Article

Study of Odours Coming Out of Polyurethane Flexible Foam Mattresses

Authors:
  • Independent Researcher
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Quality of life in Western populations is becoming an ever-growing concern. Higher demands are made in regard to for example comfort and safety. Low emissions of volatile organic compounds and odour criteria have become key performance requirements in most applications. To address this issue, the entire supply chain, from producers to end-users attempts to find ways and means to identify, understand and reduce unexpected emissions and odours. Standard test methods have been developed for the evaluation of a wide range of product/materials emissions. A wide variety of experimental techniques as well as instrumental methods have been used for the sampling and the identification/quantification of volatile components emitted by materials. Work reported here includes the sensory and chemical evaluation of volatiles at low concentration levels (usually in the ppm or even the ppb range). This paper describes the work conducted by EUROPUR (European Association of Flexible Polyurethane Foam Block Manufacturers) for the identification of odour emanating from PU samples. The data shown in this work gives some evidence for the potential contribution of very minor compounds emitted by PU samples to the odour. GC-MS-olfactometry was used to determine which components of the complex mixture of VOCs were primarily responsible for the perceived odour.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Odor sensitivity was also suggested to be associated with migraines, poor sleep, and intolerance of certain foods (dairy products) [14]. In a previous study using the GC-MS-O method on four viscoelastic foams (PU, polyurethane), assessing which type of odor (fruity, burnt, ammonia, and others) is due to which chemical compound was tried, and no long-term and repeated-use scenarios were tested [15,16]. ...
... Rating 1 ("I do not like") was ethyl acetate, benzene, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, N,N-dimethyl-2-aminoethanol, hexanal, and butyl acetate. The negative results (unpleasant) assessed by panelists could not be directly compared with a similar study by Hillier et al. (2009), in which they used the terminologies like amine, acrid, fruity, fishy, burnt, and caramel with no inclusion of intensity criteria [16]. ...
... Rating 1 ("I do not like") was ethyl acetate, benzene, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, N,N-dimethyl-2-aminoethanol, hexanal, and butyl acetate. The negative results (unpleasant) assessed by panelists could not be directly compared with a similar study by Hillier et al. (2009), in which they used the terminologies like amine, acrid, fruity, fishy, burnt, and caramel with no inclusion of intensity criteria [16]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Polymeric foams are the primary components of upholstered furniture, and their emissions play a decisive role in the acceptability of the final furniture product. This study is focused on passive emissions and odors from commercial foams under normal and repeated-use conditions. Six different types of foams, viz., highly elastic foam K5040, standard PU foam N5063, bonded polyurethane foam R100, viscoelastic foam V5020, self-extinguishing foam KF5560, and foam rubber, were used. The samples were collected at the intervals of 72 hours and 672 hours (28 days) to identify the odors due to chemical reactions in the material or slowly released due to its porous structure. Additionally, repeated-use studies were done to understand the effect of prolonged usage/natural ageing on emitted odors from the foams. The samples were tested as per ČSN EN 13 725 (2005) and ISO 16000-6 (2011) criteria using GC-FID (gas chromatography-flame ionization detector) and olfactometry. The most unpleasant substance was found to be nonanal, with an average score of -4 (unpleasant). A total of 23 compounds were identified (5 unidentified) using olfactometry; however, only 11 of them were confirmed by GC-FID-based testing. Any new compound or increase in odor intensity was not observed in long-term measurements and simulated repeated-use conditions.
... Studies have indicated that polyurethane foam mattresses can emit formaldehyde and a range of VOCs and semi-VOCs, including phthalates, isocyanates, and flame retardants Anderson, 1999, 2000;Hillier et al., 2003Hillier et al., , 2009Arnold et al., 2012;Laverge et al., 2013;Boor et al., 2014Boor et al., , 2015Boor et al., , 2017Oz et al., 2019). Two of the studies that reported emission rates of ΣVOCs from memory foam mattresses based on chamber testing (Boor et al., 2014;Oz et al., 2019). ...
