Resilience of Coastal Systems and Their Human Partners: ecological and social profile of coastal systems in Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania

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Resilience of Coastal Systems
and Their Human Partners
Ecological and social profile of coastal systems
in Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania

About IUCN
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solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges.
IUCN’s work focuses on valuing and conserving nature, ensuring effective and equitable
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www.iucn.org
About WIOMSA
The Western Indian Ocean Marine Sciences Association (WIOMSA) promotes the
educational, scientic and technological development of all aspects of marine sciences
throughout the Western Indian Ocean region with a view towards sustaining the use and
conservation of its marine resources.
www.wiomsa.org
About CORDIO
Coastal Oceans Research and Development – Indian Ocean (CORDIO) works on marine
and coastal ecosystems in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) specializing in generating
knowledge to nd solutions to the challenges and problems facing coastal people and
marine environments. CORDIO East Africa is a not-for-prot organization based in Kenya
working throughout the WIO and in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea.
CORDIO’s focus is in understanding regional scale biodiversity and biogeography of
coral reefs and their resilience to climate change; holistic ecosystem-based approaches
to sheries management; broader aspects of societal dependence on the environment;
livelihood security; and education and governance needs for coastal systems. CORDIO
works on problems that are linked in the WIO: limited resources and habitat; high
dependency on natural resources and food insecurity; growing population and poverty;
low education and wealth; and weak governance. We emphasize linked solutions to these
problems: ecological and social resilience; adaptive capacity; environmental conservation;
sustainable use; education, policy and governance; investment in livelihoods and improved
capacity.
www.cordioea.net
About the Nairobi Convention
The Convention for the protection, management and development of the marine and
coastal environment of the Western Indian Ocean (Nairobi Convention) is a regional
legal agreement covering ten coastal states, ve of which are island states in the Western
Indian Ocean. The Contracting Parties include: Comoros, France, Kenya, Madagascar,
Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa and Tanzania. The convention
was adopted in 1985 and came into force in 1996. The convention provides a mechanism
for regional cooperation, coordination and collaborative actions in the WIO region.
www.unep.org/nairobiconvention/

Resilience of Coastal Systems
and Their Human Partners
Ecological and social profile of coastal systems
in Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania
Melita Samoilysa, Mine Pabarib, Tim Andrewc, George Waweru Mainaa, Julie Churcha,
Akunga Momanyic, Brigid Mibeia, Marta Monjaneb, Abdalla Shahb,
Manuel Menomussangab and Doris Muttad
Editor: Mary Anne Fitzgerald
Technical Reviewer: Johnson Kitheka
Production Editor: Helen van Houten
a Coastal Oceans Research and Development – Indian Ocean (East Africa)
b The International Union for the Conservation of Nature – Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Ofce
(IUCN ESARO)
c Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA)
d Nairobi Convention Secretariat – United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the participating organizations concerning the legal status
of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions expressed by the authors in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of IUCN,
WIOMSA, CORDIO or the UNEP Nairobi Convention.
Published by: IUCN ESARO, WIOMSA, CORDIO and the UNEP Nairobi Convention
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is
authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the
source is fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited
without prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Copyright: ©2015 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Citation: Samoilys, M., Pabari, M., Andrew, T., Maina, G.W., Church, J., Momanyi, A., Mibei,
B., Monjane, M., Shah, A., Menomussanga, M., Mutta, D. (2015). Resilience of Coastal
Systems and Their Human Partners in the Western Indian Ocean. Nairobi, Kenya:
IUCN ESARO, WIOMSA, CORDIO and UNEP Nairobi Convention. x + 74pp.
ISBN: 978-2-8317-1724-1
Front cover photo: Machui milksh farmers, Tanga coast, Tanzania. Credit: M. Samoilys
Back cover photo: Chole rocks (Kisiwakikubwa), Dindini, Tanzania. Credit: M. Samoilys
Design and layout: Gordon O. Arara
Available from: IUCN ESARO Publications Unit
P. O. Box 68200 - 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: info.esaro@iucn.org
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was developed during the preparatory phase of the Resilient Coasts initiative, supported by the
government of Sweden through the UNEP Africa Marine and Coastal programme, which is executed by the
secretariats of the Nairobi and Abidjan Conventions. The report was developed by the Resilient Coasts partner
organizations—IUCN ESARO, CORDIO, the Nairobi Convention Secretariat and WIOMSA. The Resilient
Coasts initiative is supported by Norad through its Framework Partnership with IUCN.
The authors acknowledge and appreciate the technical review and editorial team, Johnson Kitheka and Mary
Anne Fitzgerald, for their invaluable and constructive inputs. We also thank David Obura, Majambo Jarumani
and Michael Murunga from CORDIO for providing technical inputs and maps, and the UNEP Division of Early
Warning and Assessment for providing the key maps in this report.

CONTENTS
List of tables.................................................................................................................................................................. vi
List of gures ................................................................................................................................................................ vi
Abbreviations and acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... vii
Executive summary ...................................................................................................................................................... ix
1. Introduction and background ................................................................................................................1
2. State of the coastal and marine ecosystems ..........................................................................................5
Ecological characteristics ...................................................................................................................................5
Mozambique ...............................................................................................................................................7
Tanzania ......................................................................................................................................................8
Kenya ..........................................................................................................................................................8
Habitats ................................................................................................................................................................8
River basins, estuaries and deltas ...............................................................................................................8
Mangroves ................................................................................................................................................10
Mozambique .................................................................................................................................11
Tanzania ........................................................................................................................................12
Kenya ............................................................................................................................................13
Summary .......................................................................................................................................13
Coral reefs .................................................................................................................................................14
Mozambique .................................................................................................................................15
Tanzania ........................................................................................................................................17
Kenya ............................................................................................................................................17
Summary .......................................................................................................................................17
Seagrass beds ............................................................................................................................................18
Mozambique .................................................................................................................................18
Tanzania ........................................................................................................................................19
Kenya ............................................................................................................................................19
Summary .......................................................................................................................................19
Coastal forests and other ora ..................................................................................................................20
Species ..............................................................................................................................................21
Coelacanth ................................................................................................................................................21
Sharks and rays .........................................................................................................................................21
Great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) ...............................................................................22
Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) ...................................................................................................22
Mozambique – Tofo ......................................................................................................................23
Kenya – Diani ...............................................................................................................................23
Sawsh and guitarsh ...................................................................................................................24
Manta rays (Manta alfredi) ...........................................................................................................24
Other sharks and rays ...............................................................................................................................24
Bony (teleost) shes ......................................................................................................................24
Turtles .......................................................................................................................................................24
Loggerhead and leatherback turtles ...............................................................................................25
Olive ridley ....................................................................................................................................25
Marine mammals – dugong, whales and dolphins ...................................................................................25
Dugong (Dugong dugon) ..............................................................................................................25
Humpback whales .........................................................................................................................26
Other whales .............................................................................................................................................27
Rorqual whales ..............................................................................................................................27
Sperm whales, pilot whales and orcas ...........................................................................................27
Coastal dolphins ............................................................................................................................27
iii

