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471
ISSN 1018-9556=Ekklesiastikos Pharos 94 (2012) N.S. 23
FIRE AS PROPHECY?
THE RELATION BETWEEN FIRE AND PROPHECY
AS THEOPHANY IN THE SEPTUAGINT AND WITH
REFERENCE TO THE REVELATION OF JOHN
Gert J. Steyn
University of Pretoria
Abstract
This investigation presents a brief survey of the interjection between
the occurrences of fire imagery and its connections with prophecy as
Theophany in the Greek Old Testament and with reference to the
Revelation of John. Fire imagery frequently serves as a Leitmotif for
God’s revelatory presence. It is established that God’s presence
through fire imagery is closely connected with his message as part of
divine revelation. Furthermore, this motif developed in one of two
directions: sometimes with negative implications to humanity during
God’s wrath and judgement, i.e. during the process of the purification
of his creation. At other times it developed with positive implications
to humanity during God’s mediation of his message of involvement
and care, i.e. during the process of his glorification. It can be
concluded that the connection between fire imagery and prophecy can
be clearly observed in the Old Testament literature and that this
connection is carried through into the Revelation of John. The fact of
this connection could even be summarized in the statement that the
mere presence of fire often functions as the revelatory presence of
God and that this in itself serves as prophecy – either as a message of
purification or of glorification. In this sense, “fire as revelation”
might be understood to be “fire as prophecy”.
472
1
and
his presence was often revealed through fire.
2
As he was understood to be
present where he speaks, his discourse was thus closely connected with the
presence of fire.
3
This, in turn, means that when one encounters fire imagery in
4
Given this
context, it is the intention of this paper to search for connections between fire as
5
In order to determine such a connection, it would be helpful to survey the Old
Testament in search of the role, or the motif, of fire. But before this can be done,
term will be used in its broadest sense, in a maximalist manner, namely in the
irrespective of whether this means
kings, prophets, priests and angels, or whether it simply refers to divine
communication through non-verbal imagery used by God, such as when he sets
-verbal
com
1
Such an image was not unknown in antiquity at all, if one considers, for instance, the Egyptian sun
god Re, the Greek god Helios and the Tyrian sun gods. For the latter, see J. Morgenstern, The Fire
upon the Altar (Leiden: Brill, 1963) 102-113, for a discussion of the Tyrian Festival. W. Eichrodt,
however, noted that the Israelite view was distinctive as God’s revelation took place by “natural
forces which break out with startling suddenness…” (Theology of the Old Testament, Vol. II [London:
SCM Press, 19824] 16).
2
Cf. W. Eichrodt: “Because of this close relation between Yahweh and the elemental power of fire
attempts have been made to explain him as originally a fire-demon, and therefore a nature deity like
the rest” (Theology II, 17). F. Siegert points to an important difference in this regard between Philo
and the Stoics. Philo “hält ‘diejenigen’ (sc. Die Stoiker) für ‘töricht und leichtgläubig, die glauben, daß
das Feuer bei dem Propheten (Mose) das Wesen … Gottes sei’; es sei nämlich nur das ‘scheinbare
Aussehen’ seiner Herrlichkeit” (Philo von Alexandrien. Über die Gottesbezeichnung ‘wohltätig
verzehrendes Feuer’ (De Deo) [WUNT 46; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1988] 103).
3
Cf. R. Hildesheim refers to its role as “göttliche Strafgericht” and as “Gemeinschaft mit Gott” (Bis daß
ein Prophet aufstand wie Feuer. Untersuchungenzum Prophetenverständnis des Ben Sira in Sir 48,1
– 49,16 [Trier Theologische Studien 58; Trier: Paulinus, 1996] 87).
4
“The manifestation of God in fire had already betrayed a sense that the lineaments of the divine were
not confined to any fixed forms, but were inconceivable by Man” (W. Eichrodt, Theology II, 19).
5
The connection between “fire” and “logos” are certainly interesting against the backdrop of Stoic
philosophy. Cf. T. Paige, “God was variously described as ‘fire,’ ‘reason’ (logos) or ‘spirit’ (pneuma)”
(s.v. “Philosophy”, in G.F. Hawthorne & R.P. Martin (eds), Dictionary of Paul and his Letters
[Leicester: InterVarsity Press, 1993] 713-716, here 715 ).
