Fig(Ficus carica L.)

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FIG
(
Fic us  caric a
)
AkathSingh, JaiPrakash,P.R.MeghwalandS.A.Ranpise
1. INTRODUCTION
Fig (Ficus carica) is one of the oldest
known fruit trees in the world. Turkey
produces 26% of the world’s figs and
Egypt,Iran,Greece,Algeria,andMorocco
together produces around 70% of the
world’s fig production (FAO, 2006). In
India,itscultivationismostlyconfinedto
westernpartsofMaharashtra(Pune)and
Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow and
Saharanp ur),  K arna t a ka (Bellary,
CnitradurgaandSrirangapatna)andTamil
Nadu(Coimbatore).Figisespeciallywell
adapted toMediterranean climates, with
cool winters and hotdry summers, but
can be grown in more humid regions
including thetr opics and subtropics. Fig
is ex tremely dr ought  toler ant  once
established and commercial production is preferr ed in dry hot summer but needs regula r
irrigation for achieving higher yields.
Figs can be eaten fresh, dried or canned and are often used in preparation of jam.
As a fresh fruit, it has a luscious taste. Fruits have been prized over centuries for the
medicinalanddietaryproperties.Figisahighlynutritiousfruit.Itisrichincalories(269),
proteins,andcalcium(higher thanmilk), ironandhighest fibrecontent. Fighasnutritive
index of 11,as against 9, 8 and 6 for apple, raisina nd date, respectively. The chemical
composition andflavour of figvaries with the cultivar. Thetotal sugar contentof fresh
CONTENTS
1. Introduction...............................................149
2. Domestication ............................................150
3. Taxonomy ................................................... 150
4. CentersofOrigin/CentersofDiversity...... 150
5. ObjectiveofImprovement .........................151
6. Cytogenetics............................................... 151
7. InheritanceofPattern ...............................151
8. ProblemsinBreeding ................................ 152
9. FloralBiology ............................................. 152
10. DifferentSpecies .......................................158
11. TypesandCultivars ................................... 158
12. CropImprovementMethods......................161
13. VarietalWealth .........................................166
14. FutureThrust ............................................. 174
12

150Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
figis16 %andofdriedis52%.Theedibleportionoffreshfigs(100g)containsmoisture
(88.1%), protein (1.3g), fat (0.2%), minerals (0.6%), fibre(2.2%), carbohydrate (7.6%),
calcium (35mg), phosphorus (22mg), iron (0.6mg), vitamin A (80 IU), vita min C2 mg,
calorific value80andthiamine(0.1mg). Theedibleportionofdriedfigs(100g)contains
moisture(23.0%),protein(4.3g),fat(1.3%),minerals(2.4%),fibre(5.6%),carbohydrate
(69%),calcium(200mg),phosphorus(77mg),iron(4mg),vitaminA(100IU),vitamin
C2mg,calorificvalue306 andthiamine(0.1mg).Figisavery poorsourceofVitamin
C but very rich in sugar next to da tes.  The latex from fig contains (ficin) rennin, which
has3to100timesmilkclottingcapacityascomparedtoanimalrenninpreparedformcalf
stomach mucosa. Fig leaves are used medicinally for their diuretic, demulcent, emollient
and antihelmintic properties. Three new constituents viz., calotropenyl acetate, lupeol
acetate and oleanolic acid were isolated by Ahmed et al (1990). Fig is valued for its
laxative properties and is used in the treatment of skin infection. The fruits help to
maintainacidalkalibalance ofthebody.Latexisusefultocoagulate milk(Morslietal.,
1985).Manymedicinalvirtueshavebeenascribedtothefig.Itisconsidereda restorative
foodwhichhelpsinquickrecoveryafterprolongedillness.Itremovesphysicalandmental
exertion and endows the body with renewed vigor and strength. It is an excellent tonic
for the weak people who suffer cracks in lips tongue and mouth.
2. DOMESTICATION
ItwasperhapsfirstbroughtintocultivationinthesouthernpartsoftheArabianPeninsula
byatleast3000BC.ItlaterspreadintoIran,SyriaandTurkeyandintoalltheMediterranean
countries.DuringtheageofexplorationfollowingthediscoveryofAmericabyColumbus,
the fig was taken to most subtropical areas of the western hemisphere. Dushevskii and
Kazas (1985) described two forms of Ficus carica from the vicinityof Mangup Kale,
a settled area on Mt. BabaDag inCrimea abandoned in 1783. They are thought to be
descendants of figs cultivated on the plateau from the 12th century.
3. TAXONOMY
It belongs to family moraceae, genus Ficus, is a monoecious, deciduous tree or large
shrub. The subgenus Eusyce to which Ficus carica belongs is characterized by having
unisexual flowers only and gynodioecism (Storey, 1975). The inflorescence is unique,
consisting of a syconium (the fig), which encloses many unisexual flowers that can be
accessedviatheostiolebypollinatingwaspsthat maygivethetruefruits.Tinypedicellate
drupletsusuallycalledthe‘seed’(Storey,1975).Morphologically Ficuscarica isconsidered
gynodioeciousbutfunctionallydioecious.
4. CENTERS OF ORIGIN /CENTERS OF DIVERSITY
It is thought to be a native to southern parts of Arabian Peninsula, Italy, the Balkan
Peninsula and the former USSR (Tutin, 1964). Accor ding to ElRay and Llacer (1995),

Fig(Ficus carica)151
the fig originated in the east Mediterranean region (Turkey, Syria, SaudiArabia), from
where its cultivation expanded to the whole of the Mediterranean region.
5. OB JECTIVE  OF IMPRO VEMENT
Main fig br eedingobjectives ar e (Storey, 1975; Jona and Gribaudo, 1991):
i. Development of high yielding cultivars.
ii. ImprovementinfruitqualityHighfruiteatingqualitywithimprovedstorageability.
iii. Eliminationofcaprification.
iv. Transfer of nematode and insect resistance characters of wild fig varieties to high
yieldinggoodqualitycultivars.
v. Persistence of syconia to ripeness.
vi. Resistance to pests and diseases.
vii. Hardiness to environment constraints.
6. CYTOGENETICS
The common fig (Ficus carica) is diploid, the somatic chromosome number is 2n = 2x
= 26 (Storey, 1975;Jona and Gribaudo, 1991) whileF.elasticacv. Decora is triploidin
nature. Ficus carica is gynodioecious, bearing either hermaphrodite or female fig on
separate plants. Males are the heterogametic (GA/ga) and female are the homogametic
(ga/ga) (Storey 1955). Shortstyle female flowers and male flowers are determined by a
pair of dominant genes on the samechromosome (GA); recessive alleles resultin long
style female flowers and suppression of male flowers (ga).
7. INHERITANCE OF PATTERN
Knowledgeof magnitude ofgenotypic and phenotypicvariation, genetic gainand genetic
advancearethemajortoolsforselectingefficientbreedingprogramme.Infig,quantitative
inheritance is a feature of many important traits, such as yield, quality and disease
resistance.Amongthedifferenttraitsthoseofhighdiscriminatinglevelwereleafdimensions,
shootdimensions,petiolecolor anddimensions,depthofsinus,fruitshapeandcolor,fruit
weight,dimensions,ostiolediameter,peelcolourandjuiceacidity.Amongthesecharacters,
some were good criteria for discriminating between cultivars. Several studies showed a
positive correlationbetween yield and fruit weight, fruit diameter, dry matter. A positive
correlation between polyphenols content and fruit weight and with flesh thickness; the
ostiole diameter with fleshthicknessandostiole opening arecommonlyobserved. Ostiole
sizehas interrela tionship with pests and diseases aslar ge ostiole an undesirable property
because pests and pathogens enter the fruit. Wide phenotypic and molecular diversity
found in fig germplasm indicates a considera ble potential for impr oving this crop.

152Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
8. PROBLEMS IN BREEDING
Figbreedingisacomplexbecauseofinvolvingtwotreemorphs(Caprifig andEdiblefig),
three floral forms (longstyled female, shortstyled female, and male flowers), and the
insect pollinator (Beck and Lord 1988).
i. Occurrence of Parthenocarpy and seedlessness.
ii. Complex pollinationmechanism i.e. caprification.
iii. Lack of reference collections.
iv. Lack of universal descriptor list to differentiate different varieties/species.
v. Presence of large intravariety diversity.
vi. Closeness of wild types to cultivated plants in some regions.
9. FLORAL BIOLOGY
9.1.FlowerBudInitiation
MorphologicalanddevelopmentalstudiesconductedbyDuric etal. (1992)duringdormancy
andgrowth oncv.Tenicabearing a single crop and cv. Petr ovaca bearing twocrops per
year reveal that three typesof buds occur  on oneyearold shoots. (i) Flower buds which
arespherical,have35scales,withtheinflorescenceaxisintheinternalcavityenclosing
femaleprimordiadifferentiatedtovaryingdegreesdependingonthepositionofbudonthe
shoot.Thesebuds produce parthenocarpic fruits only in cv. Petrovaca. (ii) Mixed buds
are conical, madeup of 58 scales, and inflorescences on shoots ar ising fromthese buds
producefruitinbothcultivars.(iii)Vegetativebuds,madeupof35scales,whichusually
remain dormant and only rarely produce shoots..
9.2.Flowers
The flowers are three types.
i. male flowers with 15 stamens
ii. female flowers with ovary and long style, each resulting one seed
iii. gall flowerresemblesfemaleflower, short styled,ovary swollen, hiversfigwasp and
does not set seed.
Theflowersarehollowandbornintheleafaxils,reducedtoessentialorgansi.e.male
and female and are produced inside globosepear shaped receptacles with narrowmouth
(ostiole). Flowersarebornaxillaryonpreviousgrowthandalsooncurrentgrowth.Near
the ostiole male flowers are borne and towards the stalk female flower are present.
In Capri fig all three types of flower occur inside each fig whereas, in other types
(dioecious),themaleandgallflowersareproducedinsame inflorescenceononetreeand
female inflorescence on another tree.

