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Diet- A new approach to treating endometriosis – What is the evidence?

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IOSR Journal of Nursing and Health Science (IOSR-JNHS)
e-ISSN: 23201959.p- ISSN: 23201940 Volume 1, Issue 5 (Jul Aug 2013), PP 04-11
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Diet A New Approach To Treating Endometriosis What Is The
Evidence?
Deepa Shaji Thomas1 , Jansi Rani Natarajan2
1 ( College Of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman )
2( College Of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman)
I. INTRODUCTION
Endometriosis affects over 70 million women worldwide and is more common than breast cancer and
diabetes. A survey in 2005 showed that in the European Union, endometriosis cost member states more than
€30bn a year in lost working days, and of the 7025 women with endometriosis who completed the survey, 82%
reported that the condition had caused them to take time off work in the past five years. Endometriosis is a
gynecological disorder characterized by the presence and growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity1.
The prevalence of endometriosis among asymptomatic women ranges from 222%, while in women with
infertility the incidence of endometriosis is 35% to 50%2. This pathology represents one of the most frequent
gynecological disorders during women's reproductive age. Endometriosis is a hormone-dependent, chronic
inflammatory gynaecological condition that causes pelvic pain symptoms impacting on the physical, mental and
social wellbeing of reproductive-age women (Bianconi et al., 2007)3. Despite the high prevalence, which has been
estimated to be between 610% (Parazzini et al., 1994)4 and the recognized economic burden associated with the
disease (Simoens et al., 2012)5, its aetiology remains elusive. Various pathogenetic factors menstrual, genetic,
environmental, lifestyle have been claimed to be implicated in the disease establishment and development
(Viganò et al., 20046 and Viganò et al., 20127).
The precise pathogenesis of endometriosis is unclear, and several theories have been proposed.
Retrograde menstruation is widely accepted as a contributing factor to the disease but, as the phenomenon occurs
in up to 90% of women, other factors in the pathogenesis of the disease have been suggested8. The immune
response to endometriotic tissue outside the uterus seems to be impaired with inadequate removal of lesions as a
result.
Increased exposure to oestrogens is a common link among several known risk factors for endometriosis.
Local oestrogen production coupled with circulating oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of ectopic endometrial
tissue potentially leading to endometriosis9. Menarche at early age, shorter menstrual cycle length, nulliparity and
greater height are all risk factors for endometriosis that are also associated with increased levels of circulating
oestrogen concentrations10.
The risk of endometriosis is increased up to five times in siblings indicating that a genetic component is
involved11 . An autoimmune aetiology has also been implied12 and , and exposure to environmental toxins has
been suggested although results are not consistent13 .
Dietary factors have been the focus of a growing number of endometriosis patient-directed books and
web-sites. Unfortunately, there is little direct scientific evidence to support these suggestions. Diet may have a
role in the aetiology of endometriosis through its influence on steroid hormone levels, among other potential
mechanisms. Some observational studies have shown that plant-based diets and diets high in fibre increase
oestrogen excretion and decrease concentrations of bioavailable oestrogen, and thus may lower endometriosis
risk. Additionally, high-fat diets have been associated with increased serum oestrone, oestrone sulphate and
oestradiol levels in premenopausal women, suggesting that diets low in fat and high in fibre may modify
endometriosis risk by altering steroid hormone metabolism.
The role of nutrition in determining the establishment and progression of endometriosis has recently
become a topic of interest, mostly due to the observation that some of the physiological and pathological
processes associated with the disease, such as inflammation, oestrogen activity, menstrual cyclicity,
organochlorine burden and prostaglandin metabolism, can be influenced by diet (Missmer et al., 2010)14. scientific
research has demonstrated that diet and fat excess may strongly affect the incidence. Antioxidant properties of
nutritional supplementation are associated with a significant reduction in inflammatory endometriosis-related
markers, and with a suppressive effect on the endometrial-cell survival in vitro15. Two studies have found a
positive association between oxidative stress and endometriosis. Reactive oxygen species may affect the growth
of endometrial tissue. The presence of endometriosis increased oxidative stress and depletion of antioxidants may
Submitted date 17 June 2013 Accepted Date: 22 June 2013
Diet A New Approach To Treating Endometriosis What Is The Evidence?
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contribute to excessive growth of endometrial cells. Significantly, lower levels of vitamin E were found in the
peritoneal fluid than in plasma, suggesting that the peritoneal cavity has less antioxidant protection than serum, so
the fluid containing the endometriosis might be more susceptible to oxidative stress. Antioxidant nutrients such as
the vitamins A, C and E may be supportive.
Increased oxidative stress, a result of increased production of free radicals or depletion of the body’s
endogenous antioxidant defense, has been implicated in its pathogenesis. Oxidative stress is thought to promote
angiogenesis and the growth and proliferation of endometriotic implants. Oxidative stress in the reproductive tract
microenvironment is known to negatively affect sperm count and quality and may also arrest fertilized egg
division leading to embryo death16.
