaseRatesofWordUsage
Inevaluatinganytextanalysisprogram,itishelpfultogetasenseofthedegreetowhich
languagevariesacrosssettings.Since1986,wehavebeencollectingtextsamplesfromavariety
ofstudies–bothfromourownlabaswellasfromdozensofothersintheUnitedStates,
England,Canada,NewZealand,andAustralia.Forpurposesofcomparison,textfromseveral
dozensofstudieshavebeenanalyzedusingtheupdatedLIWC2015dictionary.Ascanbeseenin
Table2,theseanalysesreflecttheutterancesofover80,000writersorspeakerstotalingover231
millionwords.Weprovideabriefdescriptionofeachdatasetbelow.

Table2.SummaryInformationforLIWC2015Statistics

Blogs
Expressive
writing
Novels
Natural
Speech
NYTimes
Twitter
Totalfiles
37,295
6,179
875
3,232
34,929
35,269
Totalauthors
37,295
2,510
441
2,174
Unknown
35,269
Totalwords
119,449,058
2,526,709
57,467,183
2,566,446
26,007,632
23,172,994
Note:Alltextsforallcorporarequiredaminimumof25wordsforinclusioninouranalyses.Alltextswithfewer
than25wordswereomittedforallstatisticsreportedinthisdocument.

Blogs

.ThisisanexpandedversionofthecorpusdescribedinSchler,Koppel,Argamon,and
Pennebaker(2006).Allblogpostsweremergedbyindividualpriortoanalysis,reflectingthe
entiretyofeachperson’sblog.
Expressivewriting

.Thisdatasetconsistsof29samplesfromexperimentswherepeoplewere
randomlyassignedtowriteeitheraboutdeeplyemotionaltopics(emotionalwriting)orabout
relativelytrivialtopicssuchasplansfortheday(controlwriting).Individualsfromallwalksof
life–rangingfromcollegestudentstopsychiatricprisonerstoelderlyandevenelementaryaged
individuals–arerepresentedinthesestudies.Onlytheemotionalwritingtopicswereincludedin
thecurrentanalyses.
Novels

.ThisisasampleofnovelsacquiredfromProjectGutenberg(http://www.gutenberg.org/)
thathadbeentaggedas“literature”.AllnovelswerewrittenintheEnglishlanguagebyauthors
wholivedbetweenapproximately1660and2008.ThenumberofauthorspresentedinTable2
reflectsonlyknownauthorsoftheworksanalyzedworksforwhichtheauthorwasunknown
werenotincludedinthisfigure,butincludedinanalyses.
Naturalspeech

.Thespeechsamplesincludeddiversetranscriptsfrommultiplecontexts,
includingpeoplewearingaudiorecordersoverdaysorweeks,strangersinteractinginawaiting
room,couplestalkingaboutproblems,andopenairtaperecordingsofpeopleinpublicspaces.
NewYorkTimes

.AcollectionofarticlespublishedonlineattheNewYorkTimeswebsite
(http://www.nytimes.com).ArticleswerecollectedfromtheNewYorkTimesinternetarchives
andincludevarioustypesofwork,includingeditorials,features,U.S.andworldnews,lettersto

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page10
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theeditor,andsoon.AllarticleswerepublishedbetweenJanuaryandJulyof2014.Author
informationwasnotpreservedforthisdataset,sothetruenumberofauthorsisunknown.
Twitter

.IndividualTwitterposts(i.e.,“tweets”)werecollectedfromthepublicprofilesofusers
whosenameswereenteredintotheAnalyzeWordswebpage(http://analyzewords.com).Each
user’stweetswerecombinedintoasingleunitofobservationforanalysis.

AscanbeseeninTable3,theLIWC2015versioncaptures,onaverage,over86percentofthe
wordspeopleuseinwritingandspeech.Notethatexceptfortotalwordcountandwordsper
sentenceandthefoursummaryvariables(Analytic,Clout,Authentic,andTone),allmeansin
Table3areexpressedaspercentageoftotalwordsusedinanygivenlanguagesample.Simple
statisticaltestsindicatethatnearlyalllanguagecategoriesdiffersignificantlybetweencontexts.

