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Defining and Understanding Parentification: Implications for All Counselors

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Abstract

This article advances a balanced discussion of the extent to which varied outcomes are evidenced in adulthood after one has been parentified in childhood. Recommendations are provided that may help counselors avoid the potential overpathologizing of clients with a history of parentification. Suggestions for clinical practice are put forth for all counselors. Parentification is a ubiquitous phenomenon that most school, community, and family counselors as well as other human helpers face (Byng-Hall, 2002). That is, most counselors are likely to encounter both children and adults who have a history of parentification—a potential form of neglect (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark, 1973; Chase, 1999). What is parentification, and given its relationship with negative outcomes and behaviors, what can counselors do to avoid overpathologizing the client's signs, symptoms, and behaviors associated with parentification? This paper offers a review of what clinical practitioners and researchers have described in the literature. Subsequent to a brief review of the literature, suggestions regarding practice efforts directed toward clients who have experienced parentification are put forward.
Defining and Understanding Parentification:
Implications for All Counselors
Lisa M. Hooper
The University of Alabama
ABSTRACT
This article advances a balanced
discussion of the extent to which varied
outcomes are evidenced in adulthood
after one has been parentified in
childhood. Recommendations are
provided that may help counselors avoid
the potential overpathologizing of clients
with a history of parentification.
Suggestions for clinical practice are put
forth for all counselors.
Parentification is a ubiquitous
phenomenon that most school,
community, and family counselors as
well as other human helpers face (Byng-
Hall, 2002). That is, most counselors are
likely to encounter both children and
adults who have a history of
parentification—a potential form of
neglect (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark,
1973; Chase, 1999). What is
parentification, and given its relationship
with negative outcomes and behaviors,
what can counselors do to avoid
overpathologizing the client’s signs,
symptoms, and behaviors associated
with parentification? This paper offers a
review of what clinical practitioners and
researchers have described in the
literature. Subsequent to a brief review
of the literature, suggestions regarding
practice efforts directed toward clients
who have experienced parentification are
put forward.
Defining Parentification
Parentification is the distortion or lack
of boundaries between and among
family subsystems, such that children
take on roles and responsibilities usually
reserved for adults (Boszormenyi-Nagy
& Spark, 1973). That is, either explicitly
or implicitly, parents create an
environment that fosters caretaking
behaviors in their children that help
maintain homeostasis (i.e., balance) for
the family in general and the parent in
particular. Above and beyond
maintaining homeostasis for the family,
the responsibilities that are carried out
by the parentified child are traditionally
behaviors that provide the parent with
the specific emotional and instrumental
support that the parent likely did not
receive while he or she was growing up
(Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark,1973;
Minuchin, Montalvo, Guerney, Rosman,
& Schumer, 1967). Thus, the child must
be emotionally available for the parent,
even though the parent is often
emotionally unavailable for the child,
which may engender a chronic state of
anxiety and distress in some emotionally
parentified children (Bowen, 1978;
Briere, 1992; Cicchetti, 2004). The
clinical literature has also reported that
the breakdown in the generational
hierarchy may rob the child of activities
that are developmentally appropriate; the
child instead participates in either
instrumental or emotional caregiving
behaviors directed toward parents,
siblings, or both that may go unrewarded
and unrecognized (Boszormenyi-Nagy
Defining and Understanding Parentification
& Spark,1973; Jurkovic, 1997; Kerig,
2005; Minuchin et al.,1967). Some
research and practitioners contend that to
fully understand the aftereffects of
parentification, the type of
parentification (i.e., emotional and
instrumental) experienced in the family
must be assessed (Jurkovic, 1997).
Emotional parentification is the
participation in the “socioemotional
needs of family members and the family
as a whole” (Jurkovic, Morrell, &
Thirkield, 1999, p. 94). Behaviors
described by Jurkovic and colleagues
include, “serving as a confidant,
companion, or mate-like figure,
mediating family conflict, and providing
nurturance and support” (p. 94).
Instrumental parentification is the
participation in the “physical
maintenance and sustenance of the
family” (Jurkovic et al., 1999, p. 94).
Behaviors described by Jurkovic and
colleagues include, grocery shopping,
cooking, housecleaning, and
performance of daily duties that involve
caring for parents and siblings” (p. 94).
