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Galapagos Verde 2050: An opportunity to restore degraded ecosystems and promote sustainable agriculture in the Archipelago.

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Galapagos Verde 2050 is a multi-institutional, interdisciplinary initiative that seeks to contribute to the sustainability of the Archipelago through ecological restoration and sustainable agriculture, while providing an example of effective sustainable development for the rest of the world (Jaramillo et al., 2014). The objectives of the project are: 1. Contribute to the restoration of degraded ecosystems in order to restore and/or maintain their capacity to generate services for humans; 2. Control and/or eradicate invasive introduced species in areas of high ecological value; 3. Accelerate the recovery process for native and endemic plant species that have slow natural growth; 4. Reduce the risk of introduction of exotic species through sustainable agriculture, which would also contribute to local self-sufficiency; 5. Contribute to economic growth through year-round sustainable agriculture.
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013-2014
BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
GALAPAGOS VERDE 2050: AN OPPORTUNITY TO RESTORE
DEGRADED ECOSYSTEMS AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE IN THE ARCHIPELAGO
PATRICIA JARAMILLO, SWEN LORENZ, GABRIELA ORTIZ, PABLO CUEVA, ESTALIN
JIMÉNEZ, JAIME ORTIZ, DANNY RUEDA, MAX FREIRE, JAMES GIBBS AND
WASHINGTON TAPIA
How to cite this article:
Jaramillo P, S Lorenz, G Ortiz, P Cueva, E Jiménez, J Ortiz, D Rueda, M Freire, J Gibbs and W
Tapia. 2015. Galapagos Verde 2050: An opportunity to restore degraded ecosystems and promote
sustainable agriculture in the Archipelago. Pp. 133-143. In: Galapagos Report 2013-2014. GNPD,
GCREG, CDF and GC. Puerto Ayora, Galapagos, Ecuador.
Sources must be cited in all cases. Sections of the publication may be translated and reproduced
without permission as long as the source is cited.
The authors of each article are responsible for the contents and opinions expressed.
The Galapagos National Park Directorate has its headquarters in Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz Island,
Galapagos and is the Ecuadorian governmental institution responsible for the administration and
management of the protected areas of Galapagos.
The Governing Council of Galapagos has its headquarters in Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, San
Cristóbal Island, and is the Ecuadorian governmental institution responsible for planning and the
administration of the province.
The Charles Darwin Foundation, an international non-profit organization registered in Belgium,
operates the Charles Darwin Research Station in Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos.
Galapagos Conservancy, based in Fairfax, Virginia USA, is the only US non-profit organization
focused exclusively on the long-term protection of the Galapagos Archipelago.
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Galapagos Verde 2050:
An opportunity to restore degraded
ecosystems and promote sustainable
agriculture in the Archipelago
Patricia Jaramillo1, Swen Lorenz1, Gabriela Ortiz1, Pablo Cueva1,
Estalin Jiménez1, Jaime Ortiz1, Danny Rueda2, Max Freire3,
James Gibbs4 and Washington Tapia5
1Charles Darwin Foundation, 2Galapagos National Park Directorate, 3Decentralized
Autonomous Government of Floreana, 4State University of New York College of
Environmental Science and Forestry, 5Galapagos Conservancy
Photo: © Galápagos Verde 2050
Invasive species constitute the greatest threat to terrestrial biodiversity in
Galapagos (Gardener et al., 2010a, 2010b). Currently, there are about 900 species
of introduced plants of which at least 131 are already invading natural areas of the
Archipelago (Guezou & Trueman, 2009; Jaramillo et al., 2013). The humid zones of
inhabited islands have the most degraded ecosystems, largely due to invasive
species and agriculture (Gardener et al., 2010a; Renteria & Buddenhagen, 2006).
Conservation and/or restoration of the integrity and resilience of ecosystems
represent the most eective strategies for ensuring that Galapagos ecosystems
continue to generate environmental services for society (DPNG, 2014). The
Galapagos Verde 2050 project, a model of applied science on a regional scale,
was designed with these conceptual principles in mind. It seeks to transform an
altered socioecological system into a healthy and functional system.
Galapagos Verde 2050 is a multi-institutional, interdisciplinary initiative that
seeks to contribute to the sustainability of the Archipelago through ecological
restoration and sustainable agriculture, while providing an example of eective
sustainable development for the rest of the world (Jaramillo et al., 2014). The
objectives of the project are:
1. Contribute to the restoration of degraded ecosystems in order to restore
and/or maintain their capacity to generate services for humans;
2. Control and/or eradicate invasive introduced species in areas of high
ecological value;
3. Accelerate the recovery process for native and endemic plant species that
have slow natural growth;
4. Reduce the risk of introduction of exotic species through sustainable
agriculture, which would also contribute to local self-suciency;
5. Contribute to economic growth through year-round sustainable agriculture.
All project objectives contribute to the well-being of the human population
of Galapagos and their natural environment and are thus aligned with the
Management Plan of the Protected Areas of Galapagos (DPNG, 2014) and the
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
National Plan of Good Living (SENPLADES, 2013); as well as
with the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.