Table3.LIWC2015OutputVariableInformation
Category
Blogs
Expressive
writing
Novels
Natural
Speech
NY
Times
Twitter
Grand
Means
Mean
SDs
LinguisticProcesses








Wordcount(mean)
3206.45
408.94
65716.49
794.17
744.62
660.24
11921.82
10274.32
Analytic
49.89
44.88
70.33
18.43
92.57
61.94
56.34
17.58
Clout
47.87
37.02
75.37
56.27
68.17
63.02
57.95
17.51
Authentic
60.93
76.01
21.56
61.32
24.84
50.39
49.17
20.92
Tone
54.50
38.60
37.06
79.29
43.61
72.24
54.22
23.27
Words/sentence
*
18.40
18.42
16.13

21.94
12.10
17.40
16.38
Words>6letters
14.38
13.62
16.30
10.42
23.58
15.31
15.60
3.76
Dictionarywords
85.79
91.93
84.52
91.60
74.62
82.60
85.18
5.36
Totalfunctionwords
53.10
58.27
54.51
56.86
42.39
46.08
51.87
5.13
Totalpronouns
16.20
18.03
15.15
20.92
7.41
13.62
15.22
3.61
Personalpronouns
10.66
12.74
10.35
13.37
3.56
9.02
9.95
3.02
1stperssingular
6.26
8.66
2.63
7.03
0.63
4.75
4.99
2.46
1stpersplural
0.91
0.81
0.61
0.87
0.38
0.74
0.72
0.83
2ndperson
1.32
0.68
1.39
4.04
0.34
2.41
1.70
1.35
3rdperssingular
1.50
2.01
4.80
0.77
1.53
0.64
1.88
1.53
3rdpersplural
0.68
0.57
0.92
0.65
0.68
0.47
0.66
0.60
Impersonalpronouns
5.53
5.28
4.79
7.53
3.84
4.60
5.26
1.62
Articles
6.00
5.70
8.35
4.34
9.08
5.58
6.51
1.79
Prepositions
12.60
14.27
14.27
10.29
14.27
11.88
12.93
2.11
Auxiliaryverbs
8.75
9.25
7.77
12.03
5.11
8.27
8.53
2.04
Adverbs
5.88
6.02
4.17
7.67
2.76
5.13
5.27
1.61
Conjunctions
6.43
7.46
6.28
6.21
4.85
4.19
5.90
1.57
Negations
1.81
1.69
1.68
2.42
0.62
1.74
1.66
0.86
OtherGrammar








Commonverbs
17.03
18.63
15.42
21.01
10.23
16.33
16.44
2.93
Commonadjectives
4.53
4.52
4.36
4.13
4.52
4.89
4.49
1.30
Comparisons
2.17
2.42
2.13
2.35
2.39
1.89
2.23
0.95
Interrogatives
1.51
1.49
1.53
2.44
1.26
1.43
1.61
0.76

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page11

Category
Blogs
Expressive
writing
Novels
Natural
Speech
NY
Times
Twitter
Grand
Means
Mean
SDs
Number
1.89
1.87
1.23
2.19
3.55
1.98
2.12
2.07
Quantifiers
2.27
2.35
1.80
1.93
1.94
1.85
2.02
0.83
Psychological
Processes








Affectiveprocesses
5.79
4.77
4.81
6.54
3.82
7.67
5.57
1.99
Positiveemotion
3.66
2.57
2.67
5.31
2.32
5.48
3.67
1.63
Negativeemotion
2.06
2.12
2.08
1.19
1.45
2.14
1.84
1.09
Anxiety
0.27
0.50
0.44
0.14
0.25
0.24
0.31
0.32
Anger
0.68
0.49
0.51
0.36
0.47
0.75
0.54
0.59
Sadness
0.44
0.50
0.55
0.23
0.29
0.43
0.41
0.40
Socialprocesses
b