Of significance to counselors and other
mental health practitioners, not all
children who are parentified will
experience negative aftereffects (Byng-
Hall, 2002; DiCaccavo, 2006; Earley &
Cushway, 2002; Tompkins, 2007). In
fact, approximately only one-fourth of
all children who experience neglect will
go on to experience negative aftereffects
(Alexander, 1992; Cicchetti & Toth,
1995; Golden, 1999; Toth & Cicchetti,
1996; West & Keller, 1991). The next
section takes a less myopic view of the
potential aftereffects of parentification
often reported in the literature. The
following section includes a brief review
of the research base of both negative and
positive outcomes associated with
parentification.
Understanding Parentification: The
Negative and Positive Effects of
Parentification
Established Negative Effects. Studies in
the last 30 years have established a
relationship between parentification and
later maladjustment. Researchers have
found linkages from early childhood
stress/trauma to child and parent factors
such as divorce (Wallerstein, 1985),
parental alcohol and drug use (Bekir,
McLellan, Childress, & Gariti, 1993),
disruption in attachment (Zeanah &
Zeanah, 1989), family discord, low
socioeconomic status (Boszormenyi-
Nagy & Spark, 1973; Minuchin et al.,
1967), depression, and attachment and
relational difficulties (Jones & Wells,
1996).
The effects of childhood parentification
can be long-lasting, multigenerational,
and deleterious, presenting over the
course of a lifetime (Chase, 1999;
Karpel, 1976; West & Keller, 1991). For
young adults, parentification can impede
“normal” development related to
relationship building, personality
formation, and other developmentally
critical processes (Burt, 1992; Goglia,
Jurkovic, Burt, & Burge-Callaway,
1992; Sessions & Jurkovic, 1986;
Wolkin, 1984). Valleau, Bergner, and
Horton (1995) found that children who
are parentified have significantly more
“caretaker characteristics” in adulthood
than do those children who are not
parentified. Similarly, Jones and Wells
(1996) found an association between
personality characteristics such as
“people pleasing” and adults who had
been parentified. Further, their study,
comprising 208 undergraduate students
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
35 Defining and Understanding Parentification
Defining and Understanding Parentification
from a large Midwestern university,
found that participants who were
destructively parentified as children
often relate to others in problematic,
overfunctioning, caretaking ways.
Domains like separating from the family
of origin, participating in age-
appropriate behaviors (Olson & Gariti,
1993), engaging in academic pursuits,
and developing self-esteem can also be
affected (Bekir et al., 1993; Chase,
Demming, & Wells, 1998). Other
aftereffects may include mental illness in
general, and depression, anxiety,
substance abuse, and dependence
disorders in particular. For example,
Chase et al. (1998) found relationships
between high levels of parentification
and academic achievement and parental
use of alcohol. These findings are
consistent with multiple studies that
have established a relationship between
parentification and alcohol use by at
least one parent or guardian (Bekir et
al.,1993; Goglia et al., 1992). Bekir et al.
concluded that adults who abuse alcohol
or drugs are often unable to perform
their parental duties and that, therefore,
the parentified child is often left to care
for self, siblings, and parents. Bekir et al.
also found that the parentified child is
often inclined to repeat the same
behaviors as an adult with his or her own
children. Borderline personality and
dissociative disorders, although rare, can
be evidenced in extreme cases of this
phenomenon (Cicchetti, 2004; Liotti,
1992; Wells & Jones, 2000; Widom,
1999).
As previously mentioned, neglect
such as parentification can be and often
is traumatic for a child as well as for the
adult he or she becomes (Aldridge,
2006; Alexander, 1992; Chase, 1999;
Jurkovic, 1998). Trauma is often
experienced when a situation or
environment is perceived as being
overwhelming, threatening, and too
much for the individual (Briere, 1992;
Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), or when a
chronically stressful situation becomes
unrelenting and the individual is unable
to adapt and cope with the experience in
a healthy functional way (Brewin,
Andrews, & Gotlib, 1993; Werner,
1990).
Parentification can therefore be
characterized as a traumatic event and an
adverse process, in accord with the
definitions and criteria put forward in the
family and trauma literature, that have
long-lasting effects experienced in
adulthood (Belsky, 1990; Briere, 1992;
Chase, 1999; Cicchetti, 2004). Further,
extant literature on parentification has
shown that the process is in fact adverse
for most children and that it can later be
linked to poor adult functioning. The
process of childhood parentification can,
in the adults those children become,
produce a fear of having children and/or
lead to the transmission of
parentification across many generations
(Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark, 1973;
Bowen, 1978; Chase et al., 1998).