iv
Coastal forests ...........................................................................................................................................28
Plants ..............................................................................................................................................28
Birds ...............................................................................................................................................28
Mammals ........................................................................................................................................28
Reptiles and amphibians ................................................................................................................28
Freshwater shes ............................................................................................................................29
Invertebrates ...................................................................................................................................29
Other coastal forests and ora ..................................................................................................................29
Dune vegetation and sand forests ..................................................................................................29
Miombo woodlands .......................................................................................................................29
Other forests ..................................................................................................................................29
Social and economic ........................................................................................................................29
Demographic trends ..................................................................................................................................29
Education ..................................................................................................................................................30
Economic activities ...................................................................................................................................30
Fisheries .........................................................................................................................................30
Mariculture ....................................................................................................................................31
Agriculture and forestry ................................................................................................................31
Tourism ..........................................................................................................................................31
Other economic activities .........................................................................................................................31
Links between ecosystems and livelihoods .....................................................................................................31
Mangroves ................................................................................................................................................31
Coral reefs .................................................................................................................................................32
Coastal forests...........................................................................................................................................32
Seagrass beds ............................................................................................................................................32
3. Relationships .........................................................................................................................................33
Overview ............................................................................................................................................................33
Case study examples ................................................................................................................................33
Construction of Lamu Port, Kenya ................................................................................................33
Zambezi Delta, Mozambique .........................................................................................................34
Coral reefs .................................................................................................................................................34
Seagrass beds ............................................................................................................................................36
Species of concern and with conservation value ............................................................................................37
Sharks and rays .........................................................................................................................................37
Marine mammals ......................................................................................................................................37
Ecosystem goods and services ..........................................................................................................................37
River basins and mangroves .....................................................................................................................37
Tana, Ruji, Ruvuma and Zambezi coastal livelihoods and economy .........................................................38
Tanzania ....................................................................................................................................................38
Agriculture and animal husbandry .................................................................................................39
Fisheries .........................................................................................................................................39
Forestry ..........................................................................................................................................39
Tourism ..........................................................................................................................................39
Kenya ........................................................................................................................................................39
Agriculture .....................................................................................................................................40
Fishing............................................................................................................................................40
Tourism ..........................................................................................................................................41
Ports and shipping ..........................................................................................................................41
Mining ............................................................................................................................................42
Forestry ..........................................................................................................................................42
Mozambique .............................................................................................................................................43
Agriculture .....................................................................................................................................43
Forestry ..........................................................................................................................................43
Fisheries and aquaculture ...............................................................................................................44
Tourism ..........................................................................................................................................44
Extractive industries .......................................................................................................................44
Ports ...............................................................................................................................................45

v
4. Adaptability ...........................................................................................................................................46
Social resilience and vulnerability ...................................................................................................................46
Vulnerability to natural hazards ................................................................................................................46
Critical habitats and vulnerability ..................................................................................................................47
Signicant sites for Resilient Coasts ........................................................................................................48
Quirimbas–Mnazi Bay complex, northern coast of Mozambique and southern coast of Tanzania ......48
Bazaruto–Tofo in Inhambane Province, southern coast of Mozambique ......................................48
Lamu Archipelago–Tana River Delta, northern coast of Kenya ....................................................49
Ruji Delta–Maa Island, southern coast of Tanzania ..................................................................49
Funzi Bay–Ramisi River Estuary, southern coast of Kenya ..........................................................50
5. Policy, legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks for managing the marine and coastal environment ..... 51
International and regional institutions and organizations ............................................................................51
United Nations Environment Programme ................................................................................................51
African Ministerial Conference on the Environment ...............................................................................52
African Ministerial Conference on Water .................................................................................................52
New Partnership for Africa’s Development ..............................................................................................52
The African Process for the Development and Protection of the Coastal and Marine Environment in
Sub-Saharan Africa ...................................................................................................................................53
International Maritime Organization ........................................................................................................53
Food and Agriculture Organization ..........................................................................................................53
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientic and
Cultural Organization ...............................................................................................................................53
United Nations Development Programme ................................................................................................53
Regional economic integration organizations ..........................................................................................54
Southern African Development Community .................................................................................54
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa ........................................................................54
East African Community ................................................................................................................54
Indian Ocean Commission .............................................................................................................54
River basin governance frameworks ........................................................................................................55
International and regional civil society organizations ..............................................................................55
International Union for Conservation of Nature ............................................................................55
Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association ......................................................................56
Coastal Oceans Research and Development in the Indian Ocean .................................................56
World Wide Fund for Nature .........................................................................................................57
Consortium for Conservation of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in the Western Indian Ocean . . 57
Regional sheries management organizations..........................................................................................57
Regional and national governance frameworks ........................................................................................58
Mozambique ..................................................................................................................................59
Tanzania .........................................................................................................................................61
Kenya .............................................................................................................................................64
References .....................................................................................................................................................................68

vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Biophysical and geographic characteristics of Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya within the WIO region ...........4
Table 2.1: Marine ecoregions of the study area ................................................................................................................6
Table 2.2: Indices of marine biodiversity: principal marine taxa and the number of species per country in
eastern Africa. ..................................................................................................................................................9
Table 2.3: Major river basins, their deltas and ecological functions in eastern Africa ...................................................10
Table 2.4: Mangrove species found in the Western Indian Ocean .................................................................................10
Table 2.5: Hot spot vital signs of the eastern African coastal forests .............................................................................20
Table 2.6: Small coastal species of shark in eastern Africa: little is known of their population status ..........................23
Table 2.7: Species of teleost shes that are threatened, rare and merit conservation attention ......................................25
Table 2.8: Locations of importance to green and hawksbill turtles ................................................................................26
Table 2.9: Key locations and observers of humpback whales ........................................................................................27
Table 3.1: Percentage of employed by sector and region on the Tanzanian coast .........................................................38
Table 3.2: Food and cash crops grown in coast counties ...............................................................................................39
Table 4.1: Examples of vulnerabilities to natural hazards from the coasts of Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya .......47
Table 5.1: Priority adaptation sectors in national climate change strategies and plans ..................................................58
Table 5.2: Pilot projects for priorities dened in Mozambique’s National Adaptation Programme of Action ..............59
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Resilience framework for the report ..............................................................................................................2
Figure 1.2: Countries of the WIO showing towns and national boundaries ....................................................................3
Figure 1.3: Regional map showing key coastal habitats of mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass beds ...........................3
Figure 2.1: Seychelles, Somalia and South Africa ecoregions .........................................................................................5
Figure 2.2: WIO showing the main ocean currents that dene the region .......................................................................6
Figure 2.3: Regional map showing the major river catchments .......................................................................................7
Figure 2.4: Map showing the Zambezi River and its catchment area ..............................................................................9
Figure 2.5: Mangrove forests in eastern Africa ..............................................................................................................11
Figure 2.6: Major marine and coastal habitats in Cabo Delgado Province, northern Mozambique, showing
the extent of mangrove forests around the bays ..........................................................................................12
Figure 2.7: a) Typical shallow fringing coral reefs of eastern Africa at Maa Island, Tanzania, 3 m depth.
b) Coral cover at 35 m depth at Pemba, Mozambique. ...............................................................................15
Figure 2.8: Estimated maximum species richness of reef-building corals at survey locations in
the WIO region, ordered by decreasing diversity ........................................................................................15
Figure 2.9: Rare and endemic corals from the Western Indian Ocean ...........................................................................16
Figure 2.10: Total number of coral-reef sh species at 45 sites across four WIO countries based on
a standardized SCUBA method ...................................................................................................................16
Figure 2.11: Observations of great white sharks in the WIO ...........................................................................................23
Figure 2.12: Cetacean zones in the WIO, emphasizing the primary zones of cetacean sightings ...................................26
Figure 2.13: Services provided by coastal and marine ecosystems .................................................................................32
Figure 3.1: Map illustrating the extent of the Zambezi Delta ........................................................................................34
Figure 3.2: Overall resilience and coral community scores for subregions in the WIO ................................................35
Figure 3.3: Quantity (metric tonnes) and value (KES millions) of artisanal marine
production in Kenya, 1990–2010 ................................................................................................................40
Figure 3.4: Volume in 20-foot equivalent units of cargo handled by selected maritime ports ......................................41
Figure 3.5: Mozambique sheries annual global production. (Source: MoF 2014). .....................................................43
Figure 3.6: Zones prone to cyclones along the coast of Mozambique ...........................................................................44
Figure 3.7: Cargo handled by Mozambique’s principal ports. (Source: CFM 2013). ....................................................45