Fig(Ficus carica)153
Fig is a monoecious, deciduous tree or large shrub. The subgenus Eusyce to which
Ficuscaricabelongsischaracterizedbyhavingunisexualflowers onlyandgynodioecism
(Storey, 1975). The inflorescence is unique, consisting of a syconium (the fig), which
enclosesmanyunisexualflowersthatcanbeaccessedviatheostiolebypollinatingwasps
that may give the true fruits. Tiny pedicellate druplets usually called the ‘seed’ (Storey,
1975; IBPGR, 1986). Morphologically Ficus carica is considered gynodioecious but
functionally dioecious. According to the sex of the flowers in the syconium, two main
types of trees can be distinguished. The first one is the caprifig in which the syconia
containshortstyledpistillateflowersdistributedovermostoftheinnerwallandstaminate
flowersaroundtheinterioroftheostiole. Theotheroneisfemalefigtreewiththesyconia
containingonlylongstyledpistillateflowers.Normally, onlythelateroneproducesedible
figs(Valdeyronand Lloyd, 1979; Storey, 1975).
Ficus carica is a gynodioecious species, having two distinct forms of trees; the
caprifig is monoecious, and the common fig is pistillate (Storey, 1975). Smyrna fig
produces male flower and proves to be unisexual from inception and shows ontogenetic
divergenceat primordial stage,whereasmale flowers areinitiatedas hermaphroditesand
undergo gynoecium abortion at the magaspore mother cell stage.A caprifig is seen as
expressing two pathways to unisexuality. Smyrna fig inflorescence produces abortive
hermaphrodite flowers at the same position as the male flowers in caprifig (Beck and
Lord,1988).
9.3.Pollination
Carles (1985) workingwith figin France reported that for ear ly fig production for fresh
consumption(whichismoreeconomic)pollinationistobeavoided.Pollinationisnecessary
forlatefigswhichareusedforprocessing.Valizadchetal.(1987)studiedthepollenflow
in4 femaleplants(domesticfig)and5functionallymale plants (caprifig)andfoundthat
eachsynconiumwaspollinatedtoabout80percentbyasingleinsectdespitebeingvisited
by several. The probability that a male plant pollinates a female plant was negatively
correlated with the distance between them, but at distance over 1020 m the corr elation
could be marked by competition between femaleplants. In fact, Smyrna type figs will
never set fruit without pollination from caprifrg.
Thepollination and development of flowersofthecaprifigandfemale figclone were
studiedbyTanriveretal.(1997)in Turkey.Thedevelopmentofthepistillateandstaminate
flowers was monitoredby stereomicroscope. Inthe female tree, the synconia of the main
crop were initiated on 1015 Ma rch; initiation of the pistillate flowers was observed on
22April.At theend ofMay, some figwasps (Blastophaga psenes) entered the synconia
andpollinatedthepistillateflowers.On21June,thestylehadturnedbrown,theovulewas
swollen andthe testa washardened.  In the male trees, in early andmidApril,  the wasps
released from the mammoni crop (initia ted on currentgrowth in the summer :matures in
autumn)enteredintothesynconia oftheprofichicrop(initiatedinspringfromlatentbuds

154Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
on the previous season’s wood; matures in summer) and laid their eggs into ovary. The
gall and male flowers were already mature (midAprila nd early June, r espectively when
the female flowers wereinitiated at the time when the wasps were ready to emerge and
enter the svnconia of the mamme crop (initiated in autumn on current season’s growth,
matures in spring) to layeggs. Thefragrance of the receptive fig attracts and stimula tes
fig pollinators (Blastophaga psenes) (Gibernau et al. 1998 ). Fig species emit specific
compoundsinordertoattractpollinatingwasps.Volatilecompoundsreleasedbyreceptive
figsfrom13tropicalFicusspecieshave been identified.Theyare mainlyterpenoids. but
also include benzenoids and nonterpenoid oxygenated compounds. Pollen is actually
transferred by a small wasp (Blastophaga psenes) which over winters in the pollen
producing caprifig( Gerdts andClark, 1979).
Thefigs commonlygrown inIndiaareparthenocarpic innatureanddonotneed any
crosspollination from wild fig (capri fig) which is very common in other fig growing
countries.However,fruitsettinghereisalsoinhibitedundercertainconditions.Ithasbeen
suggestedthatparthenocarpyisfavouredorinhibitedinagiventypebyclimaticcondition
of the placewhereit is growing. Thus, Pune,Black Ischia and Brown Turkey have been
found to be parthenocar pic a tKadur, while Turkish White hasfailed to set fruit without
caprification. Likewise, Pune and Black Ischia do not set fruits without caprification in
Allahabad.Infact,Smyrnatypefigswillneversetfruitswithoutpollinationfromcaprifig.
9.3.1.PollinationMechanism(capriûcation)
Fig has interestingpollination mechanism involving a symbiotic rela tionship between the
plant and its pollinator wasp Blastophaga psenes L. The ûg relies upon the wasp for
seed production, and the wasp complete life cycle within the inflorescence or syconium.
Female and male unisexual flowers are produced but female flowers mature before the
males. Within the syconium, the female wasp lays her eggs and pollinates the female
flowers. Therearetwotypesoffemaleflowerwithinthesyconium, shortstyled andlong
styled. T he wasp penetrates the shortstyled flowers with its ovipositor and lays an egg
intheovary. These shortstyledflowersbecomegallsasthedeveloping wasp larvae feed
onthe ovarytissue. Thestyle ofthe longstyledfloweris longer than theovipositor, and
these flowers are pollinated by thefemalewasp with pollen collected from a  male stage
syconium. The syconia and itsseed then develop slowly a s the wasp larvae grow. When
thewasps, bothfemaleandmale,haveemergedfromtheirgallswithinthesyconium,the
male flowersof the syconium aremature. The wasps mate withinthe syconium, and the
males then die, having spent their whole life in this enclosure. Fertilised females collect
pollen from the male flowers, leave the male stage syconium and carry the pollen to a
female stage syconium, entering via the ostiole. This whole process is termed as
capriûcation.
The caprifigs (with wasp inside) are collected and placed in small bags or wire
basketsthatarehunginthefruitingSmyrnatypetrees.Theemergingwaspscoveredwith

Fig(Ficus carica)155
pollen,entertheSmyrnafruits andpollinatethelongstyledpistillate flowersinside (Galil
and Necman, 1977). In China,Yang et al.  (1999) observed that fig is dependent on fig
wasps of the family Agaonidae for pollination and in turn the fig wasps are dependent
upon the galls (ovaries) of the figs for larval development and a complicated symbiotic
(mutualistic) relationship between the two has developed. Ramireza nd Malavasi (1998)
reportedthatpollinationofthepistillatefigflowers(Ficusspp.)hascrucialeffectsforthe
figs and the pollinating wasps. It allows normal development of seeds and wasps. Thus,
for fruit setting of the Symrna fig,  caprifig trees as well as the Blastophaga wasps are
necessary. In addition to pollination, these fig wasps also carry propagules, mainly of
Fusarium verticillioides [formerly F. moniliforme (Gibberella fujikuroi)] and other
Fusarium spp. which causeendosepsis, from pollinizer figs tothe edible Calimyrna figs
inCalifornia.MichailidesandMorgan(1998)foundthatendosepsisdecreasedwithdistance
from the source, decreasing faster to the south than in other dir ections from the source.
Thefragranceofthereceptivefigattracts andstimulatesfigpollinators(Blastophaga
psenes) (Gibernau et al. 1998 ). Fig speciesemit specific compounds in or der to attra ct
pollinating wasps. Volatile compounds released by receptive figs from 13 tropical Ficus
species havebeenidentified.Theyaremainlyterpenoids. but alsoincludebenzenoidsand
nonterpenoid oxygenated compounds. Pollen is actually transferred by a small wasp
(Blastophaga psenes) which over winters in the pollen producing caprifig ( Gerdts and
Clark, 1979). Thus, for fruit setting of the Symrna fig, caprifig trees as well as the
Blastophagawaspsarenecessary.However,caprificationisacumbersomeandexpensive
process.
Considerablesuccesshasbeenachievedbysubstitutingplantgrowthregulatorsprays
for caprification. Of the numerous substances tested, IBA, NAA, 2,4,5T and 4CPA
proved effective in inducing early maturing parthenocarpic figs (Crane and Blondcau,
1949,1950).Theparthenocarpicfruitsdeveloptoa normalsizeandhavedesirablesugar
content, but as theyarecompletelyseedless,thebaking industries,whichusemostofthe
CalimyrnafigsproducedintheUSA,donotwanttouseit,becausetheylackthecrunchy
quality imparted by fig seeds. Subsequently, Crane (1952) found that BOA induced
parthenocarpyandtheformationofdrupeletswithhollow,sclerifiedendocarp,butitisstill
not acceptable to the industry.
9.4.Fruit
Theediblefigisamultiplefruit.Botanicallyitisknownassyconiumwhichconsistsofa
fleshyhollowreceptaclewithanarrowapertureatthetipandnumeroussmallflowerslining
theinnersurface.Thetruefruitsarethetinydrupeletsinsidethecavityofthefusedpeduncle.
Thefigisanaggregatefruitcomposedofindividualsmalldrupes;eachistermedadrupelets.
Thefigfruitsareborneintheaxilsoftheleaves;twoinflorescencesandonevegetativebud
arepresentatthesamelateralpositionintheleafaxils.Butincultivarssuchas‘Mission’and
‘BrownTurkey,’usuallyonlyoneinflorescencedevelopsintoasyconium,whilein‘Kadota’

156Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
and ‘Calimyrna’ cultivars , often both inflorescences at a node may develop. Fig fruit
development follow double sigmoid curve with three defined growth periods (Crane and
Brown1950;CraneandBaker1953). DuringIIphaseofgrowth,about70% ofthetotaldry
weightand90%ofthetotalsugarcontentisaccumulatedinthefruit.
9.4.1.BearingBehaviour
Thefigmaystartbearingafewfruitsayearortwoafterplanting,butthiscropisnotallowed
todevelop,becausethecropmayreducethevegetativegrowthoftheplant.Usually,steady
yieldcanbeobtainedfromthefifthyearonwards.Thetreescontinuetobeargoodcropsfor
3040 years before they begin to decline. The fruits start ripening from MarchMay in
westernIndiaandMayJuneinnorthernIndia.InSouthIndia,thefigbearstwiceayear
onceinJulySeptemberandagaininFebruaryMay.ThefigscommonlygrowninIndiaare
parthenocarpicinnatureanddonotneedanycrosspollinationwithwildfig(caprifig),which
isaverycommonpracticeinothercountries.However,fruitsettingisalsoinhibitedunder
certainconditions. It has been suggested that parthenocarpyis favouredor inhibited in a
giventypebyclimaticconditionsoftheplacewhereitisgrowing.Thus,Pune,BlackIschia
andBrownTurkeyhavebeenfoundtobeparthenocarpicatKodur,whileTurkishWhitehas
failedtosetfruitswithoutcaprification(Naik,1949).Likewise,PuneandBlackIschiadonot
setfruitswithoutcaprificationinAllahabad(Hayes,1957).
9.4.2.Fruit Growthand Development
Fig is a gynodioecious species and some female type’s need pollination while others set
fruits parthenocarpically. Pollination is effected by a wasp, which develops inside the
syconium of male fig. This symbiotic relationship is a classical case of coevolution
betweena plantandinsect. Figfruits show adouble sigmoid growthcurvetwoperiods
ofrapidgrowthbeingseparatedbyaperiodofslowgrowth(Crane,1948).Inaninvestigation
on fruit ripening in cv. Rampelina, samples were collected at four fruitgrowth stages
duringJune,July,August andSeptember anddividedby weight into6groups:05,610,
1115,1620, 2130and>30 g.
Fruitdevelopmentfollowedadoublesigmoidpattern.Respirationandethyleneproduction
decreasedsharplyduringcellmultiplicationinthefirstgrowthperiod,remainedconstantinthe
stasisperiodandthenincreasedrapidlypriortotheonsetofthesecondgrowthperioduptothe
climacteric. Respirationdecreasedsharplyinthesmallestfruits,whereasitincreasedinthe
largest fruits during midAugust in conjunction with the onset of the second rapid growth
period.Ethyleneproductionwasinitiallyhighinthesmallestfruitsbutdecreasedprogressively
with the onset of maturity; only fruits >30 g showed an incr ease in ethylene production
concomitantwiththeonset ofripening.Reducingsugarcontentremainedlowthroughoutin
smallerfruitsbutincreasedwithripeninginthelargestfruits(Chessaelal.,1992).
Growthofsyconiumin8cultivarswasstudiedbyElKassasetal.(1992c).Therapid
growthcycleperiodIlasted5to6weeksinallcultivars.However,periodIIvariedsubstantially

Fig(Ficus carica)157
amongcultivarsandlasted8weeksinSultani,5weeks inAbiadAsswan,Kahramaniand
BrownTurkeyand34weeksinConadria,Abboudi,DiRedoandBlackMission.Thethird
growthphasewascharacterizedbyanacceleratedincreaseindiameterofsyconiauntilfruit
wasripe.PeriodIIIlasted5weeksinBrownTurkey,4weeksinConadria,BlackMission
and DiRedo and 3 weeks in Sultani.Overall, syconia developed over a  period of 1216
weeks.IthasbeenknownsincethethirdcenturyBCthatgrowthandmaturationofthefig
fruitcanbeadvancedbyafewdaysifadropofoliveoilisappliedtotheostiole(eye)during
thetendayperiodfollowingthetimeatwhichalldrupeletsinthefruithaveturnedred(Sand
et al., 1969). T his period brackets the transition from stage two to stage three of fruit
growth. The stimulating agentis ethylene, which is produced as a breakdown productof
oliveoil,especiallywhentheoilisexposedtosolarradiation.
It has been found that application of ethylene exogenously in the first growth phase
usuallyretardsfruitgrowth,butacceleratesdevelopmentandripeningwhenappliedinthe
secondgrowthphase,thefruitsareripenwithinaweekafterapplication(MareiandCrane,
1971;Puechetal., 1976).Duringthesecond periodofsyconinmgrowthof2successive
seasons,shootsoffigcv.Sultanitreesweresubjectedtooneofthefollowingtreatments:a
singlesprayof100,200or300ppmethephon.girdling,manualremovalofthe5leastmature
fruitsattheendoftheshoot (thinning), girdling+ethephon,manualthinning+ethephon.In
bothseasons,alltreatmentsexceptmanualthinningsignificantlyhastenedfruitmaturityand
improvedquality,comparedwithuntreatedcontrols.Themosteffectivetreatmentwas300
ppmethephoncombinedwithshootgirdling.Applicationof500ppm ethrelresultedin82%
ofthefruitsbeingharvestedat thefirstof3harvestscomparedwith56%fromuntreated
trees.Damagecausedbyinsectsorfungalinfectionwasless(Fergusonetal.,1990).
The typical growth curve of the Bursa Siyahi fig fruit was shown to be a double
sigmoidwiththelengthofgrowthperiodsI,IIandIII being44,35and13days,respectively
(Celikel et al., 1998). Ethrel (ethephon) at 100, 250, 500 or 1000 ppm was sprayed at
intervals during growth phase II, on the leaves and fruits of the cultivar Bursa Sivahi.
Ethrel at 250 or 500 ppm sprayed at a late stage of phase II stimulated growth and
shortenedthetimeto maturitywithout affecting fruit quality.Ethreltreated fruits ripened
5 days earlier than the contr ol. Ethylene treated fruits attain normal size, colour, texture
andflavourmuchearlierthantheuntreatedones;theyalsoshowahigher contentoftotal
soluble solids and dry weight (BenYehoshua et al., 1970; Gerdts and Obenanf, 1972;
Mougheith and ElBanna. 1974).
Rapeseed oil injected through the ostiole of fig cv. MasuiDauphin fruits harvested
beforetheclimactericinducedrapidethyleneevolution,similartothatobtainedbytreating
with exogenous ethylene (Gao et al., 1991). Ethylene.forming enzymc (EFE) activity
increased rapidly, reaching a level 12 times higher than the controla fter 24 h, but ACC
contentincreasedslowly.Oilinducedethyleneproductionwasalmostcompletelyinhibited
by aminooxyacetic acid (AOA) an inhibitor of ACC svnthase. Apart from the basic
essentialoil,2ethyl1,2dihydrothiophene,theripefruitshavevolatilephenols,inparticular
vanillinoheterocvcliccompounds,acetone,aliphaticacids,terpenealcohols,aliphaticand
aromatic alcohols and aldehydes (Pisarnickii et al., 1986).

158Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
The quality breba fruits of figs are affected by plant nutrition in addition to cultivar
characteristicsand ecological conditionsduring ripening (Sahinet al., 1999). Irget et al.
(1999) reported that fruits from trees given Ca(NO3,)2, were harder in texture when
dried than those from trees given KNO3. Ferrara (1999) reported that bagged fruits
showed faster growth and could be harvested 68 days before unbagged controls in the
same area and 2030 days before inland and hill orchards.
10. DIFFERENT SPECIES
ThegenusFicus,whichis comprised ofabout 700 species,classifiedintosix subgenera,
characterized byaparticular reproductive system(Berg,2003). It is nativeto theMiddle
East particularly southern Arabia where wild and caprifig trees are still to be found
(Condit,1947;Zukovskij,1950;Storey,1975).
Ficuscarica (Co mmon fig)
It is a small to moderatesized deciduous tree, 68 m high with a short twisted trunk,
crown with irregular branches; frequently shoots develop at the base of the trunk. The
bark is pale grey. Terminal buds are short and stout. Leaves are broa d, ovate or nearly
orbicular,moreorlessdeeply 35lobed,roughaboveandpubescent below;longstalked,
leaf blade 1025 cm long, dark green with pronounced venation. The female fig plants
havelargerleavesanddenser,morespreadingcrownsthanmales.Leaffallbeginsearlier
inmales. Theleaves and the spongy parenchyma tissues are thicker infemales. The leaf
thicknessis125.5µminfemalesand111.8µminmales(Kotaevaetal.,1982).Fruitsare
mostly solitary, axillary, green or yellow, brown, purplish or even black depending on
cultivar, more or less pearshaped with either a velvety or glabrous skin, in certain
cultivars upto 6cm in diameter, but normally of moderate size.
11. TYPES AND CULTIVARS
Depending upon the nature of flowers and the method of pollination, there are four
pomologically distinct classes of fig: (i) Common fig or Adriatic fig, (ii) Capri fig (iii)
Smyrna fig and (iv) SanPedro fig.
11.1. Common Fig
Inthistypetheindividualflowersarepistillateandthefruitsdevelopwithoutthestimulation
ofpollinationandfertilization. SomecultivarsofthistypeareKadota(Dottato),Mission,
Adriatic, Brown Turkey, Celeste and Conadria.
11.2. Capri Fig
It is themost primitive cultivated type with short st yled pistilla te flowers andfunctional
staminate flowers. Most caprifig are not edible but are grown because they harbour a
small wasp, Blastophaga psens which is necessary for pollination and setting of fruits.