Potential Positive Effects
Because of the trauma often related to
the parentification process (e.g.,
significant distress, adversity,
dissociation, and even suicide [Jurkovic,
1997; Markowitz, 1994), research has
tended to focus on psychopathology and
other negative outcomes (Barnett &
Parker, 1998; Walker & Lee, 1998).
There is a dearth of research discussing
positive outcomes after childhood
parentification. One of the few studies to
do so, conducted by Jurkovic and Casey
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Defining and Understanding Parentification 36
Defining and Understanding Parentification
(2000), reported on the linkage between
emotional parentification and
interpersonal competence among Latino
adolescents. That study’s findings
suggested that higher levels of emotional
parentification are predictive of higher
levels of interpersonal competence. On
the other hand, adolescents who
experience low levels of emotional
parentification—in a family system in
which they perceive the parentification
process (i.e., the assignment of and the
responsibility to carry out parent like
duties) to be unfair—also experience
low levels of competence. Jurkovic and
Casey concluded that parentification has
the potential to promote competence.
Additionally, they suggested that
potentially critical to positive outcomes
after parentification is the degree to
which the child perceived the process to
be fair. In the context of a family system
where children have reported that the
parentification process was “fair” also
reported that their parent-like behaviors
and responsibilities did not go unnoticed
and they carried out those
responsibilities for brief periods of time.
Of significance, a family system absent
of parentification may prevent some
children of the skills and abilities they
could use across domains and
throughout their lives—although more
research is needed to clarify and support
this assertion. Towards this end, in
Thirkield’s (2002) study examining the
relationship between instrumental
parentification in childhood and
interpersonal competence in adulthood, a
significant positive linear relationship
was obtained. Thirkield also found a
positive relationship between age,
positive outcomes (operationalized as
interpersonal competence), and
instrumental parentification. Findings
from these studies (Jurkovic &
Casey,2000; Thirkield,2002) provide
preliminary support showing that (a)
benefits may be engendered by the
parentification process, and (b) benefits
may last over time.
In a more recent study conducted by
Walsh, Zvulun, Bar-On, & Tsur (2006)
they examined the extent to which the
parentification process may be
associated with positive factors among
adolescent immigrants. In their study
they found parentification was related to
positive outcomes such as high levels of
individuation and differentiation from
the family system. They also found
when adolescent immigrants and non-
immigrants perceived their roles and
responsibilities as fair and age
appropriate the outcome was positive:
sense of mastery and competence. Thus
they concluded the provision of parent-
like roles and responsibilities among the
study sample engendered individual
autonomy, self-mastery, and family
cohesion. McMahon and Luthar (2007)
also found a relationship between
psychosocial adjustment and
parentification. Of significance, and in
support of divergent findings related to
childhood parentification and adult
outcomes, McMahon and Luthar
contend this process and its associated
outcomes are multidetermined and
multifactorial, even in the context of
severe, long-standing levels of
parentification. For example, among
their study sample of children living in
poverty, the researchers failed to find a
significant, stable relationship between
parentification and poor outcomes.
Discussion
Given the overwhelming findings
regarding negative outcomes, counselors
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37 Defining and Understanding Parentification
Defining and Understanding Parentification
may be inclined to delimit their
therapeutic encounters to investigations
that look for the negative outcomes often
seen among this population (DiCaccavo,
2006; Earley & Cushway, 2002; Kerig,
2005). This potential overpathologizing
among counselors (Barnett & Parker,
1998; Hooper, 2007) could result in
missed opportunities to uncover
exceptions, that is, when positive skills
and coping strategies are experienced.
Consistent with a wellness, strength-
based counseling framework, counselors
should assess for clients’ strengths—if
any—derived from the parentification
process and infuse them into the
counseling and treatment planning
process. Therefore, the advantage of the
application of the counseling wellness
framework—as compared to a deficit or
medical model framework—is that it
allows for the explication of differential
outcomes—both negative and positive—
associated with parentification
(DiCaccavo,2006; Hooper,2007;
Jurkovic, 1997; Mayseless , et al.,
2004).
In the case of potential neglect, such as
parentification, many factors, as
previously described, may contribute to
the same event or process leading to
divergent outcomes. For example,
parentification can be perceived as
traumatic, as stressful but not traumatic,
or as a regular, even an anticipated
cultural event in the course of daily
living (Walsh, et al., 2006). To this end,
a large body of trauma literature has
suggested that the number of stressors
has more to do with the outcome or
aftereffects than does a particular
stressor itself (Waller, 2001). Thus, in
the case of parentification, the number of
stressors may influence the outcome
exhibited in both childhood and
adulthood.