473
and angels, on the other hand that this study wants to investigate. It is the
crossing of these two lines that will be investigated here. The (Greek) Old
Testament can greatly assist in this regard as it provides helpful hermeneutical
keys for the understanding of fire imagery (an apocalyptic motif) and divine
revelation by means of prophecy.
1. Fire as an image of God’s ontological presence (theophany)
1.1 According to the Pentateuch
In the Pentateuch, the presence of God was visible at instances such as when
, Exod 3:2); or when God accompanied the people of Israel at
night with the column of fire ( ) during the Exodus in the desert
(Exod 13:21-
the LORD had descended upon it in fire (
, Exod 19:18);
6
, Exod 40:34, 35). Furthermore,
presence became clear when fire came from the Lord (
, Lev 9:24) and consumed the burnt offering of Aaron and Moses in the
Tabernacle.
7
Simultaneously, though, the sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, died
by the same fire from the Lord ( , Lev 10:2) because
8
( , Lev 10:1) that did
the Pentateuch, further becomes clear in the fire that devours the sacrifices on
the altars
9
6
“In Exod 19:18, the emphasis is on the heavy smoke, ‘because the Lord descended upon it in fire,’
and upon the quaking of the mountain” (D.E. Aune, Revelation 6-16 [WBC 52B; Dallas: Word Books,
1998] 880). Cf. J. Maier: “… die Offenbarung des göttlichen Wortes erscheint (verbunden) mit
unheimlichen kosmischen Erscheinungen wie Gewitter, Feuer, Erdbeben etc” (Geschichte der
jüdischen Religion [Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1972] 202).
7
Cf. D.C. Thomas: “It was God’s fire, the consuming heat of his Holy Presence, that broke in upon
that moment of worship, and the offering was consumed” (“Holy and Unholy Fire”, The Princeton
Seminary Bulletin 2, no. 3 [1979] 213-216, here 213).
8
For different opinions on what this meant, see J.M. Cohen, “Acharei mot and the Strange Fire”,
Jewish Biblical Quarterly 34 (1) (2006) 51-54.
9
See J. Morgenstern: “In three different places, vv. 2b, 5 and 16 (i.e. of Lev 6, GJS), this matter is
dealt with in such a manner as to indicate that in the minds of the authors of this section the subject
of the fire upon the altar was one of more than ordinary significance” (The Fire upon the Altar
[Leiden: Brill, 1963] 1).
474
10
as reported in Leviticus 6 (
, 6:5 [6:12 in English
translations]).
1.2 According to the historical writings
nostrils, and devouring fire ,
, 22:9)
11
, 22:13). Furthermore, in 2 Chronicles 7, after
) and consumed the burnt offering and the sacrifices; and the glory
of the Lord (
12
An important connection is
made here between fire and the glory of the Lord. This would become more
evident in the prophetic and apocalyptic literature.
1.3 According to the prophetic literature
spec
60:1-2 MT: הוהְי דב ְ֙ , Isa 60:1-2
LXX). The motif is also found in passages such as Isa 6:1-7 with the vision of
God on his throne and in his temple, as well as in Haggai when he instructs the
, Hag
1:8). It is seen, furthermore, in Malachi when God laments the corruption of the
priesthood and that his name is glorified amongst the nations (
, Mal 1:11).
1.4 According to the apocalyptic literature
-28 describes the human form on the throne with
)
). In Ezekiel 10, the
10
J. Morgenstern, Fire, 1. Cf. Lev 6:12.
11
This image is also present in Ps 17:9 LXX () and Isa
30:27 ().
12
It is interesting, though, that this section is absent in the parallel passage of 1 Kings (3 Kgdms) 8:62-
66.
475
4). A cherub took fire from the wheelwork and gave it to the
man clothed in linen (10:6-
the God of Israel
, 43:2). It then enters the newly built sanctuary
, 3:6), announcing his
eternal presence in the sanctuary (43:7, 9). Ezekiel is later shown that this gate at
-lory of
Furthermore, Dan 7:9-10 sketches a picture of the chariot throne of the
is throne was a fiery
flame ( ), and its wheels were burning fire ( ). A stream of
fire ( -10).
13
This apocalyptic image would later become an integral part of the early rabbinic
merkabah mysticism.
the
seven flaming torches that burn in front of the throne and which are the spirits of
God ( ,
, Rev 4:5). But an interesting Christological expansion is also
flame o , Rev 1:14; 2:18; 19:12).