A new technology for water conservation and to
enhance plant growth
The Groasis Technology (GT) waterboxx, invented by Mr.
Pieter Ho of the Netherlands and designed by Groasis, is
an innovative tool to optimize water use in propagating
and cultivating plants (Figure 1). It reduces normal
water consumption by 90%, a much greater reduction
that seen in other techniques such as drip irrigation. It
has been used successfully in more than 30 countries
around the world, primarily in arid and desert areas,
such as the Sahara Desert (Ho, 2013). GT has proven
eective in increasing survival of seedlings in a variety of
environments, including highly eroded land.
The GT waterboxx is designed to provide a permanent
supply of water to plant roots through a wick, allowing the
roots to grow deeper and more vertically, which ensures
the vitality of the plants even after the box is removed. Its
use in Galapagos can contribute to restoring ecosystems
through the recovery of emblematic native and endemic
plant species and to establishing year-round sustainable
agriculture.
This article describes the results of a pilot project to test
the functionality of GT in Galapagos. These ndings
were used to develop Galapagos Verde 2050, which
from 2014 to 2050 will contribute to the conservation
of vulnerable ecosystems, primarily in the humid zones
(DPNG, 2014; Jager et al., 2007; Renteria et al., 2006; Trusty
et al., 2012; Tye et al., 2001; Jaramillo et al., 2014) and to
the development of sustainable agriculture. Sustainable
agriculture in Galapagos can help to reduce imports of
plant products from mainland Ecuador, thus reducing
the threat of introduction of invasive species (FEIG, 2007;
Martinez & Causton, 2007; Trueman et al., 2010; Trueman
& d’Ozouville, 2010). Sustainable agriculture also
contributes to food security for the human population,
which is a stated goal of the National Plan for Good Living
(SENPLADES, 2013).
Methods
The pilot project was based on an agreement between
the Fundación Fuente de Vida (FFV) of Ecuador,
representing Groasis (a Dutch company), and the Charles
Darwin Foundation (CDF), and close collaboration with
the Galapagos National Park Directorate (GNPD). The
project also involved the Decentralized Autonomous
Government of Floreana, the Provincial Directorate of
the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Aquaculture, and
Fisheries (MAGAP – Spanish acronym), the Galapagos
Ecological Airport (ECOGAL – Spanish acronym), and the
port captaincy of Puerto Ayora.
Ecological restoration
GT was used for restoration work on Floreana, Baltra,
and Santa Cruz. In Floreana 300 waterboxxes were used
at a model farm located in the humid zone. In Baltra
19 waterboxxes were located in a highly degraded
area located in the abandoned garbage dump to grow
six native and endemic species. In Santa Cruz, ve
waterboxxes were used with three endemic species in a
small area at Los Gemelos, a visitor site in the highlands. In
addition, invasive introduced plants were eliminated from
the facilities of the Puerto Ayora port captaincy and were
replaced with endemic species using GT to promote the
use of native and endemic plants in urban areas. Several
waterboxxes with endemic plants were also located
within the premises of the GNPD and CDF to showcase
the technology.
Figure 1. Structure and model of the Groasis Technology, from a vertical cut (taken from www.groasis.com/es).
A wick on the inside of the tank provides 50 cm3
of water to the soil daily.
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Sustainable agriculture
Experiments in sustainable agriculture were carried out
on Floreana and Santa Cruz, with community support.
Waterboxxes were used in 21 family vegetable gardens
(18 on Floreana and three on Santa Cruz) in both the
humid and the arid zones. At the Safari Camp resort
in Santa Cruz, this technology was tested with cacao,
tomato, and cucumber plants.
Plant species used
The pilot project involved 52 species (native, endemic,
introduced, and cultivated plants) of which 60% were
intended for ecological restoration and 40% for sustainable
agriculture in vegetable gardens and farms (Table 1). The
selection of species for ecological restoration was based
on the IUCN Red List (Jaramillo et al., 2013), focusing
primarily on emblematic and threatened species from
each island. In the case of sustainable agriculture, most
species were fruit trees. Several ornamental and endemic
species were also tested at the request of community
members in Floreana.
The species selected for both ecological restoration and
sustainable agriculture were distributed in eight dierent
substrate types and four vegetation zones (Table 2). For
each species, two controls (no GT) were established. Due
to the extreme shortage of water in Floreana and Baltra,
the amount of water used for the operation of the boxes
was decreased to 70% and 50% of the normal volume of
water required.
Table 1. Classication of the species used in the pilot project on the three islands.