Also, as asserted in the parentification
literature (Chase, 1999; Jurkovic, 1997,
1998; Minuchin et al., 1967), how long
the stressor was related to providing
caregiving to the parent and sibling is
also a contributing factor for those
children who carry out the parentified
role in their family of origin. Those who
perform this role for short periods of
time may perceive the role as less
overwhelming, stressful, or traumatic
than will others (Byng-Hall, 2002;
Saakvitne & Tennen, 1998; Tedeschi &
Calhoun, 1995). Finally, from a
developmental perspective, older
children are likely to feel more equipped
to take on the caregiving role than
younger children, thereby influencing
growth or distress outcomes associated
to the parentification process.
All counselors should consider the
following points when working with
clients who have a history of
parentification.
1. First, consider that not all clients who
are parentified experience negative
sequlae that are often reported in the
clinical and research literature (Barnett
& Parker, 1998; Byng-Hall, 2002;
Jurkovic, 1997; Jurkovic & Casey, 2000;
McMahon & Luthar, 2007; Thirkield,
2002; Tompkins, 2007).
2.Consider how long the parentification
process has been going on. The resultant
aftereffects may be different for clients
for whom the process is brief and
temporary as compared to long and
chronic (DiCaccavo, 2006; Tompkins,
2007). Shorter brief episodes of
parentification may foster competency
and self-efficacy in the client rather than
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Defining and Understanding Parentification 38
Defining and Understanding Parentification
pathological, poor outcomes (McMahon
& Luthar, 2007).
3.Consider the age of the client. The
aftereffects are likely to be different for
a younger child who is parentified as
compared to an older adolescent
(Kaplow & Widon, 2007; Walsh et al.,
2006).
4.Determine if the parentification
process is delimited to instrumental,
emotional, or both. The research
suggests emotional parentification may
be more deleterious than instrumental
parentification (Hooper, 2007;
McMahon & Luthar, 2007; Tompkins,
2007).
5.Consider the cultural and familial
context in which the client is embedded.
For example, how do the family and
people who adopt the client’s culture
perceive the parentification process
(Jurkovic, et al., 2001; Walsh, et al.,
2006)? Is the parentification process
culturally expected and valued?
6.Consider using a questionnaire to
capture the level, type, and perceived
fairness of parentification (e.g., Jurkovic
& Thirkield, 1998, for child and adult
instruments).
7.Examine to what extent the client feels
the parentification process is “fair.”
Again, research suggests if the process is
perceived to be “fair” then it is often
associated with fewer negative outcomes
(Jurkovic, et al., 1999).
8.There may be strengths engendered by
the parentification process (Hooper,
2007; Tompkins, 2007). Thus it may be
helpful to explore both positive and
negative aspects of the parentification
process.
9.Involve the family if possible.
Education may be all the family needs to
help the client and family restore or
reestablish the appropriate boundaries
where the child (if working with a child
or adolescent) has a safe, appropriate
context to grow, learn, differentiate, and
thrive (Walsh et al., 2006).
10.Consider a referral. Depending on the
context in which a counselor works, and
the extent and level of adversity
associated with the parentification
process, specific trauma-based
counseling (Calhoun & Tedeschi, 1999)
may be indicated.
Summary
Counselors and researchers have long
demonstrated a clear awareness of the
deleterious effects of parentification in
general (Chase, 1999; Jurkovic, 1997;
Mayseless, Bartholomew, Henderson, &
Trinke, 2004). On the other hand, and at
the same time, Barnett and Parker
(1998) concurred with Boszormenyi-
Nagy and Spark (1973) that it may in
fact be maladaptive to avoid or miss out
on any parental roles in the family of
origin—in that many lessons for
adulthood and parenthood are derived
from family-related roles and
responsibilities (i.e., parentification)
during childhood. Recently, Barnett and
Parker (1998) have questioned whether
parentification leads to early competence
or childhood deprivation. Similarly, one
of the “founding fathers” (Boszormenyi-
Nagy) of the construct of parentification
reminded counselors, theorists,
researchers, and the like that “the term
describes a ubiquitous and important
aspect of most human relationships. It is
suggested that parentification should not
be unconditionally ascribed to the realm
of ‘pathology’ or relational dysfunction.