Considering the high prevalence of the disease and its difficult diagnosis and therapeutic management as
a result of its complex pathogenesis, which is yet to be fully clarified, a question has been raised regarding
whether women affected by endometriosis have certain nutritional peculiarities . The objectives of this review
were to assess a possible association between dietary components and endometriosis from the existing literature
and, if possible, to identify potential modifiable risk factors of the disease and to specify dietary recommendations
for women suffering with this enigmatic gynecologic disorder.
II. Aims And Methods
A search for relevant studies was conducted. The databases used for researches were: CINAHL, Medline
plus, Science Direct, SCOPUS,& PubMed. The following search terms were used: endometriosis and related
factors like diet, fat, dairy products, fish, coffee and antioxidants .The inclusion criteria required the articles to be
written in English &the studies on human beings only. The dates for the search were 2003-2013.
A total of 255 articles were identified by electronic searches , 110 articles were excluded for citation
duplication and 92 were excluded based on abstracts and titles. 20 of which were full text articles focusing on
endometriosis and diet. We excluded 8 articles , as 4 were based on serum levels of nutrients, 2 were animal
studies and the other 2 were review articles. With detailed inspection and evaluation of the articles, 12 articles met
the inclusion criteria.
A synthesis table was developed describing the characteristics of the studies used in the figure 1. The
data extracted for the synthesis of the table included author, country, year, participants, methods, instruments
study purpose and main findings.
III. Analysis Of Findings
Two authors reviewed the papers and independently selected the articles eligible for the review. If
multiple published reports from a same study were available, we included only one with the most detailed
information, or published more recently. Data were extracted by 2 investigators and discrepancies were resolved
by discussion.
3.1 Results
A total of 12 studies conducted in 6 countries like USA-5, Italy-3, Japan-1, Mexico-1, Belgium-1, and
Brazil-1 met the inclusion criteria for this review. The articles were published between the years 2003-2012.
Details of all these quantitative studies are shown in Table.1. Majority of the studies were case control studies -
4,one cohort study, 3 retrospective studies, 1 randomized experimental study, comparative studies-2, single
blinded clinical study. Majority of the studies used FFQ (Food frequency questionnaire) to assess the dietary
intake. Clinical trials used lab values of anti-oxidant markers additionally to assess their dietary patterns.
Holly R. Harris et al.,(2013)17 investigated whether intake of dairy foods, nutrients concentrated in dairy
foods, and predicted plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels were associated with incident
laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis among 1,385 cases. Intakes of total and low-fat dairy foods were
associated with a lower risk of endometriosis. Women consuming more than 3 servings of total dairy foods per
day were 18% less likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis than those reporting 2 servings per day (rate ratio =
0.82, 95% confidence interval: 0.71, 0.95; P trend = 0.03). In addition, predicted plasma 25(OH)D level was
inversely associated with endometriosis. Women in the highest quintile of predicted vitamin D level had a 24%
lower risk of endometriosis than women in the lowest quintile (rate ratio = 0.76, 95% confidence interval: 0.60,
0.97; P trend = 0.004). Findings suggested that greater predicted plasma 25(OH)D levels and higher intake of
dairy foods are associated with a decreased risk of endometriosis.
Marziali et al.,(2012)18, conducted a retrospective study to evaluate the effectiveness of gluten-free diet
for 12 months on endometriosis-related pain and quality of life in patients with endometriosis-related chronic
pelvic pain. Two hundred and seven patients with severe painful endometriosis-related symptoms entered the
study. At enrolment time, the baseline values of painful symptoms were assessed by Visual Analogue Scale
(VAS) for dysmenorrhoea, non-menstrual pelvic pain, and dyspareunia. A gluten-free diet was submitted to all
patients and a new evaluation was performed after 12 months of diet. Student t test was used for statistical
analysis. At 12 month follow-up, 156 patients (75%) reported statistically significant change in painful symptoms
Diet A New Approach To Treating Endometriosis What Is The Evidence?
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(P<0.005), 51 patients (25%) reported not improvement of symptoms. No patients reported worsening of pain. A
considerable increase of scores for all domains of physical functioning, general health perception, vitality, social
functioning, and mental health was observed in all patients (P<0.005).
Ana Luiza Savaris and Vivian F. do Amaral, (2011)19,conducted a study to assess the Nutrient intake,
anthropometric data and correlations with the systemic antioxidant capacity of women with pelvic endometriosis.
Twenty-five women with endometriosis and twenty controls were selected and evaluated to determine calorie and
nutrient intake, to obtain data on body composition and analyze antioxidant capacity by measuring total serum
thiol levels using DTNB (5,5′-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid). Mean total daily calorie intake in the women in the
endometriosis group was significantly higher than that of the women in the control group (p = 0.005). With
respect to nutrient intake, the only statistically significant difference found referred to a higher intake of fiber in
the endometriosis group and of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the control group (p < 0.05). They also found that
women with endometriosis were characterized by a greater prevalence of overweight, presented with a high intake
of calories and fiber, had lower intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and had reduction in systemic antioxidant
capacity. There was no correlation of antioxidant capacity with nutrient intake or overweight.