... Conceptually, the emission of residual unreacted volatile chemicals from dry materials reflects an initial short-term and relatively rapid near-surface partitioning of chemical to air, as well as much slower, long-term molecular diffusion processes, transporting the chemical within the material to the surface prior to partitioning (Yang et al., 2001). Thus, only those chemicals that were 1) detected at least once in the Short-Term Off-Gas Period at 24-h concentrations exceeding the 24-h background concentration, and 2) that have been associated with foam mattresses (; Hillier et al., 2003Hillier et al., , 2009Arnold et al., 2012;Laverge et al., 2013;Boor et al., 2014Boor et al., , 2015Boor et al., , 2017Oz et al., 2019), were considered to be study-related. ...
Article
Chemical emissions from two new memory foam mattresses were evaluated in a simulated consumer use environment over the course of 32 days. Passive 12- and 24-h samples (n = 62) were collected for various VOCs. Airborne concentrations of chemicals associated with the mattresses (2-propanol, acetone, chloromethane, toluene, and ΣVOC) peaked during the first day after installation and progressively decayed over the course of the following 31 days. Emission rates were derived using a two-phase double exponential source decay model paired with a one-compartment generalized indoor air quality model; short- and long-term emission half-lives for individual chemicals were on the order of hours (approximately 4 or 12 h) and days (approximately 24 days), respectively. Model-estimated average ΣVOC concentrations for the 32-day period of the study were approximately 20 and 33 μg/m³ for Mattress 1 and 2, respectively, while the modeled one-year average concentrations were 2.7 and 4.2 μg/m³, respectively. First-year trends for both mattresses were qualitatively similar, with the sum of 2-propanol, acetone, chloromethane, and toluene contributing to approximately 81% and 95% of the first-year ΣVOC concentration of Mattress 1 and 2, respectively. The airborne concentrations of individual chemicals and ΣVOC measured and modeled in this study were well below available health-based benchmarks for the individual chemicals and within available indoor air quality recommendations for ΣVOC, suggesting that it is unlikely that the use of the brands of mattresses evaluated in this study would pose a health risk to consumers.
... nitrobenzene; 1-methyl-2-ethylbenzne; b-ocimene [135] Soft upholstery foam Air: 1-chloro-2-propanol Not reported 23 C: 150 (24 h) Air: 1,2-dichloropropane 23 C: 10 (24 h) Air: TVOCs 23 C: < 10 (168 h) 6.-7. Hillier et al. (2003Hillier et al. ( , 2009) [64,65] Mattress foam Air (selected compounds): dichloromethane; 2-methyl-2-propenal; hexane; 1-butanol; toluene; styrene; 1,3-dioxane; 1,4-dioxane; dodecane; DEP; methylcyclopentane; 3-methyl hexane; trimethylpentene; m-xylene; p-xylene; ethylbenzene; 3-methyl-nonane; limonene; ethanol; butanal; ethyl acetate; heptane; trichloroethylene; trimethyl-silanol; siloxane; tetrakis(trimethylsiloxy)silane; dodecamethyl; phenyl methyl ester formic acid; benzaldehyde; tetrachloroethene; 4-methyl-morpholine; 2,2,1,3- dioxolane; 3-methyl-pentane; 2-propenal; butanamine; n,n dimethylethanolamine; 1-chloro-2-propanol [145] Infant sleep positioners Product: TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, V6 >1 Not reported Crib mattresses Product: TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, V6, U-OPFR, TPP, TBB/TBPH, PentaBDE Nursing pillows Product: TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, V6 11. Vangronsveld et al. (2013) [162] Flexible polyurethane foam Product and Air: 2,4-toluene diisocyanate 11 ? ...