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
39 Defining and Understanding Parentification
Defining and Understanding Parentification
It [parentification] is a component of the
regressive core of even balanced,
sufficiently reciprocal relationships”
(Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark, 1973, p.
151)
AUTHOR NOTE
Correspondence regarding the
manuscript should be directed to: Lisa
M. Hooper, Ph.D., Department of
Educational Studies in Psychology,
Research Methodology, and Counseling,
The University of Alabama, Box
870231, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-
0231. Email: lhooper@bamaed.ua.edu
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The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
43 Defining and Understanding Parentification
... Ebeveynleşme deneyimini kısa ve geçici olanlar ile uzun ve kronik bir şekilde deneyimleyen kişiler arasında ebeveynleşmenin sonuçları ve sonraki ilişkilere etkisi açısından farklılık olduğu gösterilmiştir (Hooper, 2008). McMahon ve Luthar (2007) ebeveynleşmeyi kısa bir süre deneyimlemenin patolojik ve olumsuz sonuçlardan ziyade yetkinlik ve yeterliliğin artması ile ilişkili olduğunu bulmuştur (McMahon ve Luthar, 2007;akt. ...
... 7. İçinde bulunduğunuz çevre ve kültür açısından düşündüğünüzde yetişkin rolünü üstlenmeniz beklenen ve desteklenen bir rol müydü? (Hooper, 2008) Çevre ve kültürün ebeveynleşme deneyimine etkisi olabileceği değerlendirildiğinden (Jurkovic, 2014;Kağıtçıbaşı, 2013;Kağıtçıbaşı ve Ataca, 2015) 6. ve 7. sorular sorulmuştur. ...
... Literatür değerlendirildiğinde ebeveynleşme yaşantısının özel bir deneyim kabul edildiği, yetişkinlikteki etkilerinin de bu deneyime özgü nitelikler taşıdığı açıklanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda ebeveynleşme yaşantısına sahip danışanla öncelikle o yaşantının o danışan için nasıl bir yapısının olduğunun ortaya çıkarılmasının; sonrasında hem danışanın güncel sıkıntıları hem de ebeveynleşmeye özgü olası sıkıntıların değerlendirilerek ebeveynleşme odaklı bir psikolojik danışmanlık süreci içinde çalışılmasının uygun olacağı ifade edilmiştir (Dicaccavo, 2006;Hooper, 2008). Belirtilen bilgiler değerlendirildiğinde terapistin sahip olduğu yaklaşım ne olursa olsun ebeveynleşme yaşantısına sahip ve bu yaşantının etkilerini kişiliğinde ve ilişkilerinde deneyimleyen danışanlarla çalışırken öncelikle geçmiş ebeveynleşme yaşantısının onun için nasıl özelliklere sahip olduğunun ölçekler ya da bu çalışmada yapıldığı gibi yarıyapılandırılmış görüşme sorularıyla değerlendirilmesinin önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. ...
Article
Ebeveynleşme ebeveynin çocuğu kendi ebeveyni yerine koyduğu; buna uygun ihtiyaçlarını ve/veya kişisel beklentilerini çocuktan karşılamasını beklediği, kendisine ait rolü ve sorumluluğu çocuğa yüklediği ebeveyn-çocuk arasındaki ilişkide özel bir bozulma olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Araştırmanın amacı ebeveynleşme yaşantısını ayrıntılı değerlendirmek ve çocukluk dönemindeki ebeveynleşme yaşantılarının, yetişkinlikte hem bireysel hem de yakın ilişkilerde gözlenen etkilerini ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçla araştırmada nitel yöntem ve yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formları kullanılarak yaklaşık bir saat süren derinlemesine çevrimiçi görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Bu bağlamda 7 evli katılımcıya 9 görüşme sorusu sorulmuştur. İlk yedi madde katılımcıların çocuklukta deneyimledikleri ebeveynleşme yaşantılarının ayrıntılarını, niteliğini ve ebeveynleşme kavramının yapısını değerlendirmeye yönelik sorulardır. Son iki soru ise çocukluktaki ebeveynleşme yaşantısının genel olarak şimdiki ilişkilerini nasıl etkilediği hakkındaki düşünceleri, duyguları ve algılarını değerlendirmeye yönelik sorulardır. Görüşmelerden elde edilen verilere içerik analizi uygulanmış ve kategoriler belirlenmiştir. Kodlama süreci araştırmacılar tarafından yürütülmüştür. Buna göre ‘ebeveynleşmeye ilişkin duygular’, ‘yetişkin rolü üstlenmek’ vb. gibi 11 ana kategori ve 48 alt kategori olduğu belirlenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgulara göre çocukluk çağında ebeveyn kaybının ve ailenin gelir düzeyinin düşük olmasının ya da aile içi ani ekonomik değişikliklerin ebeveynleşmeyi ortaya çıkaran ve/veya ebeveynleşmeyle ilgili önemli faktörler olduğu düşünülmektedir. Nitel verilerin analizi ile elde edilen bulgular, ebeveynleşme kavramının anlaşılmasına katkı sağlamasının yanı sıra, literatürle uyumlu ve farklılaşan önemli yanları ortaya çıkarması açısından önemlidir. Elde edilen bulgulara göre ebeveynleşme yaşantısına özgü terapi tekniklerinin geliştirilmesi, ebeveynleşme açısından risk altında olan çocuk ve ergenlere yönelik koruyucu çalışmaların yapılması, ebeveynlere yönelik bilgilendirme ve seminer çalışmalarının düzenlenmesi ile ebeveynleşme kavramının kültürlerarası çalışmalarla değerlendirilmesi önerilmiştir.