2. Fire as revelation of God’s message
biblical writings during the history of revelation. Eichrodt formulated
appropriately in this regard, that
…the phenomenon of fire became linked with the visionary experience in
which the prophet experienced within himself the domination of the divine
13
D.E. Aune calls this “river of fire” a “theophanic symbol” in his discussion of Rev 22:2 (Revelation 17-
22, 1176).
476
Lord in judgment and renewal, so fire, like storm and earthquake, acquired
a predominantly symbolic significance as a representation of God’s
intervention in history and in the destiny of the individual, and its function
as a means of making the invisible God concretely visible diminished in
importance.
14
The use and application of t
be noted in one of two ways. Firstly, this Divine presence through fire can be
(purification and refinement).
15
Secondly, this Divine presence through fire can
with his people in order to guide, care, reprimand and direct them (glorification).
An example of the latter is found in Exod 33:18-19 when Moses asks to see the
before him and again
2.1 The presence of God’s fire as judgement and punishment:
purification
When the people of Israel complained about their misfortunes in the desert,
, Num 11:1). The same happened during the revolt of Korah, Dathan and
, Num 16:35).
The prophetic literature provides further glimpses into this fiery wrath of
16
The wrath of God has the
function of purification ( , Isa 4:4)
and cleans out all unwanted elements in order for that which is pure, to remain.
in fire
( ), and his chariots like the whirlwind, to pay back his anger
in fury and his rebuke in flames of fire ( ): for by fire will the
Lord execute judgement ( -16).
14
W. Eichrodt, Theology II, 19.
15
Cf. P.B. Lee: “The symbolic word, ‘fire,’ displays two opposite functions: one is to purify precious
metal, and the other is to burn the dross” (“Malachi’s eschatological figures’ arrival motif in Luke’s
Gospel”, Unpublished PhD Thesis: University of Pretoria, 2010, 69).
16
Cf, for instance: (Jer 4:4); μὴ ἀναφθῇ ὡς πῦρ ἡ
ὀργή μου καὶ καυθήσεται (Jer 21:12); ὡς πῦρ φλόγα, καὶ κατέφαγεν πάντα τὰ κύκλῳ (Lam 2:3); μὴ
ἀναλάμψῃ ὡς πῦρ … καὶ καταφάγεται (Am 5:6).
477
Also some Psalms refer metaphorically to the wrath of God as a burning
fire, asking how long it will still burn like fire ( , LXX Ps
78:5; , LXX Ps 88:47), or describing it as
, LXX Ps 96:3).
The fiery signs that are pointing to the ultimate revelation of Christ are
well-developed in the section on the seven trumpets in Revelation 8:2 – 11:19.
17
in Rev 11:19,
18
-and-star-like angels become
vividly evident. The situation reminds strongly of that as described in Zach 13:9:
them as gold is tested. They will call on my name, and I will answer them. I will
LORD
There is a close
reveal his judgement in Revelation. An angel filled the censer with fire
19
from
the altar and throws it upon the earth resulting in several disasters (8:5): there
came hail and fire, mixed with blood that hurled toward the earth, resulting in a
third of the earth and a third of the plant life being destroyed (8:7); a great
mountain that burned with fire was thrown into the sea, resulting in a third of the
sea being destroyed (8:8-9); a blazing star fell upon the earth on a third of the
water resources, resulting in many deaths (8:10-11); and a third of the light is
dgement is closely
tied to the disastrous effects of fire and on the sources of light. As before
Creation, and as before the coming of Christ in John 1, darkness now again
that
opens up the bottomless pit, resulting in the first woe with plagues and disasters
by terrifying scorpion-like locusts who were equipped for battle like horses (9:1-
the release of four angels. The riders of their armies had breastplates like fire
and fire came forth from the mouths of the horses fire which killed a third of
17
Cf. also (2 Thess 1:7-8): “…when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven with his mighty angels in
flaming fire, inflicting vengeance on those who do not know God…”.
18
Cf. also Rev 14:1 – 15:4, 7. “The closing ‘lightnings, sounds, thunders, earthquake, and great hail’
has already been a repeated indicator of the last act of judgment (so 4:5; 8:5; 16:18; see on 8:5b). In
the Old Testament such series of cosmic phenomena indicate theophanies” (G.K. Beale, The book
of Revelation: A commentary on the Greek text [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999] 618).