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AIDS .....................acquired immune deciency syndrome
ASCLME ..............Agulhas and Somali Current Large Marine Ecosystems
AMCEN ................African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
AMCOW ..............African Ministerial Council on Water
AU ........................African Union
BMU .....................beach management unit
CBD ......................Convention on Biological Diversity
CBO ......................community-based organization
CCA ......................crustose coralline algae
CDA ......................Coast Development Authority
CITES ...................Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
CO2 .......................carbon dioxide
COMESA ..............Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CORDIO ...............Coastal Oceans Research and Development in the Indian Ocean
CSO ......................civil society organization
DfID ......................Department for International Development
EAC ......................East African Community
EAME ...................Eastern African Marine Ecoregion
EBSA ...................Ecologically or Biologically Signicant Area
EEZ .......................exclusive economic zone
EFA .......................environmental ow assessment
EIA ........................environmental impact assessment
EMA .....................Environmental Management Act
EMCA ...................Environmental Management and Coordination Act
ENSO ...................El Niño Southern Oscillation
EU .........................European Union
FAO ......................Food and Agriculture Organization
GDP ......................gross domestic product
GEF.......................Global Environment Fund
GMPP ...................Global Marine and Polar Programme
GNI .......................gross national income
HDI .......................human development index
HIV .......................human immunodeciency virus
IAEA .....................International Atomic Energy Agency
ICZM ....................Integrated Coastal Zone Management
ID ..........................identication card
IMO ......................International Maritime Organization
IOC .......................Indian Ocean Commission
IOD .......................Indian Ocean Dipole
IOTC .....................Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
IUCN ESARO ......IUCN Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Ofce
IUCN ....................International Union for Conservation of Nature
KFS .......................Kenya Forest Service
KMFRI .................Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute
vii

KWS .....................Kenya Wildlife Service
LAPSSET ............Lamu Port Southern Sudan–Ethiopia Transport Corridor
MICOA .................Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs
MOU .....................memorandum of understanding
MPA ......................marine protected area
MPRA ...................Marine Parks and Reserves Authority
NEMA...................National Environment Management Authority
NEMC...................National Environment Management Council
NEPAD .................New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NGO .....................non-government organization
POP .......................persistent organic pollutant
RFMO ...................regional sheries management organization
RUMAKI ..............Ruji-Maa-Kilwa (Seascape Programme)
SADC ...................Southern Africa Development Community
SAPPHIRE ..........WIO Large Marine Ecosystems Strategic Action Programme Policy Harmonization and Institutional
Reform
SCUBA .................self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
SNV .....................Netherlands Development Organisation
SSG .......................Shark Specialist Group
SST .......................sea-surface temperature
SWIOFish1 ...........Southwest Indian Ocean Fisheries Governance and Growth Project
SWIOFC ...............Southwest Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission
SWIOFP ................South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Project
TFS .......................Tanzania Forest Services
UN ........................United Nations
UNCLOS ..............United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNDP ...................United Nations Development Programme
UNEP ....................United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO ..............United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization
UNESCO-IOC ......Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientic and
Cultural Organization
USA ......................United States of America
USAID ..................United States Agency for International Development
USD ......................United States dollar
WCS .....................Wildlife Conservation Society
WIO ......................Western Indian Ocean
WIO-C ..................Consortium for Conservation of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in the Western Indian Ocean
WIO-LaB ..............Addressing Land-based Activities in the Western Indian Ocean
WIOMSA ..............Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association
WIO-SAP ..............Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Protection of the Western Indian Ocean
from Land-based Sources and Activities
WWF ....................World Wide Fund for Nature
WWF-EARPO ......WWF Eastern Africa Regional Programme Ofce
WWF-ESARPO ....WWF Eastern and Southern Africa Programme Ofce
viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ix
This report explains the ecology and social prole of coastal
systems in Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania in order to
contribute to the development of effective strategies to
enhance the resilience of marine and coastal systems in the
Western Indian Ocean. Special consideration is given to the
effects and consequences of climate change and economic
development.
Eastern Africa’s coastal habitats host rich marine
biodiversity with more than 6,000 documented species. Six
major rivers ow into the Western Indian Ocean (WIO):
the Tana and Athi-Sabaki Rivers in Kenya, the Ruji
and Ruvuma Rivers in Tanzania, and the Zambezi and
Limpopo Rivers in Mozambique. Their deltas are ideal
nursery grounds and breeding areas for prawns, crabs, sea
cucumber, snapper, emperor, grouper and several offshore
commercially important tuna and mackerel. However, dams
built upstream have reduced water ow and sediment and
nutrient discharge to the coast. The resulting decline in
productivity has had an adverse effect on sheries.
The WIO, a subset of the Indo-West Pacic Region, has
about 5% of the world’s mangrove cover with 10 species.
Mangrove forests are valued as carbon sinks that counter
the effects of climate change through their high productivity
and by trapping carbon in biomass and sediment. They
thrive in river mouths where they trap sediments that would
otherwise be washed out to sea. They host shes, crabs,
molluscs and ora.
Mangrove forests in eastern Africa are in a relatively good
state of health. They experienced an attrition rate of about
8% between 1980 and 2005 compared with a global loss
of more than 30% over the last 50 years. Nevertheless,
economic opportunity tends to overshadow biodiversity and
conservation in their management. The great majority are
subject to forestry regulations so that they can be utilized as
a natural resource. Mangrove harvesting provides benets
to local communities, but when harvesting is excessive, it
stunts trees and leads to sparse distribution. Mozambique
has 60% of mainland eastern Africa’s mangroves. In Cabo
Delgado Province, the forests are increasing in size because
there is very little logging.
Mangrove forests function as service providers to coral
reefs, sheries, prawn farms and land protection, but this
carries little weight in the face of alternative incentives.
Tourism development, port construction, agriculture and the
insatiable demand for fuel wood are causing indiscriminate
cutting of primary mangrove forest. There is little or no
replanting in the aftermath. Oil and gas extraction is a
potential threat to mangroves. Drilling started in 2013
offshore from Cabo Delgado Province in Mozambique in
what is one of the largest natural gas reserves in the world.
Safeguarding ethical extraction practices will be critical,
hence the development of initiatives such as the Fair Coasts
Programme1, aimed at facilitating direct dialogue between
local communities, the government of Mozambique and the
drilling companies.
Recently considered port construction is a certain threat to
the region’s mangroves forests. Local community groups,
environment managers and conservationists have voiced
concern over expansion plans for the ports at Mtwara and
Tanga to accommodate the shipping trafc generated by oil
and gas companies. The mangrove forests around Manda
and Pate Islands will be removed or damaged when work
begins on the Lamu Port Southern Sudan–Ethiopia Transport
Corridor (LAPSSET). Mariculture, which is expanding in
response to a growing market demand, poses yet another
threat. Prawn farmers must not repeat the mistakes made in
Asia where a landscape denuded of mangroves exacerbated
the catastrophic destruction caused by the 2004 tsunami.
Mozambique’s northern reefs in the Quirimbas Archipelago
of Cabo Delgado Province are some of the healthiest, most
resilient and diverse coral reef systems in the WIO and have
been recommended as a World Heritage site. Tanzania’s
southern reefs in Mnazi Bay, Maa Island and the Songo
Songo Archipelago are also highly diverse and resilient to
climate change.
Warmer sea-surface temperatures caused by global warming
bleach corals and eventually kill them. The reefs in northern
Mozambique and southern Tanzania have demonstrated
resilience to bleaching and an ability to return to a coral-
dominated state after the extreme temperatures of the 1998
El Niño event. The presence of crustose coralline algae on
the reefs around Maa Island and the Songo Songo Islands,
a prescursor to coral growth, suggests that if conditions are
ideal, their recovery from a bleaching event will take 10–15
years. Coral cover is higher in the Songo Songo Islands than
in Maa Island, probably because the reefs were protected
by the turbid water of the Ruji Delta, which resulted in
lower mortality. Kenya’s reefs have suffered mortality
levels of more than 80%.
Mozambique has a biodiverse coral-reef system with nearly
15% of the WIO’s coral reefs, up to 400 coral species and
295 sh species, primarily in Cabo Delgado and Nampula
Provinces. Tanzania has the largest area of coral reefs with
3,500 km2 covered by fringing reefs. However, dynamite
shing is a widespread and uncontrolled practice that has
destroyed the reefs to such an extent that many are now
dominated by macroalgae. Kenya’s coral reefs, while the
fewest, are protected by a network of established marine
1 The Fair Coasts Programme was developed with the support of
the Mechanism for Strengthening Capacity of the Civil Society
(MASC), the Mitsubishi Foundation for Europe, Middle East
and Africa (MCFMEA), the We Effect and Irish Aid. The
programme was developed by IUCN ESARO in collaboration
with a consortium of national and regional partners.