... "Parentification refers to the process through which children are assigned the role of an adult, taking on both emotional and functional responsibilities that typically are performed by the parent" (Hooper, 2008, Pp-213). When discussing parentification, it is important to note that there are two subtypes of the phenomenon, "emotional" and "instrumental" parentification, each of which may be associated with differing consequences for child development and, ultimately, adult outcomes (Aldridge, 2006;Hooper, 2008;Katz, Petracca, & Rabinowitz, 2009). ...
... Emotional parentification requires the child to fulfill the specific emotional and/or psychological needs of a parent and is more often destructive for child development than instrumental parentification (Hooper, 2008). Kevin, an adolescent of 16 years, was the emotional support for his mother. ...
Article
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Parental divorce has implications for children's cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and psychological realms. The present study enables an understanding of the effects of parental divorce on adolescents in Kerala. A mixed methods research design was used to explore the impact of parental divorce with an emphasis on the adolescent. The data was derived from in-depth interviews and responses on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The respondents were 20 adolescents (11 girls and nine boys), aged 12-17 years, whose parents had been legally divorced for at least one year. Thematic analysis of the data showed that the divorce negatively impacted all adolescents. The adverse effects were seen in academic and conduct problems, anxiety, insecurity, conflict with peers, and withdrawal from participation in functions at school, church, and festivals. After an initial period of distress, most adolescents adapted to new family structures and dynamics. Parentification of adolescents was seen in the study, where emotional parentification was seen more often with male adolescents in the custody of their mothers. For girls more instrumental parentification in the form of caregiving was seen. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) identified adolescent academic problems, conduct issues, hyperactivity, and internalizing behavior. Adolescent boys exhibited external expressions of emotion and frustration, compared to girls. The research indicates the need for pre-divorce and relationship counseling for families and adolescents to deal with the aftermath of divorce.
... Participants across the studies reported changes in family dynamics and increased responsibility, a manifestation of parentification (Hooper, 2008). this added responsibility, whether emotional or instrumental, placed undue burdens on children, resulting in both positive and negative effects (Hooper, 2008). ...
... Participants across the studies reported changes in family dynamics and increased responsibility, a manifestation of parentification (Hooper, 2008). this added responsibility, whether emotional or instrumental, placed undue burdens on children, resulting in both positive and negative effects (Hooper, 2008). Homeless mothers recounted taking on unfair responsibilities at a young age (Belcher et al., 2001;Brush et al., 2018;cronley et al., 2020;Styron et al., 2000), including self-parenting or becoming the head of the household (Belcher et al., 2001;Brush et al., 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Homelessness is a complex and pervasive worldwide social crisis that profoundly affects a diverse range of individuals and communities. Adverse childhood events (ACEs) are traumatic events that can lead to significant negative effects during adulthood, including homelessness. In women who are mothers, the pathways to loss of housing include, but are not limited to: a history of ACEs, weak social networks, sexual violence, and intimate partner violence. This narrative review of the literature aimed at examining the evidence of adverse childhood experiences and homelessness in adult women who are mothers and to providing recommendations for practice. Across the eight articles included and analyzed, six common themes emerged: family fragmentation, out-of-family placement, abuse, learned substance abuse, a lack of formal and informal education, and normalization and internalization of ACEs. The results showed that children who experience ACEs and become mothers in adulthood might have increased chances of becoming homeless and repeating an intergenerational cycle of trauma onto their children.