Island Objective Family Species Common name Origin*
Baltra Ecological
restoration
Mimosaceae Acacia macracantha Humb. &
Bonpl. ex Willd. Acacia N
Burseraceae Bursera malacophylla B.L. Rob. Incense tree E
Simaroubaceae Castela galapageia Hook. f. Castela E
Cactaceae Opuntia echios var. echios Howell Prickly pear cactus E
Caesalpinaceae Parkinsonia aculeata L. Jerusalem thorn N
Asteraceae Scalesia crockeri Howell Crockers scalesia E
Santa Cruz
Ecological
restoration
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera echinocephala
(Hook. f.) Christoph.
Spiny-headed
cha ower N
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera lifolia
(Hook. f.) Howell
Thread-leafed
cha ower N
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum molle Kunth Glorybower N
Combretaceae Conocarpus erectus L. Button mangrove N
Malvaceae Gossypium darwinii G. Watt Darwin’s cotton E
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. Beach
morning-glory N
Celastraceae Maytenus octogona (L'Hér.) DC. Maytenus N
Melastomata-
ceae Miconia robinsoniana Cogn. Galapagos miconia E
Cactaceae Opuntia echios var. gigantea
Howell Prickly pear cactus E
Fabaceae Piscidia carthagenensis Jacq. Piscidia N
Rubiaceae Psychotria rupes Hook. f. White wild coee N
Asteraceae Scalesia anis Hook. f. Radiate-headed
scalesia E
Asteraceae Scalesia helleri ssp. santacruziana
Harling Heller’s scalesia E
Asteraceae Scalesia pedunculata Hook. f. Tree scalesia E
Sustainable
agriculture
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus L. Cucumber C
Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato C
Sterculiaceae Theobroma cacao L. Cacao C
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Floreana
Ecological
restoration
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera lifolia
(Hook. f.) Howell
Thread-leafed cha
ower N
Burseraceae Bursera graveolens (Kunth)
Triana & Planch. Incense tree E
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum molle Kunth Glorybower N
Boraginaceae Cordia lutea Lam. Yellow cordia N
Asteraceae Darwiniothamnus tenuifolius
(Hook. f.) Harling
Lance-leafed
Darwin’s shrub E
Asteraceae Lecocarpus pinnatidus Decne Wing-fruited
lecocarpus E
Verbenaceae Lippia salicifolia Andersson Narrow-leafed lippia E
Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Ceylon leadwort N
Rubiaceae Psychotria angustata Andersson Pink wild coee N
Asteraceae Scalesia anis Hook. f. Radiate-headed
scalesia E
Asteraceae Scalesia pedunculata Hook. f. Tree scalesia E
Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. Sea purslane N
Solanaceae Solanum quitoense Lam. Purple solanum I
Sterculiaceae Waltheria ovata Cav. Waltheria N
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum fagara (L.) Sarg. Cat’s claw E
Sustainable
agriculture
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Mango
Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L. Oleander
Lamiaceae Ocimum campechianum Mill. Wild sweet basil
Lauraceae Persea americana Mill. Avocado
Alliaceae Allium stulosum L. Welsh onion
Annonaceae Annona cherimola Mill. Cherimoya
Cannaceae Canna indica L. Indian shot
Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Cayenne pepper
Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Papaya
Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)
Matsun. & Nakai Watermelon
Rutaceae Citrus reticulata Blanco Mandarin orange C
Rutaceae Citrus x limetta Risso Sweet lemon C
Rutaceae Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck Lemon C
Rutaceae Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck Orange C
Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato C
Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas L. Barbados nut C
Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Coconut C
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo L. Muskmelon C
Fabaceae Phaseolus lunatus L. Lima bean C
* N = native; E = endemic; I = introduced; C = cultivated.
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Results
Ecological restoration
Preliminary results for the arid zone in Baltra indicated
that the growth rate of seedlings planted using GT was
signicantly greater than those without GT, and that the
growth rate of certain species, especially Opuntia echios
var. echios, was particularly rapid. The same results were
seen in Floreana and Santa Cruz (Figure 2). Opuntia species
normally grow an average of 2 cm per year (Colonel, 2002;
Hicks & Mauchamp, 2000; Estupiñan & Mauchamp, 1995),
in contrast with the registered monthly growth of 1.5 cm
with this new technology, which could result in an annual
growth of more than 10 cm (Figure 3).
However, the growth and survival of seedlings in Baltra
were aected by the physical characteristics of the soil
(high levels of clay), evidenced by the stress of the control
seedlings, and soil compaction caused by anthropological
activities (airport, transport of heavy equipment, etc.).
Signs of herbivory by land iguanas were also noted,
as some species included in the project are part of the
iguanas’ natural diet. This observation demonstrates the
importance of the project to restore the natural dynamics
of degraded ecosystems in order to ensure food sources
for native fauna.
In Floreana as in Baltra, positive results were obtained in
three vegetation zones (literal, arid, and humid), using
14 native and endemic species. The greatest success was
observed in the humid zone.