parks and marine reserves that encompass neighbouring
seagrass beds and mangrove forests. The marine parks
have allowed sh populations to recover over the past 20
years, and the marine reserves are relatively well managed.
The Lamu Archipelago hosts rare, endemic species with
limited ranges.
To maintain a healthy and vibrant coral reef ecosystem
in eastern Africa, its countries must commit themselves
to creating a large-scale network that can oversee marine
protected areas and manage sheries regionally in an
ecosystem-based approach. This is particularly relevant
for the northern reefs, which will be more vulnerable to
bleaching events than the southern reefs.
Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya have the WIO’s
greatest diversity of seagrasses with 12 widely distributed
species. These unusually productive ecosystems are
found next to shallow fringing coral reefs and serve as
nursery grounds and foraging areas for Dugong dugon,
turtles and more than 100 species of sh. Seagrass beds
are poorly understood, neglected ecosystems that have
yet to be recognized for their efciency in maintaining
biodiversity and safeguarding threatened species. Like the
mangroves, they combat climate change by storing up to
500 tonnes per hectare of carbon, equivalent to the carbon
stored in primary tropical forests. They also stabilize
sediment, protect shorelines, purify water and recycle
nutrients. Further research is called for to understand
better their resilience to climate change and their economic
contribution to coastal communities.
Seagrass beds continue to be damaged by trawling, seine
netting and dynamite fishing. Upstream agriculture also
damages seagrass beds, notably the Athi-Sabaki and Tana
Deltas in Kenya and the Rufiji Delta in Tanzania. When
coastal development is not well managed, it destroys
seagrass beds through the unregulated dumping of solid
waste, sewage and dredge soil. The proposed Lamu Port,
for example, could significantly affect large tracts of
seagrass beds that are important turtle and dugong feeding
grounds. Marine spatial planning which incorporates
segrass beds into national marine conservation policy is
needed in the three Resilient Coasts target countries.
Many fauna species across the three countries are under
stress from human predation, ranging from uncontrolled
offshore commercial shing with foreign longliners and
purseiners that accidentally net sharks and rays to targeted
shing for shark ns and meat. Sharks, turtles, dugongs and
coelacanths are in particular danger.
The population status of almost 50% of all sharks is
unknown due to insufcient data. Of those species that
have been assessed by the IUCN Specialist Shark Group,
22 are Critically Endangered, 41 are Endangered, 116 are
Vulnerable and 133 are Near Threatened. Not a single reef
shark was recorded during recent surveys of coral reefs at 74
sites in Mozambique and Tanzania.
x
The state of turtle populations is a good indicator of the overall
health of coastal and marine ecosystems. Five out of seven
species of the world’s marine turtles occur in Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya. All ve species are on the IUCN Red
List either as Critically Endangered (hawksbill, leatherback)
or Endangered (green, olive ridley and loggerhead). Extensive
turtle research in the WIO dating back to the 1990s has been
central to marine planning exercises for mainland East Africa.
However, more specic data are needed on turtle feeding and
breeding, and juvenile and adult migratory routes. Very little
is known about the dugong population, but it is believed to be
declining to the point of extirpation in the WIO.
Marine and coastal ecosystems and coastal communities
live in critical interdependence with the vulnerability and
resilience of one directly affecting the other. However, this
interdependence is not properly recognized in legislative
frameworks, institutions and social systems. Coastal
poverty, as opposed to rural poverty, has distinguishing
features. Many coastal resources are less dependent on
short-term weather patterns than on terrestrial resources,
allowing more reliability, although the ‘fugitive’ nature of
other marine resources, particularly sh, adds a level of
uncertainty to coastal livelihoods. The open-access nature
of many coastal resources, while providing opportunities for
people without property or capital, also exposes resources to
competition from other users, and to expropriation for other
uses, including tourism or conservation.
Small-scale sheries supply up to 98% of the marine catch
and are the principal income-generating activity for a large
number of households. The diminishing access to resources
among the poor, as demand for these resources increases,
encourages artisanal shers to resort to using illegal gear or
shing in protected areas. The shing industry’s protability
would improve if there were more processing facilities
to create added value (in particular in Mozambique and
Tanzania), and feeder roads to provide access to markets.
Coastal forests and mangroves are important sources of wood,
rewood and non-wood products for local communities. More
and more coastal forests and wetlands are being cleared not
only for subsistence farming but also for irrigated cash-crop
plantations sited near rivers. Mangroves are being exploited
for timber, rewood and charcoal.
Today’s world is increasingly complex and unpredictable.
With rapidly changing demographics, economies and
climates in a globalized world—we can no longer afford
to engage as ‘business as usual’. Effective responses are
required at multiple scales and by multiple actors.
This report describes the richness and the complexity of
coastal systems and their human partners across Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya. In doing so, it is our hope that it will
stimulate new ways of thinking and working together—
breaking down the existing sectoral and organizational
silos that do not encourage exchange and cooperation, and
giving rise to new approaches that better enable alliances,
collaborative learning and adaptive management.

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1
This report was developed for the Resilient Coasts
initiative, a partnership2 driven programme that ‘builds
knowledge, supports action on the ground and enhances
governance and policy processes in support of building
resilience of coastal systems against global change,
including climate change.’
The Resilient Coasts initiative builds on the experiences
of Mangroves for the Future (MFF)3 in Asia. The early
successes of MFF led to a request by the governments
of Kenya and Tanzania for development of a programme
specically tailored to the needs of the Western Indian
Ocean.
Resilient Coasts is aimed at ‘strengthening the resilience
of coastal socio-ecological systems in the Western
Indian Ocean region’ with a focus on four focal areas: i)
Strengthening adaptive capacities of local communities
dependent on coastal and marine resources; ii) Enhancing
resilience of critical coastal ecosystems and habitats; iii)
Inuencing coastal economic development to be more
environmentally sustainable and socially equitable;
iv) Improving the effectiveness of local governance in
managing and inuencing coastal ecological and social
systems.
Resilient Coasts adopts a reef-to-ridge approach, engaging
with territorial waters, river basins and catchments affecting
and being affected by coastal systems. The Programme’s
focus is centrered around a knowledge-practice-policy
nexus, integrating the establishment of mechanisms for
the longer term sustainability of benets realized. The
programme applies a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral
approach, bringing together governments, private sector,
NGOs, academia and community stakeholders.
Coastal ecosystems are natural infrastructures that are
important to the wellbeing of local populations as well
as to national and regional economic development. The
purpose of this report is to understand the ecology and
social prole of coastal systems in eastern Africa to
contribute to the formulation of effective strategies for their
conservation, restoration and sustainable management by
the stakeholders of the Resilient Coasts initiative.
2 The main implementation partners are IUCN - ESARO, the
Nairobi Convention, WIOMSA, CORDIO in collaboration
with participating governments.
3 Known as MFF, Mangroves for the Future is a partnership-
based initiative promoting investment in coastal ecosystems for
sustainable development. Initially catalysed by the December
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, MFF provides a collaborative
platform to help countries, sectors and agencies in the MFF
region tackle the growing challenges to coastal sustainability.
For additional detail: http://www.mangrovesforthefuture.org/
who-we-are/about/who-we-are/#sthash.LJRwqWbB.dpuf
The report addresses the following questions:
• Are coastal systems4 sufciently resilient5 to global climate
change to enable sustainable development6 ?
• What are the key factors affecting the resilience of
coastal systems (illustrated in Figure 1.1)?
• How effective are local, national and regional responses
to vulnerability?
This study is a desk review using a resilience-based
analytical framework, illustrated in Figure 1.1. The
framework identies four critical spheres within coastal
systems: i) Institutional; ii) Socioeconomic; iii) Ecological;
and iv) Climate. Each of these systems is viewed as being
interrelated with the relationships within and between
them having a bearing on the resilience of coastal systems.
The framework further denes critical elements within
each of these spheres identied as being necessary for
understanding resilience. The information extracted from
published papers and reports has been used to develop
an understanding of the ecological and socioeconomic
resilience of coastal systems. This understanding can then
be used to identify the areas where Resilient Coasts can
make valid geographic and socioeconomic contributions.
For the purpose of this report, global change is dened
as change caused by increased greenhouse gas emissions
resulting in a high CO2 world and the direct and indirect
changes that ensue. Increased greenhouse gas emissions
affect the ocean in three major ways. They warm the sea-
surface temperature (SST) and cause ocean acidication and
deoxygenation (Turley et al. 2011). The latter two effects
are poorly understood, particularly in eastern Africa. One
secondary effect is rising sea levels caused by melting
polar ice caps. Another is coral bleaching and coral death
caused by rising SST. These latter conditions, which have
been extensively studied and measured in the Western
Indian Ocean (WIO) (Obura 2005, McClanahan 2009) and
elsewhere (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Hughes et al. 2003),
suggest likely ecosystem phase shifts as coral reefs become
dominated by macroalgae (brown algae such as Turbinaria,
Sargassum spp.) (Bellwood et al. 2004; Hughes et al. 2005).
Acidication will have a signicant impact on marine
resources and sheries (Turley et al. 2011) because the
changes to ocean chemistry will affect marine organisms
that rely on pH-sensitive chemical reactions. This eld
is relatively recent, but reports predict trophic shifts
4 Coastal systems are dened here as both social and
ecological.
5 Resilience is dened here as being able to anticipate,
minimize and absorb disturbances and reorganize while
undergoing change.
6 This incorporates economic and social developmental goals
alongside the protection of biodiversity.