... These findings align with prior studies demonstrating that individuals who perceive benefits from assuming roles and responsibilities in childhood have fewer psychopathological symptoms such as depression or alcohol use disorders (Hooper et al., 2011a). In addition, some factors such as age, gender, culture, or the type of parentification (i.e., emotional, instrumental) may determine the extent to which parentification leads to negative outcomes (Hooper, 2008;Hooper & Wallace, 2010;McMahon & Luthar, 2007). Perceived fairness which refers to the degree to which the parentification process is perceived as fair, may also be one of these factors (Hooper & Wallace, ...
Article
Full-text available
OCD is characterized by obsessions (intrusive thoughts, images or urges) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors or cognitive acts) to alleviate anxiety caused by the obsessions. Parentification is the phenomenon whereby parents assign adult roles to their children, expecting them to perform practical and emotional tasks. Previous research has linked parentification to both beneficial and detrimental consequences for the child. Despite previous research suggesting that parent-child interactions are a contributor to the development and persistence of obsessive tendencies, research investigating the role of parentification in OCD and the relationship obsessive-compulsive disorder (ROCD) is lacking. This study evaluates the relationship between benefits and negative aspects of parentification, OCD, and ROCD symptoms. In addition, the study examines the mediating role of obsessive beliefs in these associations. A community sample of 788 participants responded to self-report questionnaires of parentification, obsessive beliefs, OCD, and ROCD. Findings revealed that parent and sibling-focused parentification were positively associated with OCD and ROCD symptoms, whereas perceived benefits of parentification were negatively associated with OCD and ROCD. Furthermore, obsessive beliefs mediated the relationship between parentification and obsessive tendencies. Findings suggest that individuals who have undergone parentification may be more susceptible to developing maladaptive beliefs that may subsequently lead to obsessive preoccupation. The study contributes to the clarification of complex interplay between developmental factors such as parentification, cognitive factors such as obsessive beliefs, and obsessive tendencies.
... Drugi typ parentyfikacji wiąże się z zaspokajaniem potrzeb emocjonalnych rodziców i/lub rodzeństwa. Dziecko staje się wówczas towarzyszem, powiernikiem, wsparciem, mediatorem, partnerem, wychowawcą (Jurkovic i in., 1999;Hooper, 2008aHooper, , 2008bSchier, 2015;Chojnacka, 2021a). Czynnikiem łączącym oba wskazane rodzaje parentyfikacji jest poczucie odpowiedzialności dziecka za system rodzinny i jego trwałość, wynikający z silnych wewnątrzrodzinnych więzi (Chojnacka, 2021a). ...
Article
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The family is the natural environment in which every human being lives and develops. The phenomenon and experiences occurring within it seem to be extremely important for the functioning of the whole system and the development of its individual members. This article addresses the issue of sibling relations in a families in a situation of reversed role order, i.e. when at least one of the children (brother or sister) takes over the duties and tasks ascribed to the parents. The adopted research perspective places the experience of parentification in the biographies of so-called adult children, who, in the face of various family difficulties, become caretakers and educators for their siblings, supporting or even relieving their parents in these tasks. The aim of the analyses presented in this article was to identify sibling relations in the context of a systemic understanding of the family. Role reversal implies a distortion of the boundaries between parental and child sub-systems. The analysis of the (auto)biographical interviews made it possible to reconstruct these family systems, sibling relationships and the consequences resulting from them.
... The minor's perceived fairness of parentification [46] or their perceived control over their own behaviour within the family [47] have indeed been associated with more positive experiences of parentification. Therefore, we ought to be careful not to "overpathologise" [48] individuals who are or have been parentified during childhood and instead, consider their individual experiences and needs. ...
Article
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At the centre of the debate on advanced age parenthood are concerns for the offspring’s well-being. In the few empirical studies available, researchers found that children born to older parents show similar or better cognitive, behavioural and psychosocial outcomes compared to children born to younger parents. Most of these studies examining the children’s perspective are quantitative. This study qualitatively examined the experiences presented by (young) adults who identified as born to older parents offered in response to a selection of newspaper articles on the topic. Performing inductive thematic analysis, we found that positive experiences were often presented as a way to contradict prejudices about advanced age parenthood. Other comments described the visual representation of the older parents’ age as an attribute that created difference and, in some cases, social distance from peers and the outside world in general. Central to the negative experiences was a contrast between the visibility of being a child of older parents and the invisibility of caring for them. Moreover, in a majority of the latter comments, the commenters’ caregiving experiences combined with the social network’s notable lack of understanding and support regarding the caregiving responsibilities were described as adversely affecting their lives. These findings provide more insight into the experiences of (young) adults born to advanced age parents and their potential needs.