Britton Traberta et al.,(2010)20, evaluated dietary risk factors for endometriosis in a population-based
casecontrol study. Cases were 284 Group Health (GH) enrollees aged 1849 years with newly diagnosed,
surgically confirmed endometriosis. Controls were 660 randomly selected age-matched female GH enrollees
without a history of endometriosis. Nutrients and selected food groups were assessed using the Women's Health
Initiative FFQ. OR(odds ratio) of endometriosis risk associated with dietary exposures were estimated using
unconditional logistic regression and adjusted for identified covariates. Increased total fat consumption was
associated with decreased endometriosis risk (fourth quartile v. lowest: OR 0•5, 95 % CI 0•2, 1•0, P-trend =
0•12). Increased β-carotene consumption and servings/d of fruit were associated with increased risk (β-carotene
third quartile v. lowest: OR 1•7, 95 % CI 1•1, 2•6; fourth quartile v. lowest: OR 1•6, 95 % CI 1•0, 2•5, P-trend
0•16; fruit >2 servings/d v. < 1: OR 1•5, 95 % CI 1•0, 2•3, P-trend = 0•04). They also found a suggestion of
decreased endometriosis risk associated with the consumption of dairy products (2 servings/d v. ≤ 1: OR 0•6, >2
servings/d v. ≤ 1: OR 0•7), but this association was not statistically significant for the highest tertile.
Stacey A. Missmer et al.,(2010)21, investigated the relation between dietary fat intake and the risk of
endometriosis in a retrospective study, among 1199 cases of laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis. They used
Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for total energy intake, parity, race and body mass index at age 18, and
assessed cumulatively averaged fat intake across the three diet questionnaires. Although total fat consumption was
not associated with endometriosis risk, those women in the highest fifth of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid
consumption were 22% less likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis compared with those with the lowest fifth
of intake [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.620.99; P-value, test for linear trend (Pt) = 0.03]. In addition, those
in the highest quintile of trans-unsaturated fat intake were 48% more likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis
(95% CI = 1.171.88; Pt = 0.001).
In the study by Jennifer Mier-Cabrera et al.,(2009)22, antioxidant intake among women with and without
endometriosis were compared. Women with (WEN, n = 83) and without endometriosis (WWE, n = 80) were
interviewed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire to compare their antioxidant intake (of vitamins and minerals).
Then, the WEN participated in the application of a control (n = 35) and high antioxidant diet (n = 37) for four
months. The high antioxidant diet (HAD) guaranteed the intake of 150% of the suggested daily intake of vitamin
A (1050 μg retinol equivalents), 660% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of vitamin C (500 mg) and 133%
of the RDI of vitamin E (20 mg). Oxidative stress and antioxidant markers (vitamins and antioxidant enzymatic
activity) were determined in plasma every month. Comparison of antioxidant intake between WWE and WEN
showed a lower intake of vitamins A, C, E, zinc, and copper by WEN (p < 0.05, Mann Whitney Rank test). The
selenium intake was not statistically different between groups. During the study, the comparison of the 24-hour
recalls between groups showed a higher intake of the three vitamins in the HAD group. An increase in the vitamin
concentrations (serum retinol, alpha-tocopherol, leukocyte and plasma ascorbate) and antioxidant enzyme activity
(superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) as well as a decrease in oxidative stress markers
(malondialdehyde and lipid hydroperoxides) were observed in the HAD group after two months of intervention.
These phenomena were not observed in the control group.
Sesti et al., (2009)23 performed a randomized comparative trial to investigate the rate of recurrence of
endometriosis following laparoscopic surgery. Postoperatively, the women were divided into four groups who
received different treatments for 6 months: no treatment (placebo), gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogue
(GnRH-a), oral contraception or nutritional supplements including fish oils. After 18 months, transvaginal
ultrasonographic follow-up after surgery there was no significant difference in the recurrence rate between the
three treatment groups and the placebo group. Second-look laparoscopy was performed on a clinical basis and
confirmed the ultrasonographic suspicion of recurrence of endometrioma in all cases. A 6-month course of
hormonal suppression treatment or dietary therapy after laparoscopic cystectomy had no significant effect on the
recurrence rate of ovarian endometriosis when compared with surgery plus placebo.
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Masaki Tsuchiya.,(2007)24, examined associations among soy isoflavone intake, estrogen receptor 2
(ESR2) gene polymorphisms and risk of endometriosis among women of age 2045 years old. A total of 138
eligible women were diagnosed laparoscopically and classified into 3 subgroups: control (no endometriosis), early
endometriosis (stage III) and advanced endometriosis (stage IIIIV). Urinary levels of genistein and daidzein
were measured as markers for dietary intake of soy isoflavones, and genotyped ESR2 gene RsaI polymorphisms.