... nitrobenzene; 1-methyl-2-ethylbenzne; b-ocimene [135] Soft upholstery foam Air: 1-chloro-2-propanol Not reported 23 C: 150 (24 h) Air: 1,2-dichloropropane 23 C: 10 (24 h) Air: TVOCs 23 C: < 10 (168 h) 6.-7. Hillier et al. (2003Hillier et al. ( , 2009) [64,65] Mattress foam Air (selected compounds): dichloromethane; 2-methyl-2-propenal; hexane; 1-butanol; toluene; styrene; 1,3-dioxane; 1,4-dioxane; dodecane; DEP; methylcyclopentane; 3-methyl hexane; trimethylpentene; m-xylene; p-xylene; ethylbenzene; 3-methyl-nonane; limonene; ethanol; butanal; ethyl acetate; heptane; trichloroethylene; trimethyl-silanol; siloxane; tetrakis(trimethylsiloxy)silane; dodecamethyl; phenyl methyl ester formic acid; benzaldehyde; tetrachloroethene; 4-methyl-morpholine; 2,2,1,3- dioxolane; 3-methyl-pentane; 2-propenal; butanamine; n,n dimethylethanolamine; 1-chloro-2-propanol [145] Infant sleep positioners Product: TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, V6 >1 Not reported Crib mattresses Product: TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, V6, U-OPFR, TPP, TBB/TBPH, PentaBDE Nursing pillows Product: TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, V6 11. Vangronsveld et al. (2013) [162] Flexible polyurethane foam Product and Air: 2,4-toluene diisocyanate 11 ? ...
Article
We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping, yet little is known as to how human exposure to indoor air pollutants during sleep impacts human health and sleep quality. This paper provides a literature review of the current state-of-knowledge pertaining to human inhalation and dermal exposures while sleeping. An analysis of the duration of sleep exposure periods is provided, demonstrating that the sleep microenvironment is the predominant indoor space where humanity spends most of its time. Mattress dust is found to contain a diverse spectrum of biological particles and particle-bound chemical contaminants and their concentrations in dust can span many orders of magnitude among bed samples. These dust particles can become airborne through particle resuspension associated with body movements in bed. Mattress foam and covers, pillows, and bed frames can emit a variety of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds, including phthalate plasticizers and organophosphate flame retardants, and emission rates can increase due to localized elevations in surface temperature and moisture near the bed due to close contact with the human body. This literature review demonstrates that human exposures to mattress-released pollutants can be amplified due to the source-proximity effect inherent to the sleep microenvironment, where the human body and breathing zone are in close and intimate contact with potential pollutant sources for prolonged periods. Given the findings of this review, human exposures to indoor air pollutants in the sleep microenvironment should receive more attention and future research is needed to fully understand how sleep exposures affect human health and sleep quality.
... Silicone surfactants (siloxanes) can also contribute to VOC and FOG emissions from foams [36]. A few studies reported the presence of different cyclosiloxane molecules in the VOC content of different polyurethanes [37][38][39]. Other additives, as potential emission causing factors, have been relatively less studied in the literature. ...
... In recent years, concern has been raised about the smell of rubber and its possible health implications due to the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from foam materials used for bedding products [11,12]. In addition, odourless foam materials with reduced emissions of VOCs have become desirable in the bedding industries [36,37]. Unlike ERP and ERC, where allergic reactions can occur when the substances are in contact with skin, VOCs are chemicals that move to the gaseous phase, particularly at higher temperatures. ...
Article
Full-text available
Currently, there is significant demand for pillows with improved pressure-relief features made from natural materials, alternatives to petrochemical-based foams. To meet the requirements, this study’s approach is to develop latex foam pillows from deproteinized natural rubber (DPNR) latex with a unique dual-density cervical-shaped structure. In this work, DPNR latex foam pillows were produced at three different density levels which are high-density, medium-density and low-density. Extractable protein content of latex foam made from DPNR was confirmed lower than latex foam made from low ammonia NR latex (LATZ) and of commercial NR latex foams, making DPNR pillows more hypoallergenic than others. The physical properties of the produced DPNR latex foams were examined in accordance with Malaysian Standard MS679, and were found to comply with all requirements stipulated in standard specifications. A novel dual-density cervical-shaped DPNR latex foam pillow prototype was produced, where the pillow has lower density at the upper part and higher density at the lower part. Pressure-mapping was used to visualize the pressure distribution patterns and to measure the average peak pressure when a mannequin head was placed on top of the pillow. The study observed that decreasing the density increases the softness of the DPNR latex foam. Softer latex foams led to larger surface contact area, and hence a reduced average peak pressure value. This cervical-shaped structure further increased the surface contact area between the pillow and mannequin head, and thus reduced further the average peak pressure value.