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La parentificazione può essere concettualizzata come una franca situazione traumatica che si può protrarre anche per tutta l'infanzia e l'adolescenza, e non soltanto una forma di trascuratezza infantile. La relazione tra questa dinamica e il trauma infantile è stata poco indagata specificatamente ma è possibile leggere output sintomatologici in relazione a traumaticità complessa che descrive un Disturbo Post-Traumatico da Stress complesso (cPTSD) o un Disturbo da Trauma dello Sviluppo (DTD). Eziopatogenesi, dinamica e sintomatologia permettono di leggere il fenomeno come persistente e protratto con una non-possibilità di strutturare adeguatamente la fiducia epistemica per il ruolo regolativo che manterrà nelle competenze relazionali e nella qualità di vita dell'individuo. Questa tipologia di booster evolutivo potrà condizionare la struttura identitaria, caratteriale mediando l'acquisizione di funzioni e competenze che potranno telescopicamente orientare le atmosfere familiari e relazionali nella transgenerazionalità.
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An attachment theory framework is applied toward understanding the emergence of depressive symptomatology and lower perceived competence in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Hypotheses that maltreated children with nonoptimal patterns of relatedness evidence elevated depressive symptomatology and lower competence, whereas nonmaltreated children with optimal or adequate patterns of relatedness exhibit the least depressive symptomatology and higher competence, were confirmed. Additionally, differentiations between maltreated children with and without optimal or adequate patterns of relatedness emerged, suggesting that relatedness may mitigate against the adverse effects of maltreatment. Moreover, sexually abused children with confused patterns of relatedness evidenced clinically significant depressive symptomatology. Results are discussed with regard to mechanisms that contribute to adaptation or maladaptation in children with negative caregiving histories.
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This article addresses distinctions underlying concepts of resilience and thriving and issues in conceptualizing thriving. Thriving (physical or psychological) may reflect decreased reactivity to subsequent stressors, faster recovery from subsequent stressors, or a consistently higher level of functioning. Psychological thriving may reflect gains in skill, knowledge, confidence, or a sense of security in personal relationships. Psychological thriving resembles other instances of growth. It probably does not depend on the occurrence of a discrete traumatic event or longer term trauma, though such events may elicit it. An important question is why some people thrive, whereas others are impaired, given the same event. A potential answer rests on the idea that differences in confidence and mastery are self-perpetuating and self-intensifying. This idea suggests a number of variables whose role in thriving is worth closer study, including personality variables such as optimism, contextual variables such as social support, and situational variables such as the coping reactions elicited by the adverse event.
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The current study, utilizing a group of 197 undergraduate students, found that childhood parentification is associated with shame-proneness in adults (when the shared variance with guiltproneness is controlled). Parentification, the reversal of parent and child roles, requires a premature identification with the parent(s)' expectations and needs, at the expense of the development of the child's true talents and gifts, often leaving the child feeling ashamed of the true self's unrewarded strivings. This finding is linked theoretically to an earlier study that found a relationship between childhood parentification and both narcissistic and masochistic personality characteristics (Jones & Wells, 1996). A secondary finding supported a predicted relationship between guilt and shame. Clinicians are encouraged to attend to the possibilities of these connections when planning and executing treatment plans with parentified adults.
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Foreword - Lucy Berliner Preface - David Finkelhor Introduction PART ONE: INCIDENCE OF CHILD ABUSE Type and Forms of Child Maltreatment PART TWO: THE LONG-TERM IMPACTS OF CHILD ABUSE: INTEGRATION OF RESEARCH AND THEORY Long-Term Impacts of Child Abuse I Psychological Responses Long-Term Impacts of Child Abuse II Behaviors and Relationships PART THREE: EXPLORING THE SOLUTION: ABUSE-FOCUSED PSYCHOTHERAPY Philosophy of Treatment Parameters of Treatment I Process Issues Parameters of Treatment II Intervention Approaches Special Issues in Abuse-Focused Therapy Summary Appendix The Child Maltreatment Interview Schedule