2
as molluscs, corals and other organisms with calcium
carbonate skeletons are compromised. Deoxygenation
is caused by ocean warming as oxygen becomes less
soluble. This results in less growth of most marine
organisms and a shift to low-oxygen-tolerant organisms,
often micro-organisms. At the same time, economic
development and population growth are having a marked
effect on coastal environments and the people who live
there. These changes are a result of a multitude of factors
including unchecked urbanization, port development, the
mechanization of sheries, population growth, pollution,
and oil and gas extraction.
This report is laid out in three chapters (2,3,4) that serve to
answer the questions posed at the beginning of the report and
a nal chapter (5) that is an institutional analysis, as follows:
2) State. The current state and trends of the principal
components within three spheres—ecological, socio-
economic, institutional. The critical natural external
forces affecting these three spheres are identied and
factored into the situation analysis.
3) Relationship. The relationship between the environmental
and socioeconomic spheres and the extent to which each
sphere reinforces or undermines the resilience of the other.
4) Adaptability. This chapter was to analyse the
environmental and socioeconomic spheres and the
institutional analysis to assess the adaptability of
the different components. It became apparent that
this was a huge task that required a consultative
workshop with key partners and stakeholders. This
workshop is intended during the rst phase of the
Resilient Coasts programme. Here, concepts of
adaptability are discussed within the context of the
report’s ndings.
5) Institutional analysis. Details the institutions and
governance frameworks involved in marine and coastal
management in Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya. It
also looks at international and regional institutions and
frameworks involved with coastal and marine issues.
The geographic scope of the report covers Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya (Figure 1.2) and uses a reef-to-ridge
approach, focusing on territorial waters, river basins and
catchments (Table 1.1). The reef-to-ridge approach was put
forward in the Caribbean in the late 1990s when the links
between land-based activities upstream and the marine and
coastal environment became increasingly evident. This
approach has been taken forward in Australia and Asia (e.g.
Geoghegan et al. 2003; Golbuu et al. 2011). Links with
offshore marine systems have also been taken into account
where there is a signicant relationship to coastal systems.
Territorial waters are generally dened as being within 12
nmi7. This value is used here as a useful benchmark since
marine jurisdiction invariably refers to territorial waters as
available exclusively for citizens and residents. In contrast,
the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) ocean waters that extend
beyond the 12nmi zone to 200nmi are typically exploited
by foreign sheries vessels and hydrocarbon and mineral
extraction industries.
This report makes some reference to information from
neighbouring countries such as Madagascar, South Africa,
Seychelles and Somalia (Figure 1.2) because these countries
have the potential to partner with the Resilient Coasts
programme as they are either part of Mangroves for the
Future-Asia (Seychelles), or have sufcient internal resources
and experience (South Africa), or have expressed interest in
being part of Resilient Coasts in the future (Madagascar).
7 The nautical mile (nmi) is a unit of length set by international
agreement at 1,852 metres.
Climate variability
Impacts & implications
Species, Communities, Habitats & ecosystems
Abundance & diversity
Population demographics
Use and dependency on natural systems
Ecosystem goods & services
Development trends
Local governance (formal & informal)
Organizational systems & processes
Legislation, policies & planning frameworks
Economies & markets
Figure 1.1: Resilience framework for the report.
Climates
and climate
variability
Ecological
Socioeconomical
Institutional

and estuaries; the extent of coastal waters; how these
differ widely between the three countries; and the
extent of mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass habitats
in each country.
Figure 1.3 and Table 1.1 provide an overview of
the biophysical and geographic features of the three
countries and their neighbouring countries in the WIO.
They illustrate the major rivers that form coastal deltas
3
Figure 1.2: Countries of the WIO showing towns and national boundaries.
(Source: UNEP Division of Early Warning and Assessmen).
Figure 1.3: Regional map showing key coastal habitats of mangroves, coral reefs and
seagrass beds. (Source: UNEP Division of Early Warning and Assessment).

4
Country Coastline Territorial Continental EEZ Major River River Coral Mangrove Seagrass
(km) waters shelf million rivers MAR sediment reef area area
(km2) (km2) (km2) and (m) load area (km2) (km2)
length (Mt/yr)a (km2)
Kenya 536 12,832 8,460 0.104 Tana – 1,102 38 6.8 630 610 33.6
Sabaki – 650 35
Madagascar 4,828 124,938 96,653 1.079 Betsiboka – NA NA 2,230 2,991 NA
525
Mozambique 2,470 70,894 73,300 0.493 Zambezi – 67–190 22–43 1,860 2,909 439
2,650 13 10–34
Limpopo –
1,750
Seychelles 491 45,411 31,479 1.288 none — — 1,690 32 NA
Somalia 3,025 68,849 40,392 1.200 Juba– NA NA 710 48 NA
Shebelle
South Africa 2,881 74,699 160,938 1.1016 Incomati – 46 7 ~50 31 ~7
480
Tanzania 1,424 36,578 17,903 0.204 Ruvuma – 96 NA 3,580 1,287 NA
800 NA 15–17
     Ruji–
~ 600
Source: UNEP 2009; Spalding et al. 2010
Other countries included are those that may partner with Resilient Coasts and they also help provide a regional perspective.
Ruvuma River is placed in Tanzania but lies on the border in both Tanzania and Mozambique.
Values for Somalia and South Africa are for the whole country (UNEP 2009) and therefore include oceans outside the WIO.
EEZ – exclusive economic zone; MAR – mean annual runoff; NA – not available
Table 1.1: Biophysical and geographic characteristics of Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya within the WIO region
Kiunga Beach, Kenya. Credit: M. Samoilys