... Polyurethane foam, both rigid and flexible, are among the most widely used polymer foams. Polyurethane foam and molded materials have a wide range of industrial applications, including packaging, seat cushions during transportation, insulation, and furniture [18][19][20][21][22]. Polyurethanes are very flammable and emit a lot of smoke when burning [23][24][25]. ...
Article
The present review summarizes the research work of flame retardant coatings on polyurethane flexible foam in particular, this review highlights the different type of flame retardant and their preparation, characterisation methods.
... Studies that quantified VOCs emission rates from mattresses are quite limited 8 and yet most VOCs detected in this study were also reported in previous studies on polyurethane mattresses. 11,16,17 The highest emission fluxes in all tested mattresses were obtained for 2-ethylhexanoic acid, reaching in some cases above 190 μg/(m 2 ·h). The observed flux range of 2-ethylhexanoic acid is well inside the range reported by Boor et al. 11 for crib mattresses. ...
Article
Sleeping microenvironment (SME), is characterized by higher temperature, humidity, and CO 2 concentration. Emission of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in SME is important considering the long duration people spend there with high proximity between their respiration inlets and potential emission sources, such as bedding material. This study concentrates on the influence of SME conditions on VOC emissions from polyurethane mattresses, and provides first approximation for inhalation exposure during sleep, based on measured emissions. Eight types of polyurethane mattresses were tested in a parallel continues-flow chamber system, to compare between VOC emission under different temperature, relative humidity, and CO 2 concentrations. Contribution of mattress covers to emission fluxes was also examined. Eighteen VOCs were quantified with fluxes ranging from 10 ^−4 to 10 ^−1 mg/(h·m ^−2). Under sleeping conditions VOC emissions increased significantly. Elevated heat seems to be the major contributor to the enhanced emissions, compared to elevated relative humidity and CO 2 concentration. Exposure levels estimated for sleeping child/infant indicate that SME can be a significant contributor to VOC exposure, yielding concerning exposure levels for few compounds. Furthermore, the present study demonstrates the strong dependency of sleeping person exposure on air exchange rate between his breathing zone and bedroom air (λ BZ).
Article
Full-text available
Flexible polyurethane (PU) materials find extensive use in upholstery, mattresses, and automobiles, yet the molecular background of their odor is still inadequately understood. To address this gap, we aimed at identifying major odorants in fifteen samples representing eight common types of flexible PU materials. The volatiles isolated from the samples were subjected to activity-guided screening via gas chromatography-olfactometry. Structures were assigned by comparing odor, retention data, and mass spectra to those of authentic reference compounds. This approach led to the identification of 50 odorants, 39 of which had not previously been described in PU. The odorants belonged to a wide range of compound classes, including tertiary amines, fatty acid oxidation products, short-chain aldehydes, trioxocanes, pyrazines, aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocycles, chlorinated compounds, phenol derivatives, fragrance compounds, and nitriles. For some odorants, further insights were gained into their origins and release behavior. For example, the odorous 1,4-dimethylpiperazine had been used as a catalyst, and propanal was shown to be not only a PU odorant but also the precursor of an odor-active trioxocane. Additionally, the quantitation of acetaldehyde and propanal suggested their continuous regeneration from the samples. While the sources of other compounds still have to be clarified, the data obtained in this study could pave the way for odor reduction strategies in the production of PU materials, ultimately resulting in an improved odor and consumer experience.