Fig(Ficus carica)159
11.3.Smyrna Fig
Inthistype,thefruitsdonotdevelopunlesstheflowersarepollinatedwithpollencarried
from the male flowers ofthe caprifig by the tiny Blastophaga wasp. Calimyrna is the
most common and widely grown cultivar of Symrna type.
11.4. San Pe dro Fig
Itisanintermediatetypeinwhichthefirstcropknownas‘breba’.Thecropiscompletely
parthenocarpicanddoesnotrequirepollinationandfertilizationofflowers,butthesecond
cropdevelopsonly iftheflowersarepollinatedasinthecaseofSmyrnatype.SanPedro,
King and Gentile are common cultivars of this type.
Four types of figs are described basedon cropping and pollination characteristics.
Table. Horticul tural classifica tion of fig
Type Popul ar varieties  Flower Mode of No.of Ot her feat ures
type pollination Crops
EdibleFig Poon a,K adota, Lon g styled Fru its develop s 12 So me variet ies
Con ardia , Missio n, pi stil late  par then ocar pical ly pro duce a sm all
Brown Turkey flo we rs with out p ollinat ion breba or firstcr op
Smyrna Ca limyrna (S arilop ), L ong styled F emal e wa sps 1 In a ddition to main
Zidi, Taranim t pis till ate  emerg ing f rom th e or second c rop
flo we rs spr ing ca prifig orig inated fr om
enter smyrna fig the caprifig. T he
for o viposition & fer tile seed s
in the pro cess of contribute to t he
po llin atio n excellent fruit
quality
Sanped ro King, G entile, San L ong styled First c rop (b reba) 2 Com merc ially no t
Pedro , Dauph ine, pi stil late d evelops with out impo rtant s ome
La mp eir ia flo wer s pollination  but the white large  fruited
main  (seco nd) types are grown in
cro p requ ires med iter rane an
po llin ation c ou ntrie s
Wildfig/ Road in3, S amson, sh ort styled S elf fertile 3 A primitive type.
caprifig Stanford ,Brawley pis till ate ( pers isten t) Fru its have almost
(male/goat flow ers & syc oni a no edible value,
fig) fu nctio nal pro vides the
st ami na te sourc e of po llen
flow ers nea r for c omm ercial
the o stiole p lanting s of
cau ducou s figs.
(Saleeb and Storey 1 975)

160Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
Of these four types, Smyrna fig is commercially most important and is extensively
grown in Europe a nd USA. The cultivars Kadota. Krymskii 43 and Bianco Grossowere
recommended for cultivation in Southern Uzbekistan (Mysina, 1985). It has a superior
nutty flavour due to presence of fertile seeds. In India, common fig is mostly grown. It
is considered tobe a hybrid between imported F.  caricaa nd indigenous species. A large
number of cultivated forms are grown in which the fruits vary in shape, size, colour of
skin, colour and flavour of flesh and period of ripening. Someof the cultivars grown in
India are Black Ischia, Brown Turkey. Turkish White, Kabul and Marseilles. The figs
growninmanypartsofIndiaarenamedafterlocality,buttheydonotexhibitanyspecial
distinctionthat warrantsvarietalnames.Punefigisofmediumsize,bellshapedandlight
purpleincolourwitharosyflesh.In SouthIndia,PunefigandMarseillesarecommonly
grownthelatterthrivingwellinthehillyregions.ThefruitsofMarseillesaremediumsize,
palegreen on the rind with a whitish sweet flesh. Condit (1955) gave a good a ccount of
711 cultivars of figs and listed 946 synonyms in addition to 98 which hementioned as
having been described by other workers.
Lauri et al. (1993) classified edible fig cultivars into three horticultural categories:
Smyrna, San Pedro and Common. San Pedro and Smyrna types require caprification
(unlike thecommon type), thefirst produces breba andmain (or second) crops, whereas
the second produces only main crops. Morphological observations on cultivar s Grise de
Tarascon(brebaandmain)andRougedeBordeauxor Pastiliera (mainonly)duringtheir
fourthyearofgrowthshowedthatbrebaandmaincropshavedistinctdistributionsalong
the annual gradient;br eba s are located onthe neoformed part of shoot axes, while main
cropfigsareonthepreformedpart.Thisworkinvestigatedrelationshipsbetweenvegetative
growthandspatialdistributionofsyconiaalongashootaxis,anddistributionofaxeswithin
the crown as determined by architectural analysis.
Fig.Floralmorphologyincaprifigs and edible figs. (Armstrong, 2006)

Fig(Ficus carica)161
12. CROP IMPROVE MENT METHODS
Althoughfighasbeenundercultivationformanycenturiesandisnowdistributedinmany
countries of the world, relatively little work has been done for its improvement. The
earliestreportsonfigbreedingarethoseofSwingle(1912),Hunt(1912),Burbank(1914),
andCondit(1928).A projectentitled‘Genetics,cytology,morphologyandbreedingoffigs
(Ficuscarica)isbeingoperatedat theUniversityofCaliforniasince1922andasaresult
ofcontinuousplannedbreedingworkelevennewAmericancultivarshavebeendeveloped.
12.1.Selection
Althoughfighasbeenundercultivationformanycenturiesandisnowdistributedinmany
countries of the world, relatively little work has been done for its improvement. Most of
the fig cultivars cultivated today are selections made by unknownpersons inAsia and
Europe in the past centuries from wild seedling trees andchance seedlings. Since then
these have been maintained clonally by rooted cuttings and in course of time, have
acquired names. Three fig cultivars were selected by Ozeker and Isfendiyaroglu (1998)
inthe Ciftlikkoy region inTurkey(C1, C2 and C4)fr om 12 figcultivars that bear ear ly
breba fruits. The average fruit weight ranged between 3090 g, the total soluble solids
content in fruit juices was between 16 and27.6% titrable acidity as citric acid between
0.06and0.15g/ml,pHvalue between4.735.90andthefruitfleshfirmnesswasbetween
0.201.20 kg/cm
2
. In Italy, Grassi (1998) identified 442 clonesfrom different regions.
Morphological, phenological, productive and carpological observations cleared up many
synonymiesand led to thegroupingof manycloneswith similar characteristicsinto only
50 groups ofdifferent values in cultivation.
Chenetal.(1997)evaluated21cultivarsovera yearperiodforgrowthofshootsand
fruits,freezing injuryandothercharacteristicsinXuchangareainChina.Thebestvarieties
forHenanprovince wereMasuiDauphine, Brunswick,He18, andentries 8 and10. The
freezinginjurycouldbealleviatedbytrainingofbranchesintoacompactform.InTunisia,
there is a large varietal diversity with some varieties being threatened by extinction.
Development of successful modern production would depend on varietal selection and
improvement combined with resolution of some of the problems currently plaguing the
industryfruit cracking,handlingproblems environmentalimpact.
12.2.Hybridization
The classical breeding approaches in fig were summarized by Condit (1947), Storey
(1975),Obenaufetal. (1978), Fergusonetal.(1990), andMars (2003). Fig breeding is
a complex because of involving two tree morphs (Caprifig and Edible fig), three floral
forms(longstyledfemale,shortstyledfemale,andmaleflowers),andtheinsectpollinator
(Beck and Lord 1988). Two breeding progr ams were conducted in the beginning of the
20thcentury attheUniversityof California,led by I. J.Condit andN. B. Storeyandby

162Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
E. N. O’Rourke Jr at Louisiana State University. In addition, fig crosses and their
evaluation has beendescribedin Japan (Awamiir a, et al., 1996). Hybridiza tion began in
2003,andbytheendof2006,about4,000hybridfigseedlingswereplantedattheVolcani
Center,BetDagan,Israel.TheU.S.breedingprograminDavis,CaliforniabyConditand
Storeyproduced 300hybridprogeniestotalingmorethan30,000seedlings(Storey1975).
ThemostsignificantachievementoftheCaliforniafigbreedingprogrammewasdevelopment
offivehybridcultivars:‘Conadria’,DiRedo’,‘Flanders’,‘Tena’,and‘Excel’.Morerecently
Doyle and Ferguson(2005) released the cultivar‘Sierra’, a  commonfig typewith green
fig color and late summer maturity.
12.2.1.BreedingTechnique
Storey (1975) described in details the breeding technique being followed in fig. Trabut
(1922) and Condit (1947, 1950) tried interspecific hybridization involving F. carica, F.
palmata and F pseudocarica. However, the hybrids thus obtained were not of much
commercial value. In the Badkhyz area of Turkmenistan (former USSR) where F.
afghanistanica coexists with F. carica, spontaneous interspecific hybrids have been
found which are intermediate between parents (Petrova and Popov, 1979). New early
flowering caprifigswere bred at the Nikita Botanical Garden in Cr imea (former USSR)
using seedlings obtained by intervarietal and interspecific hybridization. Twelve new
caprifigs were selected which arc early flowering and produce an abundance of viable
pollen(Arendt andAleksandrova,1971).Arendt (1974) reviewedthebreedingworkdone
in former USSR. She obtained best results by interspecific hybridization using a hardy
triploid species referred to as the Afghanistan fig (F afghanistanica) and F. carica
Yellow.T he most significant achievement in the history offig breeding, however, comes
from the researches done in California. The fruit characters of eleven new hybrids
released and adapted for commercial cultivation in California.
Toclarifytheeffectofvariousseedparentsonfrequencydistributionofparthenocarpic
characteristicamongprogeniesoffig(Ficuscarica),selectedfigcultivarswerepollinated
with pollen from incomplete parthenocarpic caprifig cv. Caprifig 6085.After separating
the seedlings into a caprifig or a common fig type, the occurrence of parthenocarpy in
the first or second crops was investigated. In the first crop of caprifig type, a high
frequencyofparthenocarpywasfoundinprogeniesfromSanPedrotypecultivar,whereas
thecommontypecultivarseta moderatenumberofparthenocarpicfruitinthefirstcrop.
In the second crop, thecommontypecultivar producedprogenies witha highfrequency
of parthenocarpic fruit. Almost no parthenocarpic seedlings were producedwhen a non
parthenoca rpicSmyrnatypecultivar was useda s a seed parent (Awamura et at., 1996).
Fruit characters, fruit weight (FW) and soluble solids content (SSC) in the juice of
hybrids of 9 cross combinations were investigated byAwamura et al. (1997). Family
means of the groups, namely caprifigtype first crop, figtype first crop and figtype
second crop, were determined. There were positive correlations between the FW of the

Fig(Ficus carica)163
3groupsandmidparentalvalues,andbetween theSSCoffigtypefirstandsecondcrop,
and midparental values. There were negative correlations between the FW of caprifig
typeandfigtypefirstcropandthemidparentalSSCvalue,andbetweentheSSCoffig
type second crop and midparental FW value.
O’Rourke (1966), Puls et al. (1967) and Puls and O’Rourke (1967) have reported
significant progressin breeding figs for rootknot nematode (Meloidogyneincognita var.
acrita) resistance in Louisiana.Afairly highorder of resistance was found in individual
seedlings in progenies of the commercially grown cultivars Hunt and Celeste.
CultivarLSUwasdevelopedfromthepollinationofHuntbyanunknownCalifornian
caprifig designatedas Cl. LSU Purple is parthenocarpic, so thereare few seeds or kerfs
inthepulp. Theflavourisgood andmildandsugarcontentishigh. Thetreeisvigorous,
upright,aboveaverageforcoldtoleranceandresistanttoleafdiseasesandrootnematodes
(O’Rourke, 1992). Diploid apogamy was induced in F. carica and F.  afghanistanica by
application of Lilium candidum pollen and various physiologically active substances.
Adenosine triphosphate stimulated apomictic seed development in F. carica, as did
naphthylacetamide in F. afghanistanica (Romanova, 1979). Neeman and Galil (1978)
showed that artificial pollination of bagged spring and summer caprifig syconia resulted
in seed set and sweet figs were obtained.
12.3.MutationalBreeding
Inducedmutationsmayplayanimportantroleinfigimprovementforimportanttraitssuch
assmallostiolsize,largefruitsize,fruitfleshquality,andtreeproductivityasconsiderable
diversity for fruit shape, color and tree vigor exist in many clonally derived cultivars
(Santoniet al.,  2000). Mutational variation canbe induced either by specific treatments
withphysicalandchemicalmutagens orbytissueculture.Theeffectof gammaradiation
on cuttings, seeds, and pollen in figs has been well reported. The frequent finding was
dwarfness andaccelerationoffruiting (Mars 2003). Somemutantswereusedinbreeding
programsandthecultivarBol’obtainedbyseedirradiationfollowedbyselection(Akhuid
Zade1981).Inaddition,spontaneousmutantscanoccurincommercialorchards.Recently
‘RedKadota’,amutantof‘Kadota’selectedfromcommercialorchardinIsraelissimilar
to ‘Kadota’ cultivar, but has red skin that develops during fruit maturation; therefore, it
was named and registered as ‘Red Kadota’ (Flaishman et al., 2007). In vitro tissue
culture methods may also be very useful in selecting new cultivars from somaclonal
variation(Mur iithi et al., 1982; Pontikis and Melas 1986), but none have been r eleased
yet from tissueculture mutagenesis (Mars 2003).
12.4.Biotechnology
12.4.1.MolecularBreeding
Compared to traditional breeding techniques, application of genetic engineering to
homologous and/or heterologous genetic material into fruit trees, offers the potential of

164Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
obtainingimprovedplantingstocksinashortperiodoftime. Efficienttransformationcan
also be used for the production of heterologous polypeptides having nutritional and/or
pharmaceutical value.Yakushijiet al.(2003),reportedadventitious shootregenerationin
tissuecultureinF.carica.Theyalsoreportedamethodfortheinductionoforganogenesis
fromleafexplantsofF.caricausingphloroglucinol(PC).Yancheva etal.(2005),reported
an efficient and reproducible system for regeneration of ‘Brown Turkey’ and ‘Smyrna’
fig.Inaddition, efficient andreproducible transformationsystems for bothcultivarswere
alsoreportedbyYanchevaetal.(2005).Similartoregeneration,theorientationoftheleaf
surfaceduringorganogenesiswasakeyfactorforsuccessfultransformation.Leafexplants
of invitro propagated plantswere cocultivated with the disarmed Agrobacterium strain
EHAI05harboringtheplasmidpME504thatcarriedtheuidAintron,barandnptllgenes.
Transformants were obtained by selection on the antibiotic ‘I Kanamycin at variable
transformation efficiencies in different cultivars (Yancheva et al., 2005). The transgenic
nature of the regenerated plants was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot and gave
typicalstainingforthereportinggeneGUS.Histochemicallocalizationof13glucuronidase
(GUS)activityconfirmedthatthecauliflowermosaicvirus(CaMv)promoterfunctionsin
cells of the fig syconium.
12.4.2.MicroPropagation
Micropropagation of fig is also possible. Pontikis andMelas (1986) developed a micro
propagationtechniqueinwhichshoottipsofcv.KalamonwereculturedonMurashigeand
Skoog’s medium containing several growth regulators. Shoot proliferation occurred in
mediacontainingphloroglucinoat89mg/l.Theshootswerethenrootedinmediacontaining
IBA or IBA and NAA. The best rooting (80%) was obtained withIBA at 1 mg/l. The
rooted plants weresuccessfullytransferredto sterilevermiculiteandafteracclimatization
to pots containing equa l parts of peat and vermiculite.
A procedure formultipleshoot induction andplantlet regenerationwas developedby
Kumar et al. (1998) with apical buds collected from 7–to 8–year–old trees of Ficus
carica using MS medium supplemented with 2. 0 mg GA and 0.2 mg NAA/1. The in
vitroregenerated shoots were further multiplied onMS medium supplemented with 2.0
mg BA and 0.2 mg NAA/1; an average multiplication rate was four per subculture.
Excised shootswererootedinliquidhalfstrengthMS mediumsupplementedwith2.0mg
IBA/l and 0.2% activated charcoal.
ApicalshoottipsofthefigcultivarsBerberaandLampawereculturedbyNobreand
Romano(1998)onMuriithiorJonardculturemediumsupplementedwiththeantioxidants
likepolyvinylpyrrolidonc[(polyvidone)](PVP40)(0.025,0.05,0.1,1.0%v/v)orascorbic
acid (56.8 or 113.6
m
M). Growth and development were best on Muriithi medium
supplementedwith 0.05%PVP.Singlenodeexplantsofshootsobtainedintheestablishment
phase were cultured on basal MS medium supplemented with 3% sucrose and BA (0.7,
1.1 or 2.2
m
M) alone or in combinationwith NAA (1.0
m
M).After 3 weeks, the highest

Fig(Ficus carica)165
multiplicationrate(5.3shoots/culture)wasobtainedinthemediumsupplementedwith2.2
m
MBAwithoutNAA.Plantletsweresuccess–fullyacclimatized. Micropropagatedplants
produced fruits within 2 years after field–establishment. Apart from standardization of
protocol for micropropagation, biochemicalandmolecularmarkershavebeenusedinthe
identification of genotypes of fig.
12.4.3.BiochemicalandMolecularMarkers
Characterization of fig germplasms has been conducted by means of isoenzyme
electrophoresis on horizontal starch gel applied on cork tissue (Chessa et al., 1998).
Seventeen enzymes systems were analyzed and acid phosphatase (AcPH), diaphorasc
(DIA),fumarase(FUM),glutamateoxalacetatetransaminase(aspartateaminotransferase)
(GOT), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), peroxidase (PRX) and phosphoglucoisomerase
[glucose6phosphate isomerase] (PGI) showed high resolution of the bands and
reproducibility of the analysis. Only FUM had a monomorphicpattern, while the other
enzymes tested allowed the characterization of almost all fig varieties. The degree of
electrophoretic similarity between varieties was determined by calculating a similarity
index value based on three enzyme systems : AcPH, GOT and MDH.
Elisiario etal.(1998)usedisoenzymeandRAPDmarkerstodifferentiate55traditional
varieties of fig in Portugal. Six isoenzyme systems were revealed after starch gel
electrophoresisofleafextracts:glucose6phosphateisomerase(PGI),phosphoglucomutase
(PGM), isocitrate dchydrogcnase (IDH), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), aspartate
aminotransferase (GOT) and cytosol aminopeptidase (LAP). Three isozyme systems,
PGM, IDH and GOT revealed four polymorphic loci and were used for variety
characterization. Several clonesshared identical isoenzyrne banding patterns and could
not be distinguished by these markers. RAPDs were used in a second step of molecular
characterization. Sixty decamer primers were tested. Fortythree primers generated
amplifiedproductsandwereusedtodistinguishamongalltheclones,eitherwithingroups
of identical or different isozyme patterns. Similarly, identification of 21 fig accessions
(Ficus carica) representingdifferent var ieties wa sperformed using the RAPD technique
(Khadari et al., 1995). The 19 RAPD markers used provided 17 different banding
patterns.TheRAPDmarkersshowedsufficientpolymorphismforgenotypediscrimination,
clonalstability,environmentalstabilityandexperimentalreproducibility.
12.4.4.MarkerAssistedSelection
Markerassistedselectionormarkeraidedselection(MAS)isaprocesswherebyamarker
(morphological, biochemical or one based on DNA/RNA variation) is used for indirect
selectionof a genetic determinant or determinantsof a trait of interest(e.g. productivity, 
disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and/or quality). Yield, quality, and disease
resistance etc are important quantitative inheritance. Means of analyzing quantitative
variation and especially of uncovering its potential genetic basis are therefore of major

166Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
importa nce for breeding purposes.Many studieshave been interested in the development
ofothermethodsforcultivaridentification.Forinstance,proteinpolymorphismsincommon
figs were suitable for characterizing fig varieties. However, the success of varietal
identification depends on the number of isoenzymatic systems and alleles studied.
Unfortunately, this number is often limited, which leads to insufficient polymorphism
among closely related genotypes. Various DNA profiling methods ar e curr ently available
and consist of two ma in categoriesa ccording to the information provided: specificlocus
and codominant markers and arbitrary and dominant such quantitative variation results
from the combined action of multiple segregating genes and environmental factors. The
jointanalysisofgenotypemarkersegregationandphenotypicvaluesofindividualsorlines
enables the detection andlocation of loci affecting quantitativetr ait loci (QTL). In a fig
breedingprogram,QTLcanbeusedthroughtheapplicationofmolecularmarkers,providing
basisforsocalledmarkerassistedselection(MAS).Molecularidentificationoffigcultivars
has been carried out using isozyme markers (Cabrita et al., 2001), random amplified
polymorphicDNA(RAPD)(Cabritaetal.,2001;Galderisietal.,1999;Papadopoulouet
al., 2002), Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Restricted Fragment Length Polymorphism
(RFLP)(Khadari etal.,2005)oramplifiedfragmentlengthpolymorphism(AFLP)(Cabrita
etal.2001).Khadari etal.(2001)identified8microsatellitesinfig.Morerecently,Giraldo
et al. (2005), reported 26 additional microsatellites that were tested in a group of 15
known fig cultivars. T hese tools canbe veryuseful in future evaluation of fig progenies
in fig breeding programs.
13. VARIETAL WEALTH
Therearemanycultivated varietiesineachclassoffigs.Infact, amongseveralhundreds
ofdescribedcultivars,75 %wereof‘Commontype’,18%of‘Smyrnatype’andtherest
(7 %)ar eof ‘San Pedr otype’ or capr ifigs (IBPGR, 1986). Over 700 varietal names are
in use but many are synonyms. Poona fig is most popular cultivar grown in India.
Bangalore,Bellary,Coimbatore,Daulatahad,Dindigual,Ganjam,Hindupur,Lucknowand
Saharanpur,haveclearlyacquiredthenamefromthelocationinwhichtheyarecultivated.
Mostofthemresembleinplantandfruitmorphologyto thatofPoonafig.Possiblythese
are either clones or ecotypes. Dinker,a nimprovement over Daultabad for yield andfr uit
quality,isgainingcommercialsignificance.Somewell known fighybrids fromCalifornia
haveperformed well in India in comparison to Poona fig. Excela nd C onardia figs that
developsmallercanopiesaresuitableforhighdensityplantingandfreefromfruitsplitting.
Conardia,ExcelandDeannaaregoodfordrying,canningandtablepurposes,respectively.
Table: Compre hensive list o ffig va rieties
Smyrnatype figs with s kin green B orsamele, Eisen, Kaab el Ghazal, Khazou ri,Ma la ki, Rosa,
or yellow; pulp white, amber, Sari Lop ( Calimyrna,Aidin), Sc ionto Sno wden. Sultanie
orverylightred
[Table Contd.

Fig(Ficus carica)167
Smyrnatype figs with s kin green Ab ate,  Abi arou s, Ab ou che rch aou , Akc a, A lekak e, A mesa s,
or yellow ; pulp various s hades A r an im A m ell al , B ar d aj ic  B lo we r s,  C as t elh a no  B ra nc o ,
ofred Chan gelge, Che faki, Chek er Injir, Ch oer, Cueritesto , Djafer i,
Dj ebali, Fiet ta, Hilg ard ,Isly, J adi, Kala mata , Karayap rak,
Kas saba, Kh adir, K ouffi  Ve rt, L ebi, Mado ui, Malak i Blan c,
Mama ri, Mapl eLeaved  Merchin i, Mot a , Mou zai, Pan ettaro ,
Pa sulito , Pazz o, Rixfor d, S esso, Si gilli, S oua bae lAdj ia,
Bl anc he,  Stan for d, S ulta ne B ilo ng ue,  Sultani , Tabelou t,
Tabelout, Tadefo uit, Taharit, Takourc hit, Tameriout , Taranimt,
Tau risano,Tazarift, Trêsum Prato, Verdescone, West, W ilson,
Yediver
Smyrnatype figs with skin dark  Eusc aire, H amriti, Sc anc aniso
(various sh ades of violet to
black); pulp white or amber
Smyrnatype Figs with Skin Da rk A bo ug an djo ur,  Ad jaff ar, A gh an,  Ag ou arzg uil ef, A go us sim,
(VariousS hades of Red, Brown, Aranim Aber kane ,Ave rane, Avou zegar, Azen dja r, Barda kjik
or Vio let toBlack);Pulp Various Black , Bar li, Belman dil, Bes oulelKhadem, Bid dinel Brel,
Shades of Red Bo uAng , BouHar rak, Castelha no Pret o, Hab tir, Kara Injir,
Kha louli, Ko uffi Rou ge, L ugliatico , Marab out, Mo r, Mo r Güz,
Na polet ana, Passa can ne, P urp le Bullet in Sm yrna, Pu rple
Sm yrna, R her abi,  Sala tello , So ltan ine, Tak lit,  Tar ou mant ,
Tec hich, Turco, Zafrani
San Pedro typ ef ig s wit h skin Cach opeiro, Bra nco, Co lombro, Gen tile, Khdari, K in g, Noce,
green; pu lp red Pietri,San Giovanni, San Pedro, San Vito
San Pedro typ ef ig s wit h skin Buino, Carvalhal, Castle Kennedy, Chiajese, Dauphine , Drap
bronze or violet;pulp amber or red d 'Or(syn .RoyalVineyard),FracazzanoRosso,Lampeira,Ottato
Rosso, P etronciano , Pied de Bo euf
Comm ontype figs w ith skin A lb o,  An ge lin a,  B lan c he , B ri nd is ino , C as tel lan a,  C itr at o,
green or yellow; pulp amber C olombo B ianco, Do rée Nobis, D ottato, E arly White, E deisi,
or white Flore n tine,  Fra cazza n o , Hd a di, Hde id a rm al,  Jau n e de
Toulou se, K ahraman i, Kar gigna , Mag dalen, Min uto B ianc o,
Mshak i, Ojo d e Perdiz, P alla ro, Pelo d e Buey,P oppa, Ra by
Cas tle, Re ine, Sc hifo , Seirolles , Tos sico,  Urja l, Verde ccio ,
Verdillo ,Yaffawi,Zo nto,
Comm ontype figs w ith skin Abakor,Aberdin,An gélique,ArneoBianc o,Barnisso tteBlanc he,
green or yellow; pulp various Ba youd i, Bo nta rd, Bo uin,  Bou krati, Br ianzo la, B utt afar ro,
shades of red Carab aset a, Ca rlin a, C ime iren ca  Bla nca , C ol d e Da me,
Cotignacenq ue, Dame Blanche, Darji, Datte, Daurada, Doree,
Du R oi, El Kh adri, G enoa, G ota d e Mel, Gr assale, Gr asse,
Grosse Jaune, Ha rraki,Kaffi, Kom mathri, Limoncello, Lucano ,
Ma rseilla ise, Ma rtig iano, Meou ,  Mo naco , Mo nstru eus e,
Mo resca , Mus sega,  Neimi,  Paja jero , Pan ach ee, Per tico ne,
Pissalutto,Pounchuda,Quarai,Ravignon,Salerne,Sfari,Sicile,
Sig nor ella,  Slat i, Su cra da, S ulo mo,  Syda wi, T ban i, Tord o,
Toscana,Troiano,Unnequi,VerdaleBlanche,Verdeal,Verdino,
Verd one, Vert e, Vescovo , Viola da Blanca, Yellow  Nech es,
Zamo zujica, Z imitza,
Contd. Table]
[Table Contd.

168Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
Comm ontype figs w ith skin Agu lla, Alican tina, Biter Abiod, Cas eta,C astagnola, Cervon e,
green or yellow; pulp color not Cistallino, Comadre, Du  Japon, E spagnole, Graissane, Jo rba,
de sign ate d Levan t, Llimon enca, N ew Fren ch, Par ejal, Pelo sa, Pilosella,
Préco ce, Ragu sa, Reginella, S erra, Sextius, Su ltani,Tassiret,
Tiboulenque ,Tira , Vacal
Comm ontype figs w ith skin Abbou di,Albanera,Archipel,Barbillone,Beall,Brunswic k,Datil,
dark ( various shades o f red, Leon, Marinera, M arsaoui, Matelassa, Mwazi, Osb orn Prolific,
brown, or violet to black); pulp Regg itana, Roja , Scavello
white or amber
Comm ontype figs w ith skin A dam , A ma ro un a,  A za ich , B arg em on , B ar ni ss enc a,
dark (various shades of red, B arn issot te,  Bec  de  Per drix,  Bec uelle, B ello na, B eta da,
brown, or violetto black); pulp Blavette , Bocard e, Bord eaux, Bou chebarriq ue, Bou rdissotte 
various shades of red No ire, Brias ca, B riasca, Dou ssa, Brow n Tur key, Caiana,
Calabresa, C alderona , Caravanc hin a Negra, C ascitello,
Casta gnolo , Celestin e, Cern ica, Clave u, Col d e Dame  Noir,
Colo mbo N ero, Con stantin e, Couc ourelle Ga votte, Cum pini,
Cuore,Cu rigo,DameNoire,DatteQuotidienne,Dattero,Djerbi,
EarlyViolet,Eva,Ferguson,FigueFleur,Ford,FranchePaillard,
Fr anc isc ana , Fr ette, G allu cc io, G hzali, G ou raud R ouge ,
Guilia na, Hma ri, Hun t, Impe rial, Ischi a Black,  Ischia B rown ,
Jaspe r,  Jer u sa le m, K a hili , Ku s, L ar d ar o, Le venss an a,
Made line, Malm aison, M alta, Map pafero , Marseillais e Black,
Marse illaise L ong, M artiniqu e, Meirana,  Melagrano , Melinga,
Melou ba, Mer engiana, M erioun , Merlinga , Monaie, M oscate l
Pre to, Mo uisso nne, Mou renao , Napolitaine, Neg rette, No ir
Moutier,Noral,Observantine,OEildePerdrix,Paradiso,Pardo,
Pastiliere,  Pea u Du re,  Pec o n jud o, Pe nna, Perro quin e,
Pis salut to Nero , Po ona,  Pou lette , Precoce de Bar celona,
Pregu ssata, Preston, R amsey, Rec ousse Noire, Re gina, Rei,
Roc arde, Rose B lanche, Rose N oire, Rose P eyronne, Royal,
SaintEsprit, Saint J ean, Salada, San Piero, Sarreigne, S bayi,
Selteni,  Shun nari, Shu nnari Asmar, S ignora, S mari, Sof eno,
St. Do mingo,  Suk kari, Su ltane, Su ltani, Tem ri, Toulousienn e,
Tributaria, Verdal, Verdald eValence, Verdal Rou nd, Vernino,
VerteBru ne, VioletSepor, Violeta Negra, Zaiti, Ziza Kheden
Source: Condit, 1955
13.1.Important FigVarietiesGrown inIndia
13.1.1.Dinkar
SelectionmadefromlocalDaulatabadtrees.Externalskincolourisdarkred;fleshcolour
isdark pinkandpear shapedfruits.Averagelengthoffruitis6.80 cm,diameter is 11.81
cm,fr uit weight is 25.76 g.Average volume is20.16 ml, specific gravityis 1.2774 m/v;
moistureis74.0%, TSSis18.36%,totalacidityis0.23%,reducingsugarsis13.40%,
Contd. Table]

Fig(Ficus carica)169
nonreducingsugarsis1.89%andtotalsugarsis15.29%.Highyieldingvarietyproducing
big sized fruits (70100 g). It is resistant to rust disease. Average yield is 6070 kg per
tree. The cultivar is recommended for Maharashtra state except Konkan region.
13.1.2.PoonaFig
Itisthemostpopularcultivargrownfor consumptionasfreshfruit. Externalskincolour
is reddish green, flesh colour is pink and pear shaped fruits, sweet and good flavor.
Averagelengthis6.58cm,Averagediameteris12.00cm,fruitweightis24.60g.Average
volumeis18.80ml,Specificgravityis1.3076m/v,Moistureis76.0%,TSS.is19.34%,
total acidity is 0.21 %,r educingsugar sis 13.76 %, non reducing sugars is 2.25 % and
total sugars is 16.01 %. Most of the fig grown in Mangalore, Bellary, Coimbatore,
Daulatabad, Ganjam, Lucknow and Sa haranpur resemblesin plant andfruit morphology
to that of Poona Fig.
13.1.3.Conadria
Firstartificialhybridfig.Externalskincolourisgreenish,fleshcolouriscreamy pinkish
and pear shaped fruits, mildly sweet. Average length is 7.07 cm, Average diameter is
13.80cm,fruitweight is38.76g.Average volumeis33.68ml,Specificgravityis1.1580
m/v,Moistureis80.0%,TSS.Is20.15%,totalacidityis0.17%,reducingsugarsis15.66
%,nonreducingsugarsis2.08%andtotalsugaris17.74%.Goodfresh,excellentdried.
MoreproductivethanAdriatic.Lightbrebacrop.Treevigorous,tendstoexcessivegrowth
under  irrigation, best inhot climates.
13.1.4.Deanna
Externalskincolourisgoldenyellow, fleshcolouriscreamywhiteandbellshapedfruits.
Averagelengthis7.81cm,diameteris16.03 cm,fruitweightis46.64g,Averagevolume
is44.76ml,specificgravityis1.0478m/vandmoistureis78.0%.TSS.is21.20%,total
acidity is 0.15 %, reducing sugars is17. 25%, non reducing sugars is1.79 % and total
sugar is 19.04 %. Highest yield of dried product is 19.82 %. Dried fig could be stored
more than 180 days at low temperature maintaining itsphysicochemical characters and
high organoleptic score.
13.1.5.Excel
External skin colour is greenish yellow, flesh colour is creamy and bell shaped fruits.
Averagelengthis6.52cm,Averagediameteris11.87cm,fruitweightis24.72g,Average
volumeis21.16 ml,Specificgravityis1.1675m/v,Moistureis75.0%,TSS.Is19.36%,
total acidity is 0.19 %,r educingsugar sis 14.86 %, non reducing sugars is 1.62 % and
totalsugaris16.48%.Fruitsareverysweet,excellent,multipurposefig.Lightbrebacrop,
similar to Kadota but more productive.

170Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
13.1.6. YCD  1 T IMLA
ItisanintroductionandreleasedfromHorticulturalResearchStation,Yercaud.Treesare
well adaptedtotherainfedsituationsofShevroyshillsandtothepoorshallowandrocky
soils.Treesshowedhigh droughttolerance besidesitsexceptionallyhardynatureandfree
fromanypestordiseaseincludingthecommonfigrust.Theplantsaresphericalincanopy
and are elegant with dense dark green leavesoften growing to a height of 7.0 m with
a spread of 12.0 m. Fruits are in attractive reddish purple color and are large in size
mea suring 7.0 cm in diameter, each weighing 100200g. Higher harvests are made from
each tree, the maximum being 4000 fruits. The bearing is throughout the yea r excepting
winter months. Fruits are a rich source of vitamin C (500 mg/100g) besides â carotene
and lycopene.
13.1.7.Celeste
Pearshaped,ribbed,sometimeswith a shortneckandslender stalkto3/4in(2cm)long.
Eye(openingat apex)isclosed, fruit issmalltomedium. Skinpurplishbrown or bronze
tingedwithpurpleandcovered withbloom. Pulpwhitish orpinkishamber,ofrichflavor
andgoodquality;almostseedless.Maincropis heavybut ofshortduration.Celeste figs
are most commonly grown in Texas.
13.1.8.BrownTurkey
Broadpyriform, usually without neck, medium to large, coppercolored. Pulp is whitish
shadingtopinkorlightred,goodtoverygoodqualitywithfewseeds.Thetreeisprolific.
Themaincrop,beginninginmidJuly,islarge;theearly,breba,cropissmall.Thiscultivar
iswelladaptedtowarmclimates.Fruitsareexcellent forjams,canning, dryingor eating
fresh. It isgrown on all theislands of Hawaii.
13.1.9.Brunswick(Magnolia)
Leavesnarrowlobed;fruitsofmaincropareobliqueturbinate,mostlywithoutneck.Fruit
stalkthick,oftenswollen;fruitofmediumsize;bronzeorpurplebrown.Pulpwhitishnear
skin, shading to pink or amber, hollow in center, offa ir to good qua lity, nearly seedless.
Ripensoveralongseason.Brebacroppoor;large,bronzeskinned,fleshlightred,coarse.
13.1.10.Marseilles(WhiteMarseilles,orLemon)
Fruitsofmaincroproundtooblatewithoutneck,onslenderstalksto1/4 in(6mm)long;
of medium size. Those of breba crop, turbinate with short, thick neck andshort stalk;
yellowgreen with small green flecks; pulp white, sweet; seeds large, conspicuous.
Marseilles is commonlyfound inCalifornia.