Sustained growth was also observed for the majority of
the 14 native and endemic species used in Santa Cruz.
Island Project Zone Substrate N E C Total Species
Baltra Ecological
restoration
Arid Clay 2 4 0 6
Littoral Clay 0 1 0 1
Floreana
Sustainable
agriculture
Arid
Clay 0 0 13 13
Humus 0 0 6 6
Humus-clay 0 0 15 15
Humus-rocky 0 0 8 8
Rocky 0 0 3 3
Rocky-clay 0 0 6 6
Humid Clay 0 0 1 1
Humus 0 0 6 6
Ecological
restoration
Arid Clay 5 4 0 9
Humid
Humus 0 1 0 1
Humus-clay 1 1 0 2
Humus-rocky 2 4 0 6
Rocky-clay 0 1 0 1
Humus 3 5 0 8
Humus-rocky 2 4 0 6
Littoral Clay 2 1 0 3
Rocky-clay 2 2 0 4
Santa Cruz
Sustainable
agriculture Transition
Clay 0 0 2 2
Humus 0 0 1 1
Humus-rocky 0 0 1 1
Ecological
restoration
Humid Humus 0 4 0 4
Littoral
Clay 3 0 0 3
Sandy 3 4 0 7
Humus 2 1 0 3
Rocky 2 1 0 3
Rocky-sandy 2 1 0 3
Species origin
Table 2. Vegetation zones, soil types, and the origin of the plant species used in the pilot project on Baltra, Santa Cruz, and Floreana (N = native, E =
endemic, C = cultivated).
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
An exceptional case was the high growth rate of Scalesia
pedunculata, in both Floreana and Santa Cruz (at Los
Gemelos), much like Opuntia echios var. echios in Baltra
(Figure 4).
Sustainable agriculture
Preliminary results in sustainable agriculture in both
Floreana and Santa Cruz were positive for the 22 cultivated
species included in the experiment. However, in the case
of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) and watermelon
(Citrulus lanatus), growth rates were more rapid than was
observed for the other species (Figure 5).
Galapagos Verde 2050: Steps towards the future
Results of the pilot project in both restoration and
sustainable agriculture indicate that GT works in
Galapagos under dierent climatic and ecological
conditions. Based on these results, Galapagos Verde 2050
was launched. This three-phase project began in January
2014 and will end in 2050.
Figure 2. Average growth rate of the 30 species used in the pilot project for ecological restoration (using GT and control without GT) on Baltra,
Floreana, and Santa Cruz Islands.
Figure 3. a) Opuntia echios var. echios near the Baltra airport, July 29, 2013; b) the same plant, November 17, 2013, after almost four months of
monitoring, and c) the same plant without the box after 6 months, January 27, 2014.
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Control
Groasis Technology
Acacia macracantha
Alternanthera echinocephala
Alternanthera lifolia
Bursera graveolens
Bursera malacophylla
Castela galapageia
Clerodendrum molle
Conocarpus eretus
Cordia lutea
Darwiniothamnus tenuifolius
Gossypium darwinii
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Lecocarpus pinnatidus
Lippia salicifolia
Maytenus octogona
Miconia robinsoniana
Opuntia echios var. echios
Opuntia echios var. gigantea
Parkinsonia aculeata
Piscidia carthagenensis
Plumbago zeylanica
Psychotria angustata
Psychotria rupes
Scalesia anis
Scalesia crockeri
Scalesia helleri ssp. santacruziana
Scalesia pedunculata
Sesuvium portalacastrum
Waltheria ovata
Zanthoxylum fagara
( a ) ( c )
( b )
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Figure 5. Average growth rate of 22 species used for sustainable agriculture (with GT and control without GT) in Floreana and Santa Cruz Islands.
Allium stulosum
Annona cherimola
Canna indica
Capsicum annuum
Carica papaya
Citrullus lanatus
Citrus reticulata
Citrus x limetta
Citrus x limon
Citrus x sinensis
Cocos nucifera
Cucumis melo
Cucumis sativus
Jatropha curcas
Mangifera indica
Nerium oleander
Ocimum campechianum
Persea americana
Phaseolus lunatus
Solanum lycopersicum
Solanum quitoense
Theobrama cacao
Control
Groasis Technology
200
180
160
140
120
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 4. Scalesia pedunculata in Floreana Island ready to grow naturally; Aníbal Altamirano, GNPD ranger, and Adrián Cueva, CDF eld assistant,
demonstrate how the box is extracted without causing damage to the plant.