Chapter
Polyurethanes (PUs) are world-class versatile materials with great potential for industries, given characteristics like enhanced flame retardancy. Specifically, biological, physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of PUs have motivated researchers and manufacturers to tailor PUs to make them suitable and attractive materials. PUs are extensively used for automotive materials, carpeting, furniture, and so on for their lower density, remarkable thermal insulation, and substantial resistance properties toward harmful chemicals or toxicity. The effective fabrication of PU-based materials through tuning their production methods and raw materials is highly significant in making them usable. However, PUs possess some threats for the environment and health because of hazardous complexities, especially for living species. These could be minimized dramatically with functionalization through use of some chemical reagents, like incorporation of flame retardants (FRs). This can turn materials more environmentally friendly and sustainable. This study discusses PUs and their derivatives, synthesizing protocols, relevant chemistry, characteristics, incorporation with numerous FRs, and associated technologies. This work also investigates the merits and demerits of different FRs used for coating PUs industrially, along with their prominent marketing potential and applications through ensuring the demand toward sustainable products.
Article
Scalable and transparent polyether-based waterborne polyurethane (WPU) thin films that adhere firmly to Al nanofilm but not to PET film without release agents have been designed and prepared. In order to realize cleaner production, eco-friendly acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) instead of toxic additives like N-methylpyrrolidone was introduced into polymerization system as both an effective dispersant of dimethylolpropionic acid crystal as hydrophilic chain extender and a viscosity thinner of the synthesized precursors to promote homogeneous hydrophilic extension reaction in the absence of toxic catalysts. The appropriate ATBC and dimethylolpropionic acid contents are critical to formation of stable translucent dispersion of the WPU with total hard segments as high as 56 wt% at -NCO/-OH molar ratio of 1.05. Molecular structure and ATBC existence of the WPU film have been characterized by IR, NMR, gas chromatography, and thermogravimetry, suggesting that ATBC will not release into the environment even if at 140°C because of its high boiling point and ultralow volatility. The reserved ATBC in the WPU film also acts as an effective plasticizer and lubricant so that the WPU film can be quickly peeled off from PET. The lowest T-peel strength of 1.3 N m⁻¹ on PET is achieved for the WPU film with a high tensile strength of 15.8 MPa and a medium elongation at break of 237%. The WPU films have tunable stickiness onto PET film from sticky to completely nonsticky. Importantly, the WPU films offer simultaneously strong adhesion to Al nanofilm and high thermal stability but high peelability from the PET, allowing to fabricate a stable holographic/photolithographic composite film by Al deposition at >1000°C and ensure high flatness and luster of the composite film. Optimal formulations of WPU materials with high comprehensive performance including good film-processability, ultralow VOC emission, high mechanical and thermal properties, controllable surface tension, and tunable adhesion to Al nanofilm have been proposed for transferable holographic films.
Article
The combined use of phosphorus flame retardants with smoke suppression agents in flexible polyurethane foams was studied. Cone results of the obtained flexible foams strongly support "synergism". With 15 pbw of phosphorus FR, Antiblaze® 230, in the PUR formulation, the peak heat release rate was reduced by 23%, while 5 pbw of smoke suppression agent, zinc stannate, only reduced the PHRR by 14%. However, the combined use of Antiblaze® 230 with zinc stannate reduced the PHRR of the resulting PUR foams by over 40%. Furthermore, images of the cone residues indicated that the burning mode of PUR foams is changed when ZS and Antiblaze® 230 are used together. The addition of Antiblaze® 230 increases smoke production of PUR foams, but the combined use of ZS or ZHS with Antiblaze® 230 significantly reduces smoke generation. Flame retardant flexible foams are also successfully obtained among PURs with inorganic aerogels, as well as with the combination of aerogel and FRs, which follow a different flame retardant mechanism. Aerogel acts as an inactive supporting material to the foam during the burning process, which can significantly reduce the apparent exposed surface area of the flammable materials. As a result, remarkable reduction in heat release rates can be achieved. It is also found that the time to ignition can be delayed as much as 320 seconds by the foams from this approach.