19
In reference to Rev 9:6, D.E. Aune is of the opinion that “the term cannot simply be understood
as ‘fire’ since something combustible must be added to a censer; therefore should be translated
‘hot coals’ or ‘glowing embers’” (Revelation 6 – 16, 516 – 517).
478
humanity (9:13-
is figuratively expressed in 2 Kgdms. 22:9 (= Ps. 18:8) LXX by the similar
phrase
20
Another angel, whose face was like the sun and his legs like pillars
ill be no more delay, but in the
days when the seventh angel is to blow his trumpet, the mystery of God will be
fulfilled, as he announced to his servants (Rev 10:6-7). John is
then instructed by a voice from heaven to take the little scro
hand, upon which the angel tells him to eat the scroll which was sweet in his
-11).
I
)
21
-breating
22
This is then again a clear case where the motifs of fire imagery and prophecy
interject with each other. Beale, too, has drawn attention to this connection
leading to the future final judgement.
23
In the section on the seven signs, Revelation 12:1 – 14:20, those who
followed and worshiped the beast receive their due
)
24
before the holy angels and the Lamb (14:10).
20
G.K. Beale, Revelation, 511.
21
Cf. D.E. Aune, who remarks on Rev 19:16, that “The ‘man from the sea,’ a messianic figure in 4
Ezra, incinerates his enemies with a stream of fire that proceeds from his mouth (4 Ezra 13:10–11),
but this is later softened by interpreting it as a reference to the judgment pronounced by the Messiah
based on the Law (4 Ezra 13:37–38); i.e., the fire issuing from the Messiah’s mouth becomes a
metaphor for the Torah” (Revelation 17-22 [WBC 52C; Dallas: Word Books, 1998] 1061).
22
R.H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980) 224 – 225.
According to Mounce, “(T)he fire which proceeds out of their mouth to destroy the enemy recalls
Elijah’s encounters with the emissaries of King Ahaziah (II Kgs 1).”
23
G.K. Beale, Revelation, 511. He says further: “The rejection of their testimony commences a spiritual
judgment of the persecutors and lays the basis for their future final judgment”.
24
R.H. Mounce remarks that “…she will be utterly devastated by the fire of divine judgment” and that
“Judgment by fire is a common Biblical concept.” “In ancient times the smoke of a burning city
signaled its collapse. Once under way, nothing could prevent the spread of its hungry flames until the
city was left in smoldering ruins. In the case of Rome it is the Lord God in his strength who will bring
about judgment by fire” (Revelation, 326 – 327).
479
is described in Revelation 18 – 20. This happens when Babylon will be burned
alive into the lake of fir
who were deceived by the devil, will be consumed by fire that comes down from
where the beast and the false prophet were, and they will be tormented day and
-
judgement and punishment takes place, thus runs like a golden thread
particularly through the Revelation of John.
2.2 God’s Fire – through his messengers: glorification
messengers
(especially to angels and prophets) as intermediaries
25
26
In Isaiah, for instance, the seraph took a coal with a pair of
tongs from the altar (, , Isa
6:6) and touched the mouth
27
of the prophet Isaiah ( ,
Isa 6:7). During the long, covenantal relationship with his people, God
continued to use different mediators to communicate his expectations and
instructions to them. Most common amongst these were especially the prophets.
es who
are not only closely associated with fire, but who are described as being fire
themselves.
28
a. Elijah – the “prophet like fire”
The wisdom book of Sirach calls Elijah
29
30
25
D.L. Petersen also draws attention to the intermediary role of prophets (“Defining Prophecy and
Prophetic Literature”, in M. Nissinen [ed], Prophecy in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context.
Mesopotamian, Biblical, and Arabian Perspectives [Atlanta: SBL, 2000] 33-44, here 37-38).
26
D.L. Petersen identified “at least five basic forms of prophetic literature: divinatory chronicle, vision
report, prophetic speech, legend, and prophetic historiography” (“Defining Prophecy”, 41). In this
study it becomes clear that the theophanies by way of fire imagery is particularly closely connected
to the element of “prophetic speech”.
27
Cf. J. Morgenstern: “(it) purged the prophet of all evil and defilement and qualified him to hear and to
converse with the Deity” (Fire, 6).