Phase 1 (January 2014 to December 2016). Phase I
includes ecological restoration on Baltra, Santa Cruz,
South Plaza, and Floreana Islands. On Baltra the project
focuses on land iguana nesting areas. On Santa Cruz, two
small populations (1 ha) of Scalesia anis, an endangered
species, will be restored in the areas of El Mirador and
Garrapatero (Figure 7). On South Plaza the work will
focus on the restoration of the Opuntia echios var. echios
population throughout the island (13 ha). On Floreana
the eorts will focus on the restoration of a degraded area
in the Black Gravel mine and supporting MAGAP’s eorts
to achieve adoption of sustainable agricultural practices
on 25% of the farms. It is expected that some agricultural
areas on Floreana will be designated for agro-ecological
production according to MAGAP’s Bioagriculture Plan
for Galapagos, which promotes integrated production
systems (Elisens, 1992).
Phase 2 (January 2017 to December 2018). During
Phase 2, ecological restoration will occur in degraded
ecosystems on Floreana that have been dened as priority
areas by the GNPD. Work will be conducted on Española
Island to achieve the repopulation of at least 20% of the
area where Opuntia megasperma var. orientalis existed
historically. In terms of sustainable agriculture, according
to plans established by MAGAP, this phase of the project
will strive to involve 100% of farms on Floreana in agro-
ecological production.
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Phase 3 (January 2019 to December 2050). During this
extended period the use of GT will be expanded to restore
priority ecosystems and species identied in the GNPD’s
Management Plan for the Protected Areas of Galapagos.
This work will take place on populated islands as well
as on Santiago, where invasive plant and animal species
have caused degradation, and on Española Island, where
the goal is complete recovery of the cactus population
(O. megasperma var. orientalis), based on available
information regarding its historical distribution. In terms
of sustainable agriculture, GT will be used to help achieve
the goals of MAGAP regarding the implementation of the
new model of agricultural production in the Islands.
Each phase of the project will involve establishing a
timeline for completing specic goals for each island or
species, as in the example of Scalesia anis on Santa Cruz
Island (Figure 7).
Conclusions and recommendations
The Groasis Technology (GT) pilot project in Galapagos
resulted in the following conclusions:
• The use of GT is viable in Galapagos for both
large-scale ecological restoration and sustainable
agriculture.
• Sometransplantedcontrolplants(cultivatedwithout
GT) did not survive the stress from transplanting,
while those that used GT not only survived but
demonstrated accelerated growth. This indicates that
GT oers protection for endemic Galapagos plants
and minimizes the stress of transplanting, ensuring
and increasing their survival rate.
• Despite certain externalities, such as herbivory and
damage caused by domestic animals and humans, it
is clear that GT stimulates growth and is eective with
agricultural species.
• Growthaccelerationoccurredinrestorationactivities
and sustainable agriculture, even in very arid zones
where it was necessary to signicantly reduce the
normal amount of water required by the Groasis
waterboxx. This result indicates that GT is an eective
technology, even in extreme drought conditions.
The following recommendations are based on the
conclusions of the pilot study:
• Expandthe use of GTfor ecological restoration on
additional islands.
• Expand the use of GT in agriculture to increase
production in Galapagos.
Figure 6. Fenced areas in El Mirador and Garrapatero to protect the last remnants of Scalesia anis, a critically endangered species on Santa Cruz
Island.
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Figure 7. Example of work with Scalesia anis to restore 1 ha in two areas on Santa Cruz Island during Phase I of the project.
• Expandinter-institutionalcoordinationofrestoration
and agriculture projects to ensure project success
and to incorporate new eco-friendly technologies,
such as GT.
The ability of GT to overcome water constraints makes it
an important tool for restoring threatened ecosystems
and species and improving agricultural production.
By 2050, it is expected that this project, implemented
through coordinated and cooperative eorts of Galapagos
stakeholders, will result in signicant contributions to
ecosystem restoration, sustainable agriculture, and a more
sustainable archipelago.
Information about the Galápagos Verde 2050 Project is
available at: www.darwinfoundation.org/es/ciencia-e-
investigacion/galapagos-verde-2050/.
Acknowledgements
This pilot project was made possible thanks to generous
nancial contributions from the COmON Foundation,
Groasis Technology Holland, Fundación Fuente de Vida,
and BESS Forest Club, and to excellent coordination and
cooperation from the CDF, GNPD, the Decentralized
Autonomous Government of Floreana, the Provincial
Directorate of MAGAP in Galapagos, ECOGAL, and the port
captaincy of Puerto Ayora.
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GALAPAGOS REPORT 2013 - 2014
Foto: © Galápagos Verde 2050, FCD
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... Since 2013, the ecological restoration program "Galapagos Verde 2050" (GV2050), of the Charles Darwin Foundation, has been working in the Galapagos Archipelago to restore the lost vegetation and conserve threatened plant species populations [20]. One of the projects involves the adoption of agroforestry systems in rural settlements by using native species combined with crops. ...