Chapter
Flame retardant flexible polyurethane foams were developed through four different approaches including the utilization of inorganic flame retardant, phosphorus-containing flame retardants, a combination of phosphorus compounds and inorganic additives, and the combination of phosphorus compounds and reactive silicone. Cone results of the obtained flexible foams strongly support "synergism" among the combined systems. With 15 pbw of phosphorus FR, Antiblaze® 230, an alkyl arylphosphate/phosphonate, in PUR, the peak heat release rate was reduced by 23% However, the combined use of Antiblaze® 230 with zinc stannate (ZS) reduced the PHRR of the resulting PUR foams by over 40%. Moreover, the combined use of ZS or zinc hydorxystannate (ZHS) with Antiblaze® 230 significantly reduces smoke generation. Flame retardant flexible foams are also successfully obtained with functionalized silicone component, and with the combination of silicone and phosphorus-containing FR, which follow a different flame retardant mechanism.
Article
This chapter will focus on the performance of ventilation, both in reducing adverse effects of indoor air on building occupants and in reducing the energy required for this. The first section of the chapter elaborates on the adverse effects stemming from airborne pollution: why do we need fresh air? The next section than explores the specific merits and limitations of ventilation as a strategy to renew air, while the last section focuses on the different ventilation concepts and their performance. The main focus in that section is on technologies that allow to reduce ventilation heat loss without increasing the exposure of occupants to airborne pollutants, more specifically air-to-air heat exchangers, exhaust air heat pumps (EAHP) and demand-controlled ventilation.
Article
There is very little information about human exposure to gaseous indoor air pollutants in the sleeping environment, even though the conditions in this environment are at least worrisome. The exposure during sleep is characterized by long exposure time, both absolute and relative, prevalence of specific pollutants and uncustomary proximity of sources to the breathing zone. This paper reports experimental results that show the impact of the proximity of possible emission sources such as a mattress, pillow and toy, on exposure of the sleeping subjects to these emissions. Based on full scale experiments in an environmental chamber using a breathing thermal manikin the intake fraction for gaseous pollutants are measured as well as the occurrence of rebreathing. Intake fractions for several sleep positions as well as different bedding arrangements are reported. The results show that human metabolism and corresponding heat release by the human body are dominant factors in the dilution of pollutants emitted in close proximity of the nose, reducing exposure by 40% compared to a case without metabolic heat output. This effect is more important than the sleep position. An important finding is that sleeping with the head under the covers increases intake by a factor 24 and results in a rebreathing rate of over 60%.
Article
Emissions of volatile species from flexible polyurethane foam mattresses were investigated by using large scale chamber tests designed to replicate the product use as mattress cores. Various trace impurities were identified and their concentrations were measured for input into a human health and toxicity risk assessment, which has concluded that none was injurious to health. The raw materials used to make the foam were analysed to identify the source of emanations and routes to their reduction or elimination. Several analytical artefacts were identified, and some recommendations made for their avoidance. Detailed product knowledge was essential to the reliable interpretation of analytical data. A quantitative risk assessment was carried out on each of the volatiles. No evidence of any human health risk was identified from the 'worst-case ' exposure model employed.
Article
Cited By (since 1996): 51, Export Date: 8 January 2013, Source: Scopus, CODEN: JSSCC, doi: 10.1002/jssc.200500509, PubMed ID: 17069240, Language of Original Document: English, Correspondence Address: Delahunty, C.M.; Department of Food Science, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand; email: conor.delahunty@stonebow.otago.ac.nz, References: Blank, I., (2002) Flavor, Fragrance and Odor Analysis (Food Science and Technology), 115, pp. 297-331. , in: Marsili. R. (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA;
  • Leland J.V.
Reduced emanations using non-fugitive catalysts for flexible foams
  • H Wendels
  • Fard-Aghaier
  • A Mercandol
  • D Tobiasj
  • G Knissj
  • J Degenfeldere