28
For the influence of Mal 3 in the New Testament in this regard, see J. Proctor, “Fire in God’s House:
Influence of Malachi 3 in the New Testament [1 Cor 3:1; 1 Peter 1:6-7],” Journal of the Evangelical
Theological Society 36 (1993) 9-14.
29
The explicit reference to Elijah’s name here lacks in the Hebrew text and is only present in the
Greek.
30
The Hebrew reads the plural (ודבריו) for this phrase (ὁ λόγος αὐτοῦ).
480
,
( , 48:9).
31
According
to the account of the Elijah-narrative in 4 Kgdms 1:10-12, Elijah only twice
), that fire from heaven should come down and consume the
delegations of the captains of fifty and their men (
,) which happens then in both instances (in the latter
םי ה ֱא־ש ֵא). When
Elijah then finally meets with the king,
, 4 Kgdms 1:16). Again the motifs of fire imagery
and that of prophecy are interjecting and closely connected with each other.
God, was
seen on Mount Carmel with the fire that came down from heaven and consumed
) and consumed the burnt offering, the wood, the stones, and the dust,
and even
, , , 3 Kgdms 1:24).
Not only does the fire become
the sign of an open channel of communication between Elijah and God.
Given the close connection between the ministry of Elijah and the motif of
fire, it is thus not surprising that at the end of his days, Elijah is taken up into
(Elijah and Elisha, GJS
Kgdms 2:11).
Motifs from the Elijah narrative abound in the New Testament.
32
Especially
31
For a detailed discussion on Sir 48 – 49, see R. Hildesheim, Prophet, op. cit; here especially pp. 92-
93.
32
Cf., for instance, the study of D.M. Hoffeditz, “A Prophet, a Kingdom, and a Messiah: The Portrayal
of Elijah in the Gospels in the Light of First-Century Judaism”, Unpublished PhD dissertation:
University of Aberdeen, 2000. Hoffeditz states that “Only YHWH is equated with ‘fire’ in the Hebrew
Scriptures. He is described as the embodiment of fire (e.g., Exod 24. 17; Deut 4. 24; Isa 30. 27-30;
and Ezek 22. 20-21), the source of fire in terms of judgment (e.g., Lev 10. 21; and 2 Kgs 2. 11). No
place in the Hebrew Scriptures is a prophet, a king, or even a priest described in such terms” (p. 21).
This needs closer refinement: firstly, YHWH as fire is not only limited to the Hebrew Scriptures, but
also in the Greek LXX translation; and secondly, the Lord’s “messengers” are not pictured
themselves as fire, but the Lord’s presence is mediated by these messengers through fire imagery,
e.g. Ps 104:4..
481
presentation of the Jesus narrative. It would be appropriate here, however, to
focus only on the Johannine literature, particularly on the Revelation of John. At
least two elements in Revelation remind of the Elijah motif: (a) It is reported
that Jezebeel, the chief persecutor in the Elijah narrative, now calls herself a
prophet (, , Rev 2:20),
33
and (b) that the
at signs, making fire to come down from
Rev 13:13)
34
b. Messengers as angels like fire
The most well-known occurrence in this regard where reference is made to
the winds your messengers, fire and flame your
important passage in view of the association with the seven spirits of God with
4:5, the
seven torches of fire burning before the throne are interpreted by John as the
35
-
you who inhabit eternity), before whom the hosts of angels stand trembling 22
and at whose command they are changed to wind and fire, whose word is sure
, Mal 3:1) connect the motifs of proclamation and fire imagery: he
, 3:1); he is
, 3:2).
36
This motif surfaces clearly in Rev 10:1-
coming down from heaven, wrapped in a cloud, with a rainbow over his head;
his face was like the sun, and his legs like pillars of fire. He held a little scroll
33
“The choice of the epithet, Jezebel, and references to fornication and eating things sacrificed to idols
indicate a first-century parallel with the wicked queen of Ahab who fostered in Israel the idolatrous
worship of the Canaanite Baal (I Kgs 16:29 ff; II Kgs 9:30 ff)” (H.R. Mounce, Revelation, 102).
34
H.R. Mounce, Revelation, 260.
35
D.E. Aune, Revelation 1 – 5:14 (WBC 52A; Dallas: Word Books, 1998) 34.
36
P.B. Lee refers, for instance, to Luke 3:17, “which alludes to Mal. 3:2 and 4:1, (and which) describes
eschatological purgation and judgment” (“Eschatological Figures,” 222).