... Scalesia pedunculata has experienced significant habitat loss in the highlands of the Galapagos [19]. Efforts to restore this species through the GV2050 Program commenced in 2013, initially focusing on identifying the most effective restoration methodologies [20]. Our findings suggest an incremental improvement in plant survival over the initial four years, particularly when utilizing technologies such as Waterboxx + Hydrogel (see S2 Fig) and, notably, Cocoon + Hydrogel (refer to Table 1). ...
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Scalesia pendunculata Hook.f. is the dominant tree in several highlands’ areas of the Galapagos Archipelago, yet in inhabited islands the conversion to agricultural fields has reduced its cover. The transition to agroforestry systems including the species shows promising scenarios to restore its cover and to provide ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration. Here, based on field gathered data, we model the potential contribution of S. pedunculata stands in the carbon sequestration of Galapagos. Between 2013–2021, 426 S. pedunculata seedlings were planted in the highlands of Santa Cruz and Floreana islands using several restoration technologies, and their height and survival were monitored every three months. A sub-sample of 276 trees alive since 2020 was used to estimate the DBH based on plant age and height. Based on scientific literature, biomass and carbon content were estimated across time. The final modelling included the density of plants in the restoration sites, estimated DBH, potential survival by restoration treatment, and a Brownian noise to add stochastic events. Overall, survival of S. pedunculata was high in control and slightly increased by most restoration treatments. A stand of 530 trees/ha was projected to sequester ~21 Mg C/ha in 10 years. If this is replicated over all Galapagos coffee production would contribute to the reduction of -1.062% of the Galapagos carbon footprint for the same period. This study adds to compiling benefits of restoring Galapagos flora.
... The unique geography of the islands, including the volcanic soil and diverse microclimates, allows for a variety of crops to be grown, such as coffee, bananas, citrus fruits, and vegetables [4]. In addition to providing local food and economic benefits, sustainable agriculture practices also play a significant role in preserving the fragile ecosystem of the Galapagos [5]. ...
... Unfortunately, in Floreana, we encountered low performance. This can be attributed to the scarcity of water for agricultural purposes on the island, with limited access to rainwater, which is insufficient to sustain acceptable yields in agriculture [5]. Other studies conducted in the Galapagos Islands have reported similar trends when utilizing water-saving technologies [2,22,44]. ...
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Water scarcity and salinity pose significant challenges for agriculture in the Galapagos Islands, severely limiting crop yields needed to sustainably meet the growing demands of the human population in the archipelago. To address this issue, environmentally friendly water-saving technologies such as Hydrogel and Groasis Growboxx were considered to be potential solutions. This study focused on evaluating the effectiveness of Hydrogel application on five crops: Broccoli (Brassica oleracea), Cucumber (Cucumis melo), Pepper (Capsicum annuum), Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), from 2017 to 2018. The experiment stopped due to the pandemic in 2019-2020. When the study continued in 2021, Growboxx ® was introduced as a treatment for Pepper and Tomato. This study revealed that the application of Hydrogel resulted in enhanced yields, with the degree of improvement varying across different crops and cultivation periods. Notably, when comparing Hydrogel and Growboxx treatments, differences of up to 30% in fruit weight were observed. However, it is important to note that these results can vary in different environments. For example, in Tomato cultivation, Growboxx exhibited 10% higher fruit weight in San Cristobal compared to Santa Cruz Island. Our findings provide valuable insights for stakeholders in the Galapagos Islands, offering crop-specific guidance to support informed decisions on adopting the most appropriate technologies for their farms.
... In recent decades, several researchers have highlighted the urgency of knowledge, innovations and actions to promote sustainable transitions [1][2][3]. For example, water-saving technologies (WST) in agricultural systems are a sustainable farming strategy [4,5]. WSTs are essential sustainability tools that supply water directly to the plant roots, reducing water runoff while maintaining or even increasing crop productivity [5]. ...
... Showing that the plant height is influenced by the WTS, depending on the island conditions and the species. In a similar study [4], the use of Groasis Waterboxx ® showed different performances depending on the species in Floreana and Santa Cruz Islands. ...
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Agriculture in the populated islands of the Galapagos Archipelago, a protected area due to its unique biodiversity, has been detrimental to its conservation but highly required to meet food necessities. A potential solution to make agricultural farming more sustainable is adopting water-saving technologies (WSTs). Therefore, this study aimed to test the effectiveness of using WSTs such as Groasis Waterboxx® in three of the most valuable crops in the islands through participatory research with the involvement of a group of farmers from the Floreana and Santa Cruz islands and explore a possible transition to more sustainable agricultural practices. Capsicum annuum, Cucumis sativus and Solanum lycopersicum were cultivated using Groasis Waterboxx® and compared to conventional irrigation practices (drip-irrigated controls) to assess the variability of productivity, the number of fruits and individual fruit weight (IFW). In addition, differences in plant traits were analyzed by crop, and island. Results suggested that WSTs such as Groasis Waterboxx® may provide on-farm benefits regarding the yields of the studied traits. From this study, it is difficult to determine whether participation in such a research study will permanently change irrigation practices. However, the participant’s responses to the study suggest an increase in their understanding of the use and benefits of WST.