8.95
8.69
12.26
10.42
7.62
10.47
9.74
3.38
Family
0.46
0.77
0.39
0.31
0.33
0.36
0.44
0.63
Friends
0.40
0.55
0.25
0.37
0.18
0.43
0.36
0.40
Femalereferences
0.91
1.37
1.88
0.55
0.62
0.54
0.98
1.26
Malereferences
1.31
1.47
4.09
0.80
1.38
0.84
1.65
1.34
Cognitiveprocesses
11.58
12.52
9.84
12.27
7.52
9.96
10.61
3.02
Insight
2.28
2.66
2.11
2.46
1.54
1.92
2.16
1.08
Causation
1.46
1.65
1.03
1.45
1.42
1.41
1.40
0.73
Discrepancy
1.56
1.74
1.48
1.45
0.89
1.54
1.44
0.80
Tentative
2.82
2.89
2.27
3.06
1.74
2.35
2.52
1.09
Certainty
1.56
1.51
1.45
1.38
0.76
1.43
1.35
0.70
Differentiation
3.31
3.40
2.82
3.73
2.03
2.62
2.99
1.18
Perceptualprocesses
2.58
2.38
3.74
2.11
2.42
2.96
2.70
1.20
See
1.04
0.80
1.58
0.78
0.88
1.39
1.08
0.78
Hear
0.75
0.48
1.26
0.63
1.06
0.82
0.83
0.62
Feel
0.64
0.92
0.76
0.61
0.35
0.56
0.64
0.52
Biologicalprocesses
2.16
2.59
2.17
1.23
1.44
2.60
2.03
1.39
Body
0.74
0.69
1.24
0.31
0.41
0.77
0.69
0.64
Health
0.61
0.93
0.48
0.38
0.57
0.54
0.59
0.65
Sexual
0.17
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.24
0.13
0.30
Ingestion
0.54
0.86
0.39
0.35
0.41
0.86
0.57
0.83
Drives
6.87
7.35
5.84
6.39
7.60
7.50
6.93
2.03
Affiliation
2.20
2.45
1.39
2.06
1.69
2.53
2.05
1.28
Achievement
1.27
1.37
0.91
0.99
1.82
1.45
1.30
0.82
Power
2.07
2.02
2.46
1.72
3.62
2.17
2.35
1.12
Reward
1.49
1.56
1.04
1.73
1.07
1.86
1.46
0.81
Risk
0.46
0.54
0.53
0.30
0.56
0.46
0.47
0.41
Timeorientations








Pastfocus
4.25
5.83
7.06
3.78
4.09
2.81
4.64
2.06
Presentfocus
10.95
10.45
6.21
15.28
5.14
11.74
9.96
2.80
Futurefocus
1.60
1.85
1.19
1.45
0.80
1.60
1.42
0.90
Relativity
14.23
16.19
14.56
12.12
14.47
13.99
14.26
3.18
Motion
2.15
2.58
2.34
2.20
1.70
1.94
2.15
1.03
Space
6.43
6.96
7.82
5.86
7.76
6.51
6.89
1.96
Time
5.86
7.01
4.71
4.28
5.17
5.75
5.46
1.81
PersonalConcerns








Work
2.04
2.64
1.20
2.87
4.49
2.16
2.56
1.81
Leisure
1.50
1.17
0.56
1.11
1.67
2.11
1.35
1.08