Higher levels of urinary genistein and daidzein were associated with decreased risk of advanced endometriosis (P
for trend 0.01 and 0.06, respectively) but not early endometriosis. For advanced endometriosis, the adjusted
odds ratio for the highest quartile group was 0.21 (95% confidence interval 0.060.76) for genistein and 0.29
(0.08 1.03) for daidzein, when compared with the lowest group. Inverse associations were also noted between
urinary isoflavones and the severity of endometriosis (P for trend 0.01 for genistein and 0.07 for daidzein).
Jean Francois Heilier et al.,(2006)25, compared risk factors associated with both forms of the
endometriosis, with a particular attention to potential sources of organochlorine exposure. This matched case
control study with prospective recruitment included 88 triads (PEDENcontrol). All women were face-to-face
interviewed with FFQ, and serum dioxin and polychlorinated biphenyl measurements were available for 58 of
them. Alcohol consumption (odds ratio (OR): 5.82 [confidence interval at 95% (95%CI) 1.2028.3]) in DEN and
low physical activity at work for DEN (OR: 4.58 [95%CI 1.8011.62]) and PE (OR: 5.61 [95%CI 1.9016.60])
were traced as significant risk factors. Organochlorine-related factors (use of tampons, occupational or
environmental exposure) were not related to the disease. The current consumption of foodstuffs that were more
likely to contribute to organochlorine body burden did not differ among the groups. Only some of these fatty
foodstuffs (marine fish, pig meat) were traced by multiple regression analysis as significant determinants of
organochlorine body burden, explaining only a small fraction (20%) of the interindividual variation of
organochlorine body burden.
Within a study investigating persistent organic compounds and endometriosis, L.W. Jackson et al.,
(2005)26 evaluated the association between oxidative stress and endometriosis. Women aged 1840 years who
were undergoing laparoscopy were contacted to participate in the study (n=100); 84 were eligible and agreed to be
interviewed; 78 provided blood specimens. Four markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant status were measured
in serum for 61 women(i) thiobarbituric acid-reacting substances (TBARS), which measure primarily
malondialdehyde derived from lipid peroxidation, as well as other breakdown products from oxidatively modified
proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids (Guichardant et al., 2004); (ii) 8-F2-isoprostane for a stable end-product
of oxidized lipids derived from arachidonic acid (Fam and Morrow, 2003); (iii) fat-soluble antioxidants (vitamin
A, vitamin E, β-carotene and lycopene) reflecting micronutrient antioxidant protection in serum; and (iv)
paraoxonase (PON1) activity. Thirty-two women had visually confirmed endometriosis at laparoscopy while 52
did not, including 22 undergoing tubal ligation and 30 with idiopathic infertility. There was a weak association
between thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (nmol/ml) and endometriosis, after adjusting for age, body mass
index, current smoking, hormone use in the past 12 months, gravidity, serum vitamin E, serum estradiol, and total
serum lipids (β=1.18; 95% CI–0.04, 2.39). These results suggested that oxidative stress might play a role in the
development and progression of endometriosis.
Stacey A. Missmer et al.,(2004)27 investigated the relations of demographic, anthropometric, and lifestyle
factors with endometriosis in 1,721 cases of laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis were reported among
women with no past infertility. The authors observed no association with, caffeine intake and endometriosis.
Parazzini et al.,(2003)28, analysed data collected in the framework of two casecontrol studies to offer data on
the relationship between diet and risk of pelvic endometriosis. Cases were 504 women aged <65 years (median
age 33 years, range 2065) with a laparoscopically confirmed diagnosis of endometriosis. Controls were 504
women (median age 34 years, range 2061) admitted for acute non-gynaecological, non-hormonal, non-neoplastic
conditions. Compared to women in the lowest tertile of intake, a significant reduction in risk emerged for higher
intake of green vegetables [odds ratio (OR)=0.3 for the highest tertile of intake] and fresh fruit (OR=0.6), whereas
an increase in risk was associated with high intake of beef and other red meat (OR=2.0) and ham (OR=1.8).
Consumption of milk, liver, carrots, cheese, fish and whole-grain foods, as well as coffee and alcohol
consumption, were not significantly related to endometriosis which suggested a link between diet and risk of
endometriosis.
IV. Discussion
The literature related to endometriosis and diet is very little and inconsistent. In this review we
comprehensively evaluated the impact of diet in the emergence and progression of endometriosis.
4.1 Endometriosis and Fat intake
Stacey A. Missmer et al.,(2010)21, suggested that intake of trans-unsaturated fats was associated with a
higher risk of endometriosis . Intakes of saturated fat and monounsaturated fat, were not associated with
endometriosis risk. Interestingly, palmitic acid intake, a saturated fat was significantly related to increased
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endometriosis risk . In contrast to the above findings, Britton Traberta et al.,(2010)20, reported an inverse
associations with endometriosis risk for saturated-, monounsaturated- and trans-fat intake. The inadequate
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) intake by the women with endometriosis favors inflammation and
consequently oxidative stress. Ana Luiza Savaris and Vivian F. do Amaral, (2011)19.