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Island ecological restoration presents challenges in establishing historical frames and reference ecosystems. Our study takes place in the Galapagos Islands and focuses on North Seymour (NS), recognized as a reference ecosystem for Baltra Island, which has suffered significant degradation. We assessed NS's arid plant community, comparing it with early twentieth-century records. A first survey identified that dominant woody species on NS include native Bursera graveolens, Cordia lutea, Castela galapageia, Parkinsonia aculeata, and Opuntia echios, while Cleome viscosa is the only exotic species registered. A second survey divided both islands into evenly distributed plots, recording adults and juveniles of the five dominant species from the first survey. NS showed a structured community with higher species richness and density compared to Baltra. Castela galapageia prevailed in disturbed areas on Baltra. Juvenile regeneration was scarce on both islands. NS exhibited high species richness throughout, while Baltra had only two areas with similar high richness. Co-occurrence analysis revealed significant associations between P. aculeata and B. graveolens on both islands. However, Baltra's network displayed missing links, indicating the need for restoration efforts. In conclusion, the structured plant community of NS can serve as one of the reference ecosystems needed for framing a restoration model for Baltra. Implications for Practice • Close islands can be used as reference ecosystems for ecological restoration within an archipelago. • Smaller-scale sampling of the vegetation community can inform how to later extensively sample the dominant species. • Large-scale surveys effectively represent the dominant plant species structure.
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The prickly pear (Opuntia megasperma var. orientalis), a pivotal species for the ecological balance of Española Island in Galapagos, has witnessed a severe decline in its population due to the enduring presence of introduced feral goats over several decades. Additionally, the inherent slow recovery of this species, requiring several years of development, has contributed to its population decline. Several attempts were carried out to restore this species, but they were not successful due to the island's extreme arid conditions. Subsequently, innovative water-saving technologies were introduced to ensure the survival and growth of the Opuntia species. Two water-saving technologies, Groasis Waterboxx ® and Hydrogel, were applied in two distinct treatments, the first involving Waterboxx solely, and the second combining Waterboxx with Hydrogel, alongside a control group. Planting involved two types of cacti: cladodes and seedlings. To safeguard against potential damage from giant tortoises and local birds, protective mesh fencing was installed around the plants. Each monitoring session recorded plant survival and growth, evaluating the impact of water-saving technologies on cactus survival, maximum plant height reached, age at the time of plant death, and growth achieved since planting. Additionally, the study assessed the influence of climate on plant survival and growth. Unfortunately, the employment of protective mesh fences and Waterboxx containers resulted in the unintended loss of specific bird species. Consequently, a decision was taken to remove these protective measures, resulting in a substantial rise in herbivorous activity, and the subsequent mortality of nearly all plants. Our findings underscore the efficacy of water-saving technologies in Opuntia restoration. However, successful application necessitates a better understanding of these technologies within the unique conditions of the island. Future endeavors should focus on refining these techniques to minimize avian mortality while fostering biodiversity and restoring ecological equilibrium.
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Arid tropical archipelagos, such as the Galapagos Islands, host a high concentration of endemic plant species, many of which require restoration intervention to recover from past environmental degradation. Water-saving technologies (WSTs) have potential for hastening restoration by providing plants with additional water during the early stages of growth. However, it remains unclear whether such technologies provide an advantage for plant species of arid-tropical regions. This study examined the effect of the water-saving technology Groasis Waterboxx® (Groasis) on the rare endemic plant species Scalesia affinis ssp. brachyloba during early stages of restoration. Survival was monitored for 374 individuals planted across six sites on Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos (326 with technology and 48 as controls). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that the use of Groasis reduced mortality during the first two years of the seedling survival. A mixed-effect logistic regression that modelled plant survival as a function of total precipitation, maximum temperature, and WST treatment (Groasis and no-technology control) found that despite low overall survival rates, plants grown with Groasis exhibited a threefold higher predicted survival by the end of the 3.7 year duration of the study. Finally, through a resampling method, we demonstrate that the effect of the WST treatment is not dependent on the unbalanced design typical of a restoration project framework. We conclude that water-saving technologies such as the Groasis Waterboxx® can enhance survival of rare plant species such as S. affinis ssp. brachyloba in restoration programs in arid-tropical regions.