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page12

Category
Blogs
Expressive
writing
Novels
Natural
Speech
NY
Times
Twitter
Grand
Means
Mean
SDs
Home
0.49
0.99
0.56
0.34
0.47
0.43
0.55
0.63
Money
0.59
0.41
0.45
0.44
1.47
0.74
0.68
0.83
Religion
0.39
0.20
0.34
0.14
0.25
0.35
0.28
0.57
Death
0.15
0.12
0.26
0.04
0.22
0.19
0.16
0.29
InformalLanguage
2.09
0.45
0.53
7.10
0.29
4.68
2.52
1.65
Swearwords
0.35
0.09
0.05
0.25
0.02
0.49
0.21
0.37
Netspeak
0.92
0.05
0.10
1.35
0.16
3.23
0.97
1.17
Assent
0.33
0.10
0.14
3.29
0.05
1.82
0.95
0.72
Nonfluencies
0.42
0.17
0.24
1.96
0.07
0.39
0.54
0.49
Fillers
0.11
0.04
0.01
0.46
0.00
0.04
0.11
0.27
Punctuation
*








TotalPunctuation
24.18
12.41
23.68

19.02
27.46
21.35
9.01
Periods
10.29
6.17
6.04

5.88
9.07
7.49
3.76
Commas
4.15
3.17
7.09

6.60
2.76
4.75
1.94
Colons
0.43
0.21
0.12

0.27
2.15
0.64
0.85
Semicolons
0.10
0.04
0.53

0.17
0.67
0.30
0.53
Questionmarks
0.59
0.15
0.60

0.15
1.40
0.58
1.00
Exclamationmarks
1.16
0.12
0.49

0.02
3.21
1.00
1.35
Dashes
0.99
0.39
2.14

1.23
1.21
1.19
1.38
Quotationmarks
0.71
0.22
3.90

2.23
1.30
1.67
1.36
Apostrophes
3.85
1.40
2.19

1.56
3.32
2.46
4.94
Parentheses
0.90
0.32
0.06

0.54
0.81
0.53
0.87
Otherpunctuation
1.00
0.23
0.52

0.36
1.56
0.73
1.70
Notes:GrandMeansaretheunweightedmeansofthesixgenres;MeanSDsrefertotheunweightedmeanofthe
standarddeviationsacrossthesixgenrecategories.
*Incalculatinggrandmeansandstandarddeviationsforthewordspersentence(WPS)andpunctuationcategories,
thenaturalspeechcorpuswasexcludedduetodifferingtranscriptionrulesacrossdocuments.

Inmanyways,Table3pointstotheimportantrolethatcontextplaysinpeople’suseof
language.Notsurprisingly,thetopicsofwriting–asreflectedinthecurrentconcernscategory–
varysubstantiallyasafunctionofgenre.Morestriking,however,arethelargedifferencesin
people’suseoffunctionwordsaswellaspunctuationfromgenretogenre(cf.,Biber,1988).

ComparingLIWC2015withLIWC2007
ForusersofLIWC2007,aneweditionofLIWCthatusesadifferentdictionarycanbean
unsettlingexperience.Mostoftheolderdictionarieshavebeenslightlychanged,somehavebeen
substantiallyreworked(e.g.,socialwords,cognitiveprocesswords),andseveralothershave
beenremovedoradded.ToassistinthetransitiontothenewversionofLIWC,weincludeTable
4whichliststhemeans,standarddeviations,andcorrelationsbetweenthetwodictionary
versions.TheseanalysesarebasedonthecorporadetailedinTables2and3.Allnumbers
presentedinTable4aretheaverageresultsfromallsixcorpora.

TogetasenseofhowmuchadictionaryhaschangedfromtheLIWC2007totheLIWC2015
versions,lookattheLIWC2015/2007Correlationcolumn.Thelowerthecorrelation,themore
changeacrossthetwoversions.


LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page13

Table4.ComparisonsBetweenLIWC2015andLIWC2007:
Means,StandardDeviations,andCorrelations
LIWCDimension
OutputLabel
LIWC2015mean
LIWC2007mean
LIWC2015/2007
Correlation
1
Wordcount
WC
11,921.82
11,852.99
1.00
SummaryVariables
Analyticalthinking
Analytic
56.34


Clout
Clout
57.95


Authentic
Authentic
49.17


Emotionaltone
Tone
54.22


LanguageMetrics
Wordspersentence
*
WPS
17.40
25.07
0.74
Words>6letters
Sixltr
15.60
15.89
0.98
Dictionarywords
Dic
85.18
83.95
0.94
FunctionWords
function
51.87
54.29
0.95
Totalpronouns
pronoun
15.22
14.99
0.99
Personalpronouns
ppron
9.95
9.83
0.99
1stperssingular
i
4.99
4.97
1.00
1stpersplural
we
0.72
0.72
1.00
2ndperson
you
1.70
1.61
0.98
3rdperssingular
shehe
1.88
1.87
1.00
3rdpersplural
they
0.66
0.66
0.99
Impersonalpronouns
ipron
5.26
5.17
0.99
Articles
article
6.51
6.53
0.99
Prepositions
prep
12.93
12.59
0.96
Auxiliaryverbs
auxverb
8.53
8.82
0.96
Commonadverbs
adverb
5.27
4.83
0.97
Conjunctions
conj
5.90
5.87
0.99
Negations
negate
1.66
1.72
0.96
OtherGrammar
Regularverbs
verb
16.44
15.26
0.72
Adjectives
adj
4.49


Comparatives
compare
2.23


Interrogatives
interrog
1.61


Numbers
number
2.12
1.98
0.98
Quantifiers
quant
2.02
2.48
0.88
AffectWords
affect
5.57
5.63
0.96
Positiveemotion
posemo
3.67
3.75
0.96
Negativeemotion
negemo
1.84
1.83
0.96
Anxiety
anx
0.31
0.33
0.94
Anger
anger
0.54
0.6
0.97
Sadness
sad
0.41
0.39
0.92
SocialWords
social
9.74
9.36
0.96
Family
family
0.44
0.38
0.94
Friends
friend
0.36
0.23
0.78

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page14

LIWCDimension
OutputLabel
LIWC2015mean
LIWC2007mean
LIWC2015/2007
Correlation
1
Femalereferents
female
0.98


Malereferents
male
1.65


CognitiveProcesses
2
cogproc
10.61
14.99
0.84
Insight
insight
2.16
2.13
0.98
Cause
cause
1.40
1.41
0.97
Discrepancies
discrep
1.44
1.45
0.99
Tentativeness
tentat
2.52
2.42
0.98
Certainty
certain
1.35
1.27
0.92
Differentiation
3
differ
2.99
2.48
0.85
PerceptualProcesses
percept
2.70
2.36
0.92
Seeing
see
1.08
0.87
0.88
Hearing
hear
0.83
0.73
0.94
Feeling
feel
0.64
0.62
0.92
BiologicalProcesses
bio
2.03
1.88
0.94
Body
body
0.69
0.68
0.96
Health/illness
health
0.59
0.53
0.87
Sexuality
sexual
0.13
0.28
0.76
Ingesting
ingest
0.57
0.46
0.94
DrivesandNeeds
drives
6.93


Affiliation
affiliation
2.05


Achievement
achieve
1.30
1.56
0.93
Power
power
2.35


Rewardfocus
reward
1.46


Riskfocus
risk
0.47


TimeOrientations
4
Pastfocus
focuspast
4.64
4.14
0.97
Presentfocus
focuspresent
9.96
8.1
0.92
Futurefocus
focusfuture
1.42
1.00
0.63
Relativity
relativ
14.26
13.87
0.98
Motion
motion
2.15
2.06
0.93
Space
space
6.89
6.17
0.96
Time
time
5.46
5.79
0.94
PersonalConcerns
Work
work
2.56
2.27
0.97
Leisure
leisure
1.35
1.37
0.95
Home
home
0.55
0.56
0.99
Money
money
0.68
0.70
0.97
Religion
relig
0.28
0.32
0.96
Death
death
0.16
0.16
0.96
InformalSpeech
informal
2.52