In the Italian casecontrol study, no association emerged between oil intake and risk of endometriosis
whereas an increase in risk for endometriosis was associated with high intake of beef and red meat and ham
Parazzini et al.,(2003)28. Jean Francois Heilier et al.,(2006)25, reported the consumption of marine fish and pig
meat as significant determinants of peritoneal endometriosis and deep endometriotic nodules.
However, intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids was associated with a lower risk of endometriosis
Stacey A. Missmer et al.,(2010)21. Although a trend for a decreased risk could be observed in Parazzini et
al.,(2003)28 while a complete absence of any association was found by Britton Traberta et al.,(2010)20. In addition
a dietary therapy with Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids yielded no significant effect on the recurrence rate of
endometriosis Sesti et al., (2009)23 .
4.2 Endometriosis and Calcium
The largest study by Holly R. Harris et al.,(2013)17 reported a significantly lower rate of endometriosis
among women with greater predicted plasma 25(OH)D levels and among women with a higher intake of dairy
foods. Calcium, vitamin D, and magnesium intakes from foods (including fortified foods) were also inversely
related to endometriosis. In addition Britton Traberta et al.,(2010)20 also found a decreased endometriosis risk
associated with consumption of dairy products but this association was not statistically significant for the highest
tertile and suggested that specific dietary components may be associated with endometriosis risk. In addition
Parazzini et al.,(2003)28 also suggested milk consumption was not significantly related to endometriosis.
4.3 Endometriosis and fiber
The consumption of carrot and whole grain foods were not significantly related to endometriosis
Parazzini et al.,(2003)28. The inadequate fiber intake by the women with endometriosis favors inflammation and
consequently oxidative stress. Ana Luiza Savaris and Vivian F. do Amaral, (2011)19.
4.3 Endometriosis and antioxidant diet
Many studies have focused on the importance of antioxidant diet in abolishing oxidative stress markers
and improve antioxidant markers in women with endometriosis.
Jennifer Mier-Cabrera et al.,(2009)22, reported the application of the high antioxidant diet in women with
endometriosis increased the peripheral antioxidant enzymatic activity & decreased the peripheral concentration of
oxidative stress markers . No positive association was found between antioxidant nutrient intake and a reduction
in systemic antioxidant capacity Ana Luiza Savaris and Vivian F. do Amaral, (2011)19.
L.W. Jackson et al., (2005)26 indicated that the markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant status vitamin
A, lycopene, β carotene and vitamin E were not found to be associated with endometriosis. Masaki
Tsuchiya.,(2007)24, found that higher urinary levels of isoflavones was associated with a reduced risk of advanced
endometriosis , but not early endometriosis.
Sesti et al., (2009)23 reported that the dietary therapy with vitamins B6 , A,C,E and minerals salts like
Ca, Ma, Se, Zn, Fe, yielded no significant effect on the recurrence rate of endometriosis . In addition Britton
Traberta et al.,(2010)20, found Increased β-carotene consumption was associated with increased endometriosis
risk. Whereas other macronutrients and micronutrients were not significantly associated with endometriosis risk.
4.4 Endometriosis and caffeine
Stacey A. Missmer et al.,(2004)27 did not observe any association of endometriosis with the amount and
frequency of caffeine consumed per day .
The current evidences from our review allow us to conclude that dietary factors play an important role in
prevention and progression of endometriosis and is imperative as a treatment modality in improving the quality of
life of women suffering from endometriosis.
V. Implications For Practice
Based on the results shown in the present manuscript, we can suggest that health education in regard to
the dietary management in endometriosis is the need of the hour in improving the quality of life of women with
endometriosis. The Nurses and other health professionals in primary care plays an essential role in health
promotion through disease management and infertility prevention by providing support and much needed
information to the patient with endometriosis. They can also facilitate quality of care and manage treatments
effectively to improve quality of life, reduce pain, and prevent further progression of disease. Practice
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recommendations include timely diagnosis, pain management, infertility counseling, patient education including
dietary factors, and support for quality of life issues.
Awareness through mass media in the schools, colleges and other public places on the aspects of dietary
risk factors in endometriosis can be made available by the health care authorities. Continuing nursing education
programs on endometriosis and diet are mandatory to improve evidence-based practice.
More research is needed on dietary factors and endometriosis in other parts of the world, as only studies
in western European countries are presently available. And also studies on low fat vegetarian diet and
endometriosis also can be done in future for evidence.