5
2. STATE OF THE COASTAL AND MARINE
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecological characteristics
This chapter describes the ecological and the socioeconomic
situation of the coastal and marine zones of Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya. The coastal margins of Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya are at the western extremity of the
western Indo-Pacic biogeographic realm (Figure 2.1,
Spalding et al. 2007). Based on taxonomic congurations,
evolutionary history, dispersal and isolation, Spalding and co-
workers dened this region as the WIO Province (Province
No. 20) with three mainland ecoregions (Figure 2.1).
Coastal ecosystems are natural
infrastructures that are important
to both the wellbeing of local
populations as well as national and
regional economic development.
The purpose of this report is to
understand the ecology and social
prole of coastal systems in
eastern Africa to contribute to the
formulation of effective strategies
for their conservation, restoration
and sustainable management by the
stakeholders of the Resilient Coasts
initiative.
Obura’s analysis (2012) of the
diversity and distribution of reef-
building corals revises denitions of
the marine ecoregions of the world
(Spalding et al. 2007) and denes
the ve ecoregions (Table 2.1) used
in this report. These ecoregions are
dened by the WIO’s ve main
ocean circulation patterns (Figure
2.2), originally described by Schott
and McCreary (2001). They were
further described in the National
Marine Ecosystem Diagnostic
Analysis reports for each of the
three countries. These reports
were produced by the Agulhas
and Somali Current Large Marine
Ecosystems Project (ASCLME
2012 a,b,c). Readers seeking more
information and greater detail can
refer to them.
This report highlights the features
of eastern Africa’s oceanography
that are important for providing
resilience to climate change. It
should be noted that research
on this topic is still in the early stages. Three ocean
circulation patterns are likely to boost resilience: the South
Equatorial Current; Comoros gyre and related eddies in
the Mozambique Channel; and the East African Coastal
Current. The South Equatorial Current ows west across
the northern part of the Mozambique Channel linking
Madagascar and Comoros to mainland eastern Africa.
It bifurcates at Cabo Delgado Province to join the East
African Coastal Current owing north and Comoros gyres
and eddies owing south (Figure 2.2). These ows across
the Mozambique Channel are important to consider in
regional management planning (Obura et al. 2012).
Figure 2.1: Seychelles, Somalia and South Africa. Ecoregions are those
denedbyObura(2012)basedonthedistributionofhard-coralspecies.

6
This biogeographic description of the WIO helps put in
context the vulnerabilities and resilience to climate change
of the different marine ecosystems of eastern Africa.
Climatically the WIO is characterized by monsoon rains
which drive the weather, river ows and sea conditions.
The northern part of Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya and
southern Somalia receive long and heavy rains during
March to May before the onset of strong southeast monsoon
winds. Short rains occur between October and December
and herald the start of the lighter northeast monsoon winds.
This cycle has become less predictable in recent years with
erratic rainfall patterns and inconsistent monsoon periods.
This is mentioned frequently by coastal communities
as their livelihoods are closely aligned to these weather
patterns (Maina et al. 2012; Laizer et al. in press).
In central and southern Mozambique the climate shifts
between tropical and subtropical regimes while the weather
pattern is driven by the Aguhlas Current (Figure 2.2). Tropical
cyclones are common in the southern Mozambique Channel
and have a devastating effect on economic development.
Their proximity to the coast strongly affects the weather
patterns over Mozambique, increasing convection and rain
showers along the Intertropical Convergence Zone8.
8 Review of the 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 cyclone seasons,
World Meteorological Organization Tropical Cyclone
Committee for the southwest Indian Ocean, 20th session,
Maputo, Mozambique, 3–7 Sep 2012.
Table 2.1: Marine ecoregions of the study area
No. Geographic range
1 Somalia
2 Southern Somalia, Kenya, northern Tanzania –
monsoon coast
3 Northern Mozambique Channel: southern Tanzania,
northern Mozambique
4 Southern Mozambique Channel: central southern
Mozambique
5 Delagoa: southern Mozambique, northern South Africa
Source: Spalding et al. 2007; Obura 2012
Figure 2.2: WIO showing the main ocean currents that define the region. A = South Equatorial Current;
B = eddies and Comoros gyre in the Mozambique Channel; C = East African Coastal Current;
D = Somali Current; E = Agulhas Current. ©David Obura (2012)

7
The most relevant climate phenomena affecting the eastern
African marine environment are the El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
ENSO is a system of interactions between the equatorial
Pacic Ocean and the atmosphere above it. The state of
the ENSO system uctuates from year to year. One of the
main ways to observe these uctuations is through changes
in the SST of the equatorial Pacic Ocean. El Niño and La
Niña events are opposite states of the ENSO system. El
Niño occurs when the equatorial Pacic is warmer than
average, La Niña when it is cooler than average.
The ENSO phenomenon is a fundamental and quasi-
periodic feature of the ocean atmosphere system, ranging in
frequency from seasonal to about eight years (Rasmusson
and Carpenter 1983; Halpert and Ropelewski 1992).
Some extreme rainfall anomalies in East Africa have been
associated with ENSO (Indeje et al. 2000). The ENSO has
also affected the world’s coral reefs. The most signicant
episode was the 1998 El Niño, which caused the strongest
oceanic warming in recorded history. This was associated
with severe coral bleaching and mortality globally with the
greatest devastation in the WIO (Eneld 2001; Sheppard
2003; Ateweberhan and McClanahan 2010).
The IOD is a coupled ocean atmosphere phenomenon in
the Indian Ocean (Saji et al. 1999). The IOD involves a
periodic oscillation of SST between ‘positive’, ‘neutral’
and ‘negative’ phases. The positive phase is normally
characterized by anomalous cooling of SST in the
southeastern equatorial Indian Ocean and anomalous
warming of SST in the western equatorial Indian Ocean.
Associated with these changes the normal convection
situated over the eastern Indian Ocean warm pool shifts to
the west and brings heavy rainfall over East Africa (Behera
et al. 2005; ASCLME 2012a,b,c).
The IOD and ENSO are similar phenomena, but the ENSO
is driven by a larger ocean basin and is strong. This means
that its effects are greater on a global scale. However,
given East Africa’s location in the Indian Ocean, the IOD
signal can sometimes be stronger than the ENSO in driving
climate patterns in the region.
Mozambique
After Somalia, Mozambique’s coastline is the longest in
eastern Africa, extending 2,700 km from 10 to 27 degrees
south (Table 1.1, Figure 1.2) across the three climate
zones of the northern Mozambique Channel, the southern
Mozambique Channel and Delagoa (Table 2.1). The
northern coastline of Cabo Delgado Province is notably
complex with its myriad islands and bays. In several
places close to the shore the precipitous slope of the
continental shelf has created coral reef drop-offs of several
hundred metres. These deep trenches are associated with
cold up-wellings and strong currents. Mozambique’s
southern coast is characterized by the Limpopo and
Zambezi deltas, two of eastern Africa’s largest (Table 1.1,
Figure 2.3). They commonly have large bays, mud and
sand beaches, extensive mangrove forests and seagrass
beds. The northern coastline of Cabo Delgado Province
is narrow; the continental shelf off Sofala Province is
much wider. It includes the offshore Sofala Bank, an
area renowned for its rich sheries of prawns and nsh.
This latitudinal division of habitats along Mozambique’s
coastline results in different uses of the natural resources,
particularly sheries and mangrove timber, and lends itself
well to marine spatial planning for developing a national
integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) plan (Agardy
2010; Agardy et al. 2011).
The biogeography and biodiversity of Mozambique’s
coastal and marine ecosystems are directly inuenced by
the prevailing ocean currents in the Mozambique Channel
(Figure 2.2), particularly the South Equatorial Current and
the eddy formations that drive currents in all directions.
These current systems are thought to boost biodiversity
and productivity through larval supply, retention and
cold up-wellings. The northern Mozambique coastline in
Cabo Delgado Province has some of the most species-
diverse coral reefs in the region (Obura 2012; Samoilys
et al. 2012; see ‘River basins, estuaries and deltas’
below). Diversity and productivity are important factors
in making coral reefs resilient to climate change. A
recent review of the WIO recommended that the northern
Mozambique coastline be listed as a World Heritage site
(Obura et al. 2012).
Figure 2.3: Regional map showing the major river
catchments (Source: UNEP Division of Early Warning and
Assessment 2008).