Swearwords
swear
0.21
0.17
0.89
Netspeak
netspeak
0.97


Assent
assent
0.95
1.11
0.68

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page15

LIWCDimension
OutputLabel
LIWC2015mean
LIWC2007mean
LIWC2015/2007
Correlation
1
Nonfluencies
nonfl
0.54
0.30
0.84
Fillers
filler
0.11
0.40
0.29
AllPunctuation
*
Allpunc
21.35
21.65
0.98
Periods
Period
7.49
7.56
0.98
Commas
Comma
4.75
4.75
1.00
Colons
Colon
0.64
0.73
0.98
Semicolons
SemiC
0.3
0.29
0.97
Questionmarks
QMark
0.58
0.58
1.00
Exclamationmarks
Exclam
1.00
1.00
1.00
Dashes
Dash
1.19
1.21
0.98
Quotationmarks
Quote
1.67
1.64
0.93
Apostrophes
Apostro
2.46
2.52
0.94
Parentheses(pairs)
Parenth
0.53
0.63
0.90
Otherpunctuation
OtherP
0.73
0.72
0.95
*
Duetodifferencesinpunctuationrulesfortranscriptions,thenaturallanguagecorpuswasexcludedwhen
computingmeansandcorrelationsforpunctuationcategoriesaswellaswordspersentence.

1
Correlationistheaveragecorrelationbetweenthe2007and2015dictionariesacrosssixcorpora.Lowcorrelations
(<.80)aretobeexpectedduetothelargecategorydifferencesbetweenthetwoversions.
2
CognitiveprocessesisconceptuallysimilartothecognitivemechanismsLIWC2007category.Thenewercognitive
processdimensionrestrictsconstituentwordstotruemarkersofcognitiveactivity.
3
Differentiationisconceptuallysimilartothe2007exclusivecategory.
4
TimeOrientationcategoriesaresimilartothe2007categoriespast,present,andfuturebutaremoreunifiedto
reflectageneraltimeorientationinsteadofjustverbtenseusage.


LIWCDictionaryTranslations
TheLIWCdictionarieshavebeentranslatedintoseverallanguages,includingSpanish,German,
Dutch,Norwegian,Italian,Portuguese.Severalotherlanguagetranslationsareunderway,
includingArabic,Korean,Turkish,andChinese.Todate,thesetranslationshavereliedonthe
LIWC2001orLIWC2007dictionariesratherthanLIWC2015.
UnlikepreviousversionsofLIWC,thecurrentversionisbundledexclusivelywiththeoriginal
Englishdictionaryversions.LIWCdictionarytranslations,aswellasotherpublished
dictionaries,willbemadeavailableattheofficialLIWCdictionaryrepository
(http://dictionaries.liwc.net/).IfyouwouldliketobuildanonEnglishLIWC2015dictionaryor
ifyouhavebuiltoneindependentlywouldliketoaddittotherepository,contactthefirstauthor
atpennebaker@mail.utexas.edu.

 

LIWC2015DevelopmentManual Page16

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 

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
Acknowledgements
PortionsoftheresearchreportedinthismanualweremadepossiblebygrantsfromtheNational
InstitutesofHealth(MH52391),NationalScienceFoundation(IIS1344257),theArmyResearch
Institute(W5J9CQ12C0043),andtheTempletonFoundation.SpecialthanksgotoCindyChung.
Cindy’smasteryoflanguage,thoughtfulfeedback,andvaluableinsightshavebeenvitaltothe
ongoinglongevityoftheLIWCproject.Wearealsodeeplyindebtedtoanumberofpeoplewho
havehelpedwithdifferentphasesofLIWC,including:MarthaFrancis,LauraKing,YitaiSeah,
JennaBaddelley,MollyIreland,YlaTausczik,MatthiasMehl,RichardSlatcher,JasonFerrell,
SamGosling,andGabriellaHarari.WeareparticularlyindebtedtotheLIWC2015
DevelopmentTeamofKikiAdams,JenniferCaplan,ZacharyReese,CourtneyWang,andNick
Abbs.