VI. Conclusion
There is an urgent need to improve understanding of the impact of dietary components on the risk of
endometriosis in order to modify and/or prevent this prevalent gynecological disease. Overall, the literature
suggested that increased consumption of Anti-oxidant diets, omega-3 FAs, fish oils and PUFAs has a positive
effect on endometriosis, indicating that there may be modifiable risk factors. The results of the study suggests that
higher intake of green vegetables and fresh fruit can lower the risk of endometriosis. Further analyses will help to
utilize dietary modification as a treatment modality which underlie as a risk factor in this prevalent, poorly
understood disease.
Conflict of interest: None
Source of funding: Not funded.
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Figure:1. Flow chart showing methodological pathway
Figure:2. Dietary factors in prevention of Endometriosis
Citation
duplication :110
Articles excluded based
on titles and abstracts :
92
Full- text articles assessed
for inclusion criteria : 20
Excluded articles ( n =
8) Review : 2, animal
studies : 2, only serum
levels of nutrients : 4
Finally selected articles: 12
Citation from electronic
databases : 255
Diet A New Approach To Treating Endometriosis What Is The Evidence?
www.iosrjournals.org 11 | Page
Table.1-Summary of the articles with author, country, year, participants, methods, instruments, study
purpose and main findings
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Article
Full-text available
The etiology of endometriosis is poorly understood, and few modifiable risk factors have been identified. Dairy foods and some nutrients can modulate inflammatory and immune factors, which are altered in women with endometriosis. We investigated whether intake of dairy foods, nutrients concentrated in dairy foods, and predicted plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels were associated with incident laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis among 70,556 US women in Nurses' Health Study II. Diet was assessed via food frequency questionnaire. A score for predicted 25(OH)D level was calculated for each participant. During 737,712 person-years of follow-up over a 14-year period (1991-2005), 1,385 cases of incident laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis were reported. Intakes of total and low-fat dairy foods were associated with a lower risk of endometriosis. Women consuming more than 3 servings of total dairy foods per day were 18% less likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis than those reporting 2 servings per day (rate ratio = 0.82, 95% confidence interval: 0.71, 0.95; P(trend) = 0.03). In addition, predicted plasma 25(OH)D level was inversely associated with endometriosis. Women in the highest quintile of predicted vitamin D level had a 24% lower risk of endometriosis than women in the lowest quintile (rate ratio = 0.76, 95% confidence interval: 0.60, 0.97; P(trend) = 0.004). Our findings suggest that greater predicted plasma 25(OH)D levels and higher intake of dairy foods are associated with a decreased risk of endometriosis.
Article
Full-text available
Diet plausibly has a role in the aetiology of endometriosis through effects on steroid hormone levels; however, few published studies have examined the diet and endometriosis risk. We evaluated dietary risk factors for endometriosis in a population-based case-control study. Cases were 284 Group Health (GH) enrollees aged 18-49 years with newly diagnosed, surgically confirmed endometriosis between 1996 and 2001. Controls were 660 randomly selected age-matched female GH enrollees without a history of endometriosis. Nutrients and selected food groups were assessed using the Women's Health Initiative FFQ. OR of endometriosis risk associated with dietary exposures were estimated using unconditional logistic regression and adjusted for identified covariates. Increased total fat consumption was associated with decreased endometriosis risk (fourth quartile v. lowest: OR 0·5, 95% CI 0·2, 1·0, P-trend = 0·12). Increased β-carotene consumption and servings/d of fruit were associated with increased risk (β-carotene third quartile v. lowest: OR 1·7, 95% CI 1·1, 2·6; fourth quartile v. lowest: OR 1·6, 95% CI 1·0, 2·5, P-trend 0·16; fruit >2 servings/d v. < 1: OR 1·5, 95% CI 1·0, 2·3, P-trend = 0·04). We also found a suggestion of decreased endometriosis risk associated with the consumption of dairy products (2 servings/d v. ≤ 1: OR 0·6, >2 servings/d v. ≤ 1: OR 0·7), but this association was not statistically significant for the highest tertile. The present study suggests that specific dietary components may be associated with endometriosis risk.
Article
Full-text available
Endometriosis is a prevalent but enigmatic gynecologic disorder for which few modifiable risk factors have been identified. Fish oil consumption has been associated with symptom improvement in studies of women with primary dysmenorrhea and with decreased endometriosis risk in autotransplantation animal studies. To investigate the relation between dietary fat intake and the risk of endometriosis, we analyzed 12 years of prospective data from the Nurses' Health Study II that began in 1989. Dietary fat was assessed via food frequency questionnaire in 1991, 1995 and 1999. We used Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for total energy intake, parity, race and body mass index at age 18, and assessed cumulatively averaged fat intake across the three diet questionnaires. During the 586 153 person-years of follow-up, 1199 cases of laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis were reported. Although total fat consumption was not associated with endometriosis risk, those women in the highest fifth of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid consumption were 22% less likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis compared with those with the lowest fifth of intake [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.62-0.99; P-value, test for linear trend (Pt) = 0.03]. In addition, those in the highest quintile of trans-unsaturated fat intake were 48% more likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis (95% CI = 1.17-1.88; Pt = 0.001). These data suggest that specific types of dietary fat are associated with the incidence of laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis, and that these relations may indicate modifiable risk. This evidence additionally provides another disease association that supports efforts to remove trans fat from hydrogenated oils from the food supply.