8
Tanzania
Tanzania’s coastline is 1,424 km long (Table 1.1; Figure
1.2, ASCLME 2012b). Although it has extensive territorial
waters, its generally narrow continental shelf means
that its total shelf area is only a quarter the size of the
Mozambican shelf. Its two major river systems are the
Ruji and the Ruvuma (Figure 2.3). The delta of the
Ruji River extends to Songo Songo near Maa Island. It
has one of the largest mangrove forests in eastern Africa
(Figure 1.3). The Ruvuma River straddles the Tanzania–
Mozambique border and also has extensive mangrove
forests. The Tanzanian side is a national marine park.
Tanzania has the third largest stands of mangrove forest
in the WIO after Madagascar and Mozambique (Table
1.1). Tanzania also has several large islands such as Pemba
and Unguja (informally known as Zanzibar) in the north
and Maa to the south. They are all rich in coral reefs.
Tanzania’s mainland coastline is fringed by coral reefs
except where there are major rivers. They are frequently
associated with shallow seagrass beds (see ‘Mangroves’
below). The northern coastline around Tanga has several
offshore submerged coral reefs. Many have been destroyed
by long-term dynamite shing, a problem that is conned
to Tanzania (Burke et al. 2011). Tanzania’s coast consists
of two ecoregions (Table 2.1). The southern region (no. 3),
which extends into northern Mozambique, is inuenced by
the oceanography of the Mozambique Channel. It is where
the South Equatorial Current meets the African coast. The
northern region (no. 2) is the monsoon coast. It extends
north through Kenya and into southern Somalia, driven
largely by the north-owing East African coastal current
(Figure 2.2; Schott 2001; ASCLME 2012b; Obura 2012).
Kenya
Kenya’s coastline is only 536 km, the shortest of the WIO
countries. Consequently its territorial seas, continental
shelf and EEZ area are much smaller (Table 1.1; UNEP
2009). As in Tanzania, the coast is dominated by fringing
coral reefs, often enclosing a shallow lagoon and often
associated with seagrass beds (Figure 1.3). Kenya has
two major rivers that drain into the WIO, the Tana and the
Athi-Sabaki (Table 1.1, Figure 2.3). The largest is the Tana
River to the north, which has extensive mangrove forests.
Its delta ows into the large, mud-sand Ungwana Bay,
which has minimal reef systems. Northeast of the bay lies
the North Kenya Bank, a broad area of shallow continental
shelf. Research on this bank has been minimal (Samoilys
et al. 2011a), but it probably supports large populations
of valuable offshore shery species. Kenya’s coast is
contained within one ecoregion, the monsoon coast (Table
2.1), which extends into southern Somalia and includes the
Bajuni Islands. The northern extent of this climatic zone
is tempered by the Somali Current and cold up-wellings
off the Somali coast (Figure 2.2) that delimit the northern
boundary of the eastern African coral reef fauna (Schott
2001; ASCLME 2012c; Obura 2012).
Habitats
The mainland countries of the WIO are characterized
by coastal and marine ecosystems that include rivers and
estuaries, coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds,
sandy and muddy beaches and bays and rocky headlands.
This variety of tropical coastal habitats hosts rich marine
biodiversity with more than 6,000 documented species
(Table 2.2). However, detailed breakdowns for the different
taxonomic groups by country are unavailable, highlighting a
gap in knowledge. High species diversity and endemism are
also found in the coastal ora, which comprise mangrove
forests and tropical dry forests within a mosaic of grassland
habitats and wetlands (UNEP 2009; ASCLME 2012c).
The following section presents information and data by
major habitat in order to identify key areas and effective
strategies through which Resilient Coasts may contribute to
the conservation, restoration and sustainable management
of coastal ecosystems in a way that supports the wellbeing,
resilience and security of the local communities.
River basins, estuaries and deltas
There are 12 main river basins that ow into the WIO of
which 6 are in the three countries of this review (UNEP
2009): the Tana and Athi-Sabaki Rivers in Kenya, the Ruji
and Ruvuma Rivers in Tanzania, and the Zambezi and
Limpopo Rivers in Mozambique (although the Ruvuma
straddles the border between Tanzania and Mozambique)
(Table 1.1, Table 2.3, Figure 2.3). The Zambezi and
Limpopo Rivers are two of the nine largest river basins in
Africa (ASCLME 2012a). The Zambezi River ows for
some 2,700 km through nine countries (Zambia, Angola,
Namibia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique) and is
Africa´s fourth-longest river (Figure 2.4).
The signicant freshwater discharge into the sea from the
rivers of eastern Africa (Table 1.1) reects rainfall patterns
in their catchments. The long rains (see ‘Ecological
characteristics’ above on climate and monsoons) are
the principal source of freshwater ow. The volume of
water ow and terrigenous sediment load combined with
catchment area are the principal factors for governing
the size of the river estuaries and their mangrove forests.
The greatest volume of river discharge is found in the
rivers of Mozambique, which in turn support extensive
mangrove forests (Table 1.1). These mangrove forests are
often associated with seagrass beds, which are usually
found in shallow, protected waters in bays. The nutrients
that ow downstream make these mangrove–estuarine
systems highly productive. They provide nursery grounds
and breeding areas for numerous important shery species
such as snapper, emperor, grouper, prawns, crabs and sea
cucumber. Several offshore commercially important tunas
and mackerel (scombrids), such as the Spanish mackerel
(Scomberomorus commerson, locally known as ‘kingsh’)

9
use mangrove estuaries for their early life
stages (Samoilys et al. 2011a; Waycott et
al. 2011). Many migratory bird populations
rely on river deltas, wetlands and mangrove
forests as a winter stopover.
The major rivers of the three countries
(Table 2.3) have been dammed to varying
extents for hydropower, water supply
or irrigation. This has in some instances
reduced water ow and nutrient discharge
to the coast (UNEP 2009), which has
inhibited mangrove growth. The decline
in productivity has had an adverse
effect on sheries. Baseline data prior
to damming are scant, and quantied
estimates of the decline in the ecosystem
health and productivity of these mangrove
river basin systems are not available.
Mangrove harvesting and removal occurs
in all three countries and tends to be poorly
managed. Despite this, the relative health
and productivity of these major deltaic
mangrove ecosystems is good (Spalding et
al. 2010). Using the criteria of delta size
and productivity and the relationship to
neighbouring seagrass beds and coral reefs,
the Ruji, Ruvuma, Tana and Zambezi
river basins are considered to be of
national, regional and global signicance.
Figure 2.4: Map showing the Zambezi River and its catchment area. (Source: http://www.zamsoc.org/?page_id=636).
Table 2.2: Indices of marine biodiversity: principal marine taxa
and the number of species per country in eastern Africa. Numbers
pooled across countries refer to the entire WIO region.
Taxa Mozambique Tanzania Kenya
Mangrovesa 10 9 9
Seagrassesb 12 12 12
Hard coralsc 254 (297) 265 (280) 203 (239)
Coralreefshesd 295 (322) 286 (320) NA
Coastalbonyshese > 2,200
Sharkse > 50
Rayse 15
Echinodermse 400 (shallow) –600 (deep)
Molluscse 3,270
Marine mammals EAf 33 (17 whales, 13 dolphins, Dugong dugon)
Marine mammals WIOh
37 (23 whales, 13 dolphins, Dugong dugon)
Turtlesg 5
Sea birdsg ~150
Source: aSpalding et al. 2010; bUNEP 2009; cObura 2012;
dSamoilys et al. 2012; eRichmond 2002; fBerggren and Coles 2009;
gObura et al. 2012; hthis study
Numbers in parentheses indicate predicted total numbers using species
accumulation curves
NA – not available