Fig(Ficus carica)171
13.1.11.Adriatic(WhiteAdriatic, orGrosse Verte)
Turbinatewithshort, thickneckandshort stalk; abovemedium size.Green to yellowish
greenwithredpulp;ofdistinctiveflavorandverygoodquality.Inearly,minor,brebacrop
thefruits are obliquepyriform, la rge, green,often tinged with purplishredwith darkred
pulpandstrongflavor.AdriaticfigtreescansometimesbefoundinthestateofWashington.
13.1.12.Genoa(WhiteGenoa)
Pyriformorturbinate,veryfaintlyribbed;neckthickandshort,orabsentMediuminsize;
skindowny,greenishyellow;pulpgreenishwhitenearskin.Mostlyambertingedwithred;
hollow; of fair quality. Fruits of breba crop obliqueobovate with thick neck and short
stalk; yellowishgreen externally. Pulp lightred; offa ir to good quality. This is common
variety of Chile and Argentina.
13.1.13.PurpleGenca (Black Genoa;Black Spanish)
Oblong,broadatapex,narrowatbase;large;verydarkpurplewiththickbluebloom;Pulp
yellowish becoming reddish to red at the center; juicy, with sweet, rich flavor.
13.1.14.BlackIschia(BlueIschia)
An Italian heavy bearer variety; main crop is elongated pear shaped with small fruits;
Shortneckandshorttomediumstalk;large,21/2in(6.35cm)longand11/2in(3.8cm)
wide; dark purpleblack except at the apex where it is lighter and greenish; There are
many goldenflecks; skiniswhollycoatedwiththin,darkbluebloom; eyeopen,withred
violetscales;pulp is violetred,ofgoodquality.Inthebrebacrop,therearefewrlbsand
mostly indistinct; the fruit is small, about 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) long and of the same width
at the apex; the pulp is red to greenishamber; of poor flavor. The tree is particularly
ornamental and the leaves are glossy, only shallowly 3 lobed. It is a heavy bearer.
At Saharanpur, India, ‘Brown Turkey’, ‘Bangalore’, ‘Black Ischia’ and ‘Lucknow’
are successfully grown.Around Mumbai, there is only one variety, ‘Poona’.
13.2 . Cultivars in O ther Countrie s
13.2.1.Ventura
Compact large tree, long green fruit with deep red flesh and excellent flavor. Good as
fresh or dried. Good breba crop. Late cultivar but matures well in cool areas.
13.2.2. Kadota (Ge ntile, White E ndich, Dottato)
Medium,skinisyellowishgreen,fleshamber,tingedpinkatcenter withrichflavor.Little
or no br eba crop. Tree upright, requires annual pruning to slowgrowth. Prefers hot, dry
climate for best quality. This variety is the commercial fig of California.

172Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
13.2.3. Sari Lop (
CALIMYRNA
)
A very large and delicious, smyrna type, yellow fig with amber flesh possessing a rich,
nutty flavor. Fruit is oblatespherical. The most important commercial fig grown in
California.
13.2.4.Tena
This isthe first hybrid to have ‘Calimyrna’ (Sari Lop) on both sides of its pedigree and
released in 1975. Thefruits are medium to large size with a greenish yellow skina nd a
white to light strawberry flesh. The eye is very tight and this helps prevent spoilage
during unfavorable weather. It has a verysweet, excellent flavor when fresh or dried,
best suited in hot, dry areas.
13.2.5.Alma
Thisheavybearing, verysweetfigwasreleasedfromTexasA&MUniversity’sin1975.
It has golden brown skin and very tasty, ambertan flesh. It has a small eye which
preventsspoilageduringadverseweatherconditions.Theplantisahardy,smalltreewith
a heavy main crop that ripens very late. Highly resistant tofruit rots.
13.2.6.BlackMission
Tree very large, fruits allover black purple, elongated, Flesh watermelon to pink, fairly
good taste. Easily dried at home. Breba crop is prolific.
13.2.7.SanPedro
SanPedrofigisa midseason(midFeb)variety.Thefruitsarelargeandroundandvary
from a purple to pale green skin, and has sweet, creamy pink flesh. Moderate to heavy
crops. They prefer fullsun, shelter from the wind, in a welldrained, loamy soil.
FruitcharacteristicsofthefigcultivarsBursaSivahi,Yesilguz,Bardakci,SultanSclim,
Karabakunva, Beyaz Orak and Sarilop were studied by Kaynak et al. (1998). Bursa
Siyahi had the heaviest fruits and Karabakunya the lightest. Fruit width was greatest in
Beyaz Orak, Sarilop and Bursa Siyahi, and Bursa Siyahi had the longest fruits. Bursa
Siyahi,SarilopandYesilguzwere theeasiesttopeel.Bardakci,BevazOrak,BursaSiyahi
andYesilguzhadtheleastostiolcandskincracking.Theplastidpigmentsinthefruitskin
offigarechlorophyllaandb,Bcarotene,lutein,violaxanthinandneoxanthin(Puechet
al., 1976).
Mars et al. (1998) analyzed the diversity among 22 cultivars of the southern arid
regions inTunisiausingmorphomctricstudies.Cultivar characterizationandmultivariate
analysismade on the basisof 18 physical and chemical fruitcharacters of 22 main crop

Fig(Ficus carica)173
varieties suggested that fig germplasm is diverse. It was also possible to differentiate
three cultivar groups and two distinct cultivars.
In Israel,Assaf et al. (1999) divided the best cultivars with regular yields and high
fruitquality,into4groupsonthebasisoffruitcolour:(i)greenyellowfigs(KefarUriyya,
Jafa Kadouri, Kurt, Shahmani) (Nazarati types, Nazareth and Smirna); (ii) greenviolet
figs(BigRed,Hamoudi,K 16andSbaii), (iii)brown striped figs(GzaliandHortemani)
and (iv) black figs(Ita lian Black, Haroubi (all types), Robinb andShaltouf ElAbed). It
was noted that of the spring figs, the Nazareth was best. Growing under net protection
and importing ofnew cultivars are suggested for improving quality.
Seventeenfigcultivarswereassessedintrialsat Valenzano,Italyandcv.Petrelliwas
judged best for producing first crop figs(brebas) and cv. Donato for second crop figs.
CultivarslikeFicoReginadiGioiadelColleandZingarelloNeroproduced goodcropsof
both types (Ferrara and Petruzzella, 1992). Masui Dauphine, an important Japanese
cultivar, was evaluatedfor5yearsintheZhenjiangareainChina. It producedlarge(80
100g),elongateoval,purplered fruits with15%soluble solidscontentandhigh aspartic
acidcontent(0.22mg/100g).Thefruitwassuitableforfreshconsumptionandprocessing
(Yang et al., 1994). ElKassas et al. (1992a) evaluated the growth of four local and
introducecultivarsinEgypt.ThecultivarsDiRedo,Conadria,SultaniandBlackMission
were best in terms of tree vigour.
Evaluationofyieldandqualityofsvconiumalsoshowedmarkedvariationindifferent
cultivars(ElKassasetal.,1992b).Theyieldofthebrebacrop ofDiRedo, Conadriaand
Black Mission was >15% lower than that of the second (main) crop. Other tested
cultivarsyieldednegligiblenumbersofbrebafruits.Longerbearingunits(15buds)produced
more br eba syconia. Tlic percentage of ripesyconia/shoot in Kahramani, Black Mission
and Abboudi was 83.685.2%. In Brown Turkey and Sultani this value was 76%, in
Conadria and Abiad Asswan 69% and in DiRedo 63.1%. Sultani and Black Mission
yieldedapproximately 10 kgripefruits/treeandKahramani andAbiadAsswan 35.6 kg/
tree.Most fruits ripened fromthethirdweekofJuly;thoseofSultaniandBrownTurkey
beganto maturein the second weekofAugust. Average fruit fresh weight ranged from
11.8ginAbboudito40ginDiRedo.Totalsolublesolidsandsugarcontentswerehighest
inBlackMissionandConadria(>25°/oand>17.9%respectively).BrownTurkeyhadthe
lowest values for these parameters (16 and 13% respectively).
InBertregioninAlbania,23cultivarsoffigwereevaluatedbyNici(1989).Kaliamata,
Roshnikas,Perdhikulia,AdriatikandBajuniShkodresweremostsuitableforjamproduction,
andthefirst3ofthesevarieties(togetherwithBishtkugiiZiismokthinestosomeextent)
were the best for drying. Varieties with a high sugar percentage were judged best for
makingcandiedfruitjelly,figcakeandthealcoholicspirit‘raki’.Forhighfruitproduction.
Some varietiesofthecaprifigtypeneededartificialfertilization(caprification)toproduce
a second crop.

174Breeding of Un derutilized F ruit Crops
14. FUTURE THRUST
Rich genetic diversity available in the different part of the country should be exploited
systematicallyforselectionand screeningofgenotypeswhichmaysuitablearidandsemi
arid regions too and under problematic soil. Genotype selected must have high sugar
content and better shelf life so as value added and export oriented processed products
may be developed. Diverse patterns of fruit characteristics could be the basis of a
programmeassistedby a moleculargeneticmarker approach.Moreover, thedevelopment
of varieties more adapted to industrial uses and dried fig must take in consideration.
Further studies are needed involving chemical, biochemical, and molecular markers for
estimation of genetic variation at the molecular level. In many places, threat of genetic
erosion is evident, particularly for cultivars of “Smyrna type”.Alternative methods for
genetic resources management must be considered. There should be effective strategy
forFigMosaicDiseaseasitremainsaseriouspathologicalconstraintduringfiggermplasm
exchange.
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Conadriya Deanna
Dinkar Excel
FIG(Ficuscarica)

Fig
PoonaFig Ripenedfruit
Unripe fruits
FIG(Ficuscarica)