Article
Full-text available
Oxidative stress has been identified in the peritoneal fluid and peripheral blood of women with endometriosis. However, there is little information on the antioxidant intake for this group of women. The objectives of this work were 1) to compare the antioxidant intake among women with and without endometriosis and 2) to design and apply a high antioxidant diet to evaluate its capacity to reduce oxidative stress markers and improve antioxidant markers in the peripheral blood of women with endometriosis. Women with (WEN, n = 83) and without endometriosis (WWE, n = 80) were interviewed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire to compare their antioxidant intake (of vitamins and minerals). Then, the WEN participated in the application of a control (n = 35) and high antioxidant diet (n = 37) for four months. The high antioxidant diet (HAD) guaranteed the intake of 150% of the suggested daily intake of vitamin A (1050 microg retinol equivalents), 660% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of vitamin C (500 mg) and 133% of the RDI of vitamin E (20 mg). Oxidative stress and antioxidant markers (vitamins and antioxidant enzymatic activity) were determined in plasma every month. Comparison of antioxidant intake between WWE and WEN showed a lower intake of vitamins A, C, E, zinc, and copper by WEN (p < 0.05, Mann Whitney Rank test). The selenium intake was not statistically different between groups. During the study, the comparison of the 24-hour recalls between groups showed a higher intake of the three vitamins in the HAD group. An increase in the vitamin concentrations (serum retinol, alpha-tocopherol, leukocyte and plasma ascorbate) and antioxidant enzyme activity (superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) as well as a decrease in oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde and lipid hydroperoxides) were observed in the HAD group after two months of intervention. These phenomena were not observed in the control group. WEN had a lower intake of antioxidants in comparison to WWE. Peripheral oxidative stress markers diminished, and antioxidant markers were enhanced, in WEN after the application of the HAD.
Article
Estimates of the frequency of endometriosis vary widely. Based on the few reliable data, the prevalence of the condition can reasonably be assumed to be around 10%. Although no consistent information is available on the incidence of the disease, temporal trends suggest an increase among women of reproductive age. This could be explained—at least in part—by changing reproductive habits. Numerous epidemiological studies have indicated that nulliparous women and women reporting short and heavy menstrual cycles are at increased risk of developing endometriosis; data on other risk factors are less consistent. These epidemiological findings strongly support the menstrual reflux hypothesis. Additional evidence in favour of this theory includes the demonstration of viable endometrial cells in the menstrual effluent and peritoneal fluid, experimental implantation and growth of endometrium within the peritoneal cavity, observation of some degree of retrograde menstruation in most women undergoing laparoscopy during menses, and an association between obstructed menstrual outflow and endometriosis.
Chapter
Endometriosis is a chronic gynecologic disease process with multi-factorial etiology. Increased oxidative stress, a result of increased production of free radicals or depletion of the body's endogenous antioxidant defense, has been implicated in its pathogenesis. Oxidative stress is thought to promote angio-genesis and the growth and proliferation of endometriotic implants. Oxidative stress in the reproductive tract microenvironment is known to negatively affect sperm count and quality and may also arrest fertilized egg division leading to embryo death. Increased DNA damage in sperm, oocytes, and resultant embryos may account for the increase in miscarriages and fertilization and implantation failures seen in patients with endometriosis. The evidence linking endometriosis and infertility to endogenous pro-oxidant imbalance provides a rationale for the empiric use of antioxidant therapy. Vitamin C and E deficiency has been demonstrated in women with endometriosis. Observational and randomized controlled studies have shown vitamin C and E combination therapy to decrease markers of oxidative stress.
Article
A connection between dietary factors and endometriosis onset has become a topic of interest mostly due to the observation that physiological and pathological processes of the disease can be influenced by diet. This paper systematically reviews prior publications dealing with this aspect in order to identify potentially modifiable risk factors. Comprehensive searches in the electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE and Science Citation Index Expanded were conducted to identify published studies evaluating the association between food intake ( nutrients and food groups) and endometriosis. Eleven studies were identified: 10 case-control and one cohort study. Information on diet was collected using food frequency questionnaires in seven studies, while in one study the questionnaire focused on caffeine and alcohol intake. Women with endometriosis seem to consume fewer vegetables and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and more red meat, coffee and trans fats but these findings could not be consistently replicated. Most data have also been discussed herein in light of the available experimental and animal model results. At present, evidence supporting a significant association between diet and endometriosis is equivocal. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of diet on endometriosis risk and progression.