482
37
At other places in the New Testament, the radiance of
very similar to what
happened with Moses whose face was shining when he came down from Mount
Sinai (Exod 34:29). The most striking New Testament examples are probably to
white robe (
n, whose
, 28:2-
, 24:4).
c. Fire and prophetic speech – voices and tongues
If fire is understood as the presence of God, then the message of God is closely
connected with the presence of fire.
prophets as messengers closely connected with the miraculous and frightening
role of fire is evident from the survey above. This was noted, for instance, in the
Pentateuch when an angel of the Lord speaks through the burning bush with
mountain, out of the fire. At that time I was standing between the Lord and you
to declare to you the words of the Lord; for you were afraid because of the fire
and did not go -5). Some Psalms too, captured this
:7). But the following statements in Jeremiah
that link fire and prophetic speech
38
from God are particularly interesting:
39
(Jer 20:9)
37
H.R. Mounce pointed out that “Some commentators have taken the strong angel to be Christ,” but
that “This identification is rejected by most because in the Apocalypse Christ never appears as an
angel” (Revelation, 207).
38
Cf. H.M. Barstad & R.G. Kratz (eds), Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,
2009.
39
“True prophecy is like fire, producing violent results (Jer 23:29); Jeremiah’s own life is a testimony of
this” (National Conference of Catholic Bishops, The New American Bible, 1996).
483
LORD, and like a hammer that breaks
29).
Also Ezra
responding to the voice that called him, Ezra is told to open his mouth and drink
poured forth understanding, and wisdom increased in my breast, for my spirit
retained its memory
(14:40-41).
In the New Testament, the imagery of fire and divine speech found its
-4) an
image with similarities in Stoicism.
40
3. Conclusion
This investigation attempted to present a brief survey of the interjection between
the occurrences of fire imagery and its connections with prophecy as Theophany
in the Greek Old Testament and with reference to the Revelation of John. Fire
imagery frequently serves as a Leitmotif
physical sign of his radiance.
The survey above mad
closely connected with his message as part of his divine revelation. It was
established that this developed in one of two directions: sometimes with
and judgement, i.e.
during the process of the purification of his creation, although at other times
of involvement and care, i.e. during the process of his glorification. The first of
these, fire as a message of purification, could particularly be seen in the
Revelation of John where the motif builds up to the ultimate revelation of Christ.
The second of these, fire as a message of glorification, could be noticed in the
40
Cf. J.C. Thom: “God as ordering and creative principle is physically present in all things as a fine,
fiery substance, variously called the “designing fire” (pyr technikon) or pneuma (“breath” or “spirit,” a
fiery form of air), which gives everything its form and internal cohesion” (s.v. “Stoicism”, in C.A.
Evans & S.E. Porter (eds), Dictionary of New Testament Background [Leicester: InterVarsity Press,
2000] electronic edition).
484
mediatory
41
Especially Elijah and Malachi presented
Elijah narratives, to the motif of fire from heaven. Furthermore, the connection
between fire imagery and prophetic speech was observed in the roles of angels
tongues of these divine intermediaries that became like fire.
It can be concluded that the connection between fire imagery and prophecy
can be clearly observed in the Old Testament literature and that this connection
is carried through into the Revelation of John. The fact of this connection could
even be summarized in the statement that the mere presence of fire often
functions as the revelatory presence of God and that this in itself serves as
prophecy
42
either as a message of purification or of glorification. In this sense,
41
Cf. H.M. Barstad: “Divination was performed in a variety of ways (auditions, visions, dreams, or other
techniques), but always through an intermediary, a ‘seer’ or a ‘prophet’, a ‘priest’, or other, more
‘technical’ cultic personnel” (“What Prophets Do. Reflections on Past Reality in the Book of
Jeremiah”, in H.M. Barstad & R.G. Kratz [eds], Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah [Berlin: Walter de
Gruyter, 2009] 10-32, here 27).
42
“Prophecy as it appears in the biblical texts (‘biblical prophecy’) is a literary construct related to the
historical phenomenon of prophetic intermediation (‘ancient Hebrew prophecy’) but not identical with
it” (M. Nissinen, “The Historical Dilemma of Biblical Prophetic Studies”, in H.M. Barstad & R.G. Kratz
(eds), Prophecy, 103-120, here 114).