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Restoration of keystone species is a primary strategy used to combat biodiversity loss and recover ecological services. This is particularly true for oceanic islands, which despite their small land mass, host a large fraction of the planet’s imperiled species. The endemic Opuntia spp. cacti are one example and a major focus for restoration in the Galápagos archipelago, Ecuador. These cacti are keystone species that support much of the unique vertebrate animal community in arid zones, yet human activities have substantially reduced Opuntia populations. Extreme aridity poses an obstacle for quickly restoring Opuntia populations though water-saving technologies may provide a solution. The aim of this study was to evaluate current restoration efforts and the utility of two water-saving technologies as tools for the early stages of restoring Opuntia populations in the Galápagos archipelago. We planted 1,425 seedlings between 2013 and 2018, of which 66% had survived by the end of 2018. Compared with no-technology controls, seedlings planted with Groasis Waterboxx ® water-saving technology (polypropylene trays with water reservoir and protective refuge for germinants) had a greater rate of survival in their first two-years of growth on one island (Plaza Sur) and greater growth rate on four islands whereas the “Cocoon” water-saving technology (similar technology but made of biodegradable fiber) did not affect growth and actually reduced seedling survival. Survival and growth rate were also influenced by vegetation zone, elevation, and precipitation in ways largely contingent on island. Overall, our findings suggest that water-saving technologies are not always universally applicable but can substantially increase the survival and growth rate of seedlings in certain conditions, providing in some circumstances a useful tool for improving restoration outcomes for rare plants of arid ecosystems.
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Although point counts are frequently used in ornithological studies, basic assumptions about detection probabilities often are untested. We apply a double-observer approach developed to estimate detection probabilities for aerial surveys (Cook and Jacobson 1979) to avian point counts. At each point count, a designated “primary” observer indicates to another (“secondary”) observer all birds detected. The secondary observer records all detections of the primary observer as well as any birds not detected by the primary observer. Observers alternate primary and secondary roles during the course of the survey. The approach permits estimation of observer-specific detection probabilities and bird abundance. We developed a set of models that incorporate different assumptions about sources of variation (e.g. observer, bird species) in detection probability. Seventeen field trials were conducted, and models were fit to the resulting data using program SURVIV. Single-observer point counts generally miss varying proportions of the birds actually present, and observer and bird species were found to be relevant sources of variation in detection probabilities. Overall detection probabilities (probability of being detected by at least one of the two observers) estimated using the double-observer approach were very high (>0.95), yielding precise estimates of avian abundance. We consider problems with the approach and recommend possible solutions, including restriction of the approach to fixed-radius counts to reduce the effect of variation in the effective radius of detection among various observers and to provide a basis for using spatial sampling to estimate bird abundance on large areas of interest. We believe that most questions meriting the effort required to carry out point counts also merit serious attempts to estimate detection probabilities associated with the counts. The double-observer approach is a method that can be used for this purpose.
Chapter
Introduction Despite the ecological significance of elasmobranchs as top-level predators in most marine ecosystems (Cortés, 1999), information on their energetics and metabolism is meager. Metabolism is an important component of an organism’s daily energy budget and may account for its greatest, yet most variable proportion (Lowe, 2001). It was hypothesized that sharks had lower metabolic rates than comparable teleosts because most of the original work on the metabolic rate of sharks focused on relatively inactive, cooler-water sharks such as spotted dogfish, Scyliorhinus canicula (Piiper and Schumann, 1967; Metcalf and Butler, 1984) and spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias (Brett and Blackburn, 1978). Over time, better techniques have evolved that allow study of more active elasmobranch species that were typically considered difficult to work with in captivity. These advances in technology have expanded our knowledge of ecology, activity level, morphology, cellular physiology, and kinematics of elasmobranchs that exhibit a wide range of lifestyles, indicating that elasmobranchs have metabolic rates comparable to teleost fishes of similar size and lifestyle.
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Spatial-temporal tendencies of marine faunal observations in touristic dives (Isla del Coco, Costa Rica). Data on several marine species collected over 15 years (1991 to 2007), by dive-masters of the diving company Undersea Hunter, at 27 sites around Isla del Coco (Cocos Island), Pacific Costa Rica, were analyzed. The goal was to create a base line of the pelagic species that live in the waters of the Island based on reports of their activity during tourist dives. A data matrix was generated and multivariate methods used to determine the patterns of temporal and spacial variation. Variability in the occurrence of several species was high between sites. All sites presented a change in the asemblages during the 1991-92 and 1997-98 El Nino events. However, some sites had more influence by this climatic oscillation. El Nino event had stronger repercussion on the abundance and occurrence of particular species. Elasmobranchs such as the scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) and the marbled ray (Taeniura meyeni) showed a negative association with anomalous sea surface temperatures. Starting in 2000 there is a decrease in the average abundances and in the presence of the pelagic species, especially for economically important sharks. These variables reach similar values compared to those of El Nino years. A possible explanation is the increase of illegal fishing that took place around the Island or immediate waters. Some of these are species with great mobility. Nevertheless, some species had a small recovery in recent years. A collaborative program between the Government of Costa Rica and MarViva (a non governmental organization) in recent years has resulted in an improvement in the conservation of the marine fauna of Isla del Coco. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (Suppl. 2): 113-132. Epub 2008 August 29.