Article
Aim: Pelvic pain affects 4% to 39% of women and accounts for 10-40% of all outpatient gynecologic visits. The etiology of painful endometriosis-related has not been fully delineated. No studies have been published concerning gluten-free diet administered to achieved relief of painful symptoms endometriosis-related. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate the effectiveness for the outcomes of endometriosis-related pain and quality of life of gluten-free diet in a follow-up of 12 months in patients with chronic pelvic pain endometriosis-related. Methods: Two hundred seven patients with severe painful endometriosis-related symptoms entered the study. At enrolment time, the baseline values of painful symptoms were assessed by Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) for dysmenorrhoea, non-menstrual pelvic pain, and dyspareunia. According to VAS, pain severity was scored from 0-10; 0 indicating the absence of pain, and 1-4, 5-7 and 8-10 mild, moderate and severe respectively. A gluten-free diet was submitted to all patients and a new evaluation was performed after 12 months of diet. Student t test was used for statistical analysis. Results: At 12 month follow-up, 156 patients (75%) reported statistically significant change in painful symptoms (P<0.005), 51 patients (25%) reported not improvement of symptoms. No patients reported worsening of pain. A considerable increase of scores for all domains of physical functioning, general health perception, vitality, social functioning, and mental health was observed in all patients (P<0.005). Conclusion: In our experience, painful symptoms of endometriosis decrease after 12 months of gluten free diet.
Article
The endocannabinoid system consists of an array of endogenously produced bioactive lipids that activate cannabinoid 1 (CB1) and 2 (CB2) receptors. Alterations of this system have been described in almost every category of disease. These changes can be protective or maladaptive, making the endocannabinoid network an attractive therapeutic target. Little is known about the potential role of endocannabinoids in endometriosis development although this is a topic worthy of further investigation since endocannabinoid modulators have recently been shown to affect specific mechanisms critical to endometriosis establishment and maintenance. A literature review was herein performed with the aim of defining the regulation and function of the endocannabinoid signaling in in vitro and animal models of endometriosis. The components of the endocannabinoid system, CB1 and CB2 receptors and the enzymes N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine-phospholipase D and fatty acid amide hydrolase are differentially regulated throughout the menstrual cycle in the endometrium and are expressed in deep endometriotic nodules and in sensory and sympathetic neurons innervating the lesions. Selective cannabinoid receptor agonists, such as WIN 55212-2, appear to have a favorable action in limiting cell proliferation and in controlling pain symptoms. Conversely, endometrial cell migration tends to be stimulated by receptor agonists. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 pathways seem to be involved in these processes. However, the underlying mechanisms of action are only just beginning to unfold. Given the complexity of the system, further studies are needed to clarify whether the endocannabinoid system might represent a promising target for endometriosis.
Article
To assess the recurrence rate of endometrioma after laparoscopic cystectomy plus hormonal suppression treatment or plus dietary therapy compared to post-operative placebo. A randomized comparative trial was conducted on 259 consecutive women who underwent laparoscopic unilateral/bilateral cystectomy for endometrioma. Seven days after surgery, the patients were randomly allocated on the basis of a computer-generated randomization sequence, to one of four post-operative management arms as follows: placebo (n=65) or gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogue (tryptorelin or leuprorelin, 3.75 mg every 28 days) (n=65) or continuous low-dose monophasic oral contraceptives (ethynilestradiol, 0.03 mg plus gestoden, 0.75 mg) (n=64) or dietary therapy (vitamins, minerals salts, lactic ferments, fish oil) (n=65) for 6 months. At 18 months' follow-up after surgery, all patients were monitored with a clinical gynecologic examination, and a transvaginal ultrasonography for possible evidence of endometrioma recurrence. At 18 months' transvaginal ultrasonographic follow-up after surgery, no significant recurrence rate of endometrioma was detected in women who received a postoperative course of hormonal suppression treatment or dietary therapy when compared with placebo (placebo vs. GnRH-a P=0.316, placebo vs. estroprogestin P=0.803, placebo vs. dietary therapy P=0.544). Second-look laparoscopy was performed on a clinical basis and confirmed the ultrasonographic suspicion of recurrence of endometrioma in all cases: 10 (16.6%) in the post-operative placebo group vs. 6 (10.3%) in the post-operative GnRH-a group vs. 9 (15.0%) in the post-operative continuous estroprogestin group vs. 11 (17.8%) in the post-operative dietary therapy group. Of 36 patients with recurrent ovarian endometriosis, 8 had recurrence on the treated ovary, 20 on the contralateral ovary that appeared to be normal at the time of the first-line surgery, and 8 on both the treated and untreated ovaries. Endometrioma recurrences were associated with moderate-to-severe painful symptoms in 14/36 patients (38.8%), while the remaining 22 (61.1%) patients were asymptomatic. A 6-month course of hormonal suppression treatment or dietary therapy after laparoscopic cystectomy had no significant effect on the recurrence rate of ovarian endometriosis when compared with surgery plus placebo. So, treatment of endometrioma can be carried out exclusively by laparoscopic cystectomy without post-operative therapy, if a complete excision of ovarian endometriosis has been assured.