10
Mangroves
Mangrove forests represent the largest areas of all coastal
habitats in Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya, typically in
river deltas or estuaries (Figure 1.3; Semesi 1991, 1998;
Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas 2008; Bandeira et al. 2009;
UNEP 2009; Spalding et al. 2010). They are also found
in smaller stands adjacent to reef lagoons and on open
sea coasts. The most extensive and diverse formations
are found in the slightly wetter central coastlines of
Tanzania and Mozambique, notably around the large and
highly productive deltas of the Ruji and Zambezi Rivers.
Estimates vary, but the WIO has about 7,900 km2 under
mangrove forest cover, 5.2% of the world’s total (UNEP
2009; Spalding et al. 2010). Mangrove forests are valued
as carbon sinks that can counter the effects of climate
change through their high productivity and by trapping
carbon in biomass and sediment.
There are 10 species of mangrove trees in the WIO, most
of which have a wide distribution (Table 2.4). They are
all found in Mozambique (UNEP 2009; Spalding et al.
2010). Nine are found in Kenya and Tanzania. The forests
support a variety of shrubs and palms. In the Tana Delta,
elephants visit the mangrove forests (Figure 2.5; Samoilys
et al. 2011a) to eat the climbing legume Derris trifoliata.
The WIO mangroves, a subset of the species found in the
Indo-West Pacic region, have been isolated from the
Pacic region by the expanse of the Indian Ocean and the
arid coastlines of the Middle East. They may therefore
represent a distinct subregion of the Indo-West Pacic
mangrove fauna and ora (Spalding et al. 2010). Mangrove
trees have the unique ability to grow in brackish water and
seawater because they are resistant to salinity. They also
have the ability to extract freshwater from salty seawater.
The most well-developed mangrove forests occur around
river mouths where they play an important role in trapping
sediments in river discharge that would otherwise be
washed out to sea where they can affect the productivity of
the seagrass beds and coral reefs.
The largest mangrove areas in the WIO are in Madagascar
(2,991 km2) and Mozambique (2,909 km2) in the
Mozambique Channel (Table 1.1). However, the largest
contiguous stand of mangroves in the WIO is in the Ruji
Delta (480 km2) in Tanzania, followed by the mangrove
Table 2.4: Mangrove species found in the Western
Indian Ocean. (Source: Spalding et al. 2010).
Family Species
Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina
Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa
Lythraceae Pemphis acidula
Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum
X. molucensis
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorhiza
Ceriops tagal
Rhizophora mucronata
Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba
Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis
Table 2.3: Major river basins, their deltas and ecological functions in eastern Africa
Country River Key features Ecological function
Limpopo
Zambezi
Ruvuma
Ruji
Tana
Athi-Sabaki
Mozambique
Tanzania
Kenya
Small estuary 6 km long
Delta is ~ 100 km long, 120 km wide
at the coast, covering 15,000 km2;
has been extensively dammed in
all9statesitowsthroughcausing
signicantdamagetotheestuary
Delta ~ 100 km2 within Mnazi Bay
Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park
(MBREMP)
Delta is 23 km long, 65 km wide,
covering 1,200 km2;3sub-basins,
13lakesintheriveroodplain
Several estuaries (Kipini, Mto Tana,
etc.), extend 10 km inland, some
relatively deep. Delta erosion due
to extensive damming upstream;
extensiveoodplainandfreshwater
systems
Small, narrow estuary near Malindi;
high sediment load
Limited mangrove forests
Sustenanceofrichoffshoresherystocks
(sh,prawns)onSofalaBank;largestdugong
population in eastern Africa
94 km2 of mangrove forests on the Tanzanian
side, linked to large seagrass beds
480 km2 of mangrove forests, the largest
contiguous mangrove forest in eastern Africa;
linked to coral reef systems offshore at Songo
SongoarchipelagoandMaaIsland
41 km2 of mangrove forests; sustains rich
shinggroundsofUngwanaBayandoffshore
North Kenya Bank
Limited mangrove forests; linked to coral
reefs of Malindi Marine Park
Source: Wagner et al. 2004; Richmond and Mohamed 2005; UNEP 2009; ASCLME 2012a,b,c

11
forests associated with the Zambezi and Ruvuma Rivers.
Coastal island chains, such as the Lamu Archipelago
and Tana River Delta in northern Kenya, and Quirimbas
in northern Mozambique, also have smaller stands of
mangrove forests in deltas, creeks and bays. Mangroves
support high diversity of fauna in the form of vertebrates
(shes) and invertebrates (crabs, molluscs) and ora.
Mozambique
Mozambique’s mangrove forests account for 60% of mainland
eastern Africa’s mangroves (Table 1.1; Bandeira et al. 2009;
UNEP 2009; Spalding et al. 2010) yet are only contained wthin
six Marine Protected Areas of some form, compared wth 24
MPAs in Tanzania and 11 MPAs in Kenya which all include
mangrove forests. The central coast around Sofala Bay, from
Angoche to the Save River, has 1,900 km2 of mangrove cover.
It is not contiguous, but it is the most extensive in eastern
Africa. The gently sloping coastline hosts several major rivers,
notably the Zambezi, enabling the formation of large deltaic
and estuarine mangrove forests. The tidal inuence in central
Mozambique is also strong, producing riverine mangroves
in the Zambezi and Quelimaine areas which extend 50 km
inland. The Zambezi delta mangroves are adjacent to important
freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, including coastal ooded
savannah, coastal dunes, freshwater swamps and miombo
woodlands, creating a rich diversity of species (UNEP 2009;
ASCLME 2012a).
The mangrove forests in Cabo Delgado Province, where
there is minimal logging, are remarkably healthy and
increasing in size (Bandeira et al. 2009). They are
concentrated in four principal locations (Table 2.3)
in the Ruvuma River delta and further to the south in
protected bays (Figure 2.6). To the south of the Save River,
mangroves become more intermittent and are found mainly
in embayments and estuaries sheltered by the north-facing
headlands of Ponta Sao Sebastiao, Ponta de Barra and
Maputo Bay (Figure 2.8).
The southern limit for 3 of the 10 species found in
Mozambique, Sonneratia alba, Pemphis acidula and
Heritiera littoralis, is the River Save at around 21o S.
Further south mangrove trees are rarely taller than 4
m, though trees of over 27 m have been recorded in the
Limpopo estuary at around 25o S.
Of the three countries, Mozambique has the least
government-protected mangrove forest with only 6
nationally protected areas that contain mangroves, compared
with 24 in Tanzania and 11 in Kenya.. In October 2003, the
government of Mozambique made the Marromeu Complex
in the Zambezi Delta its rst Wetland of International
Importance under the Ramsar Convention (Beilfuss and
Brown 2006). A Ramsar review has since recommended the
area be expanded to safeguard against possible threats from
oil and gas exploration (Ramsar Advisory Commission, No
Figure 2.5: Mangrove forests in eastern Africa. a) Kiwaiyu channel, Lamu; b) Heritiera littoralis and Hyphenae
palm, and replanted Ceriops tagal in the Tana Delta; c) Lamu Archipelago, Kenya; d) Derris trifoliata legume
with Heriteria littoralis. © M. Samoilys
a) b)
c) d)

12
62, 2009). In 1998 a legal framework facilitated by World
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was introduced to protect
mangroves and other coastal resources within 100 m of
the coastline. The legislation made licensing for mangrove
logging mandatory, but it is poorly enforced
Probably the greatest potential threat to the status quo of
Mozambique’s mangroves is the extensive oil and gas
exploration being conducted in the Mozambique Channel.
The prospect of offshore oil wells presents the possibility
of pollution through oil spills. Both oil and gas extraction
have the potential to damage coastal
environments with the construction
of terminals and the advent of
shipping close to shore. There are no
detailed maps of areas that might be
at risk. This highlights an important
future activity for Resilient Coasts.
Tanzania
About 35% of mainland eastern
Africa’s mangrove forests and 9
of the 10 WIO mangrove species
are found in Tanzania (Table 1.1;
UNEP 2009; Spalding et al. 2010;
ASCLME 2012b). The forests have
been relatively well protected with
some still in excellent condition.
They occur in an array of different
formations. The largest contiguous
area of mangroves in the WIO is in the
Ruji Delta where an estimated 480
km2 of mangroves stretches along 70
km of coast. The delta is extremely
active, emptying an average of 900
m3 of water per second. Smaller yet
signicant mangrove formations
include the complex sheltered creeks
near Tanga in the north and the large
offshore islands of Pemba, Zanzibar
and Maa. Estuarine and deltaic
formations are also important and
include the Wami Delta, the Ruvu Estuary near Bagamoyo,
the Matandu Estuary and the Ruvuma River mouth.
Many of the larger mangrove forests support associated
species. For example, hippos and crocodiles live in the
mangroves in the Wami Delta. An estimated 40,000
water birds comprising 62 species inhabit the Ruji Delta
(Spalding et al. 2010). In a rare occurrence, 10 dugongs
(Vulnerable, IUCN Red List) were sighted in the seagrass
beds next to the Ruji Delta in 2011 (Sea Sense 2011).
Figure 2.6: Major marine and coastal habitats in Cabo Delgado Province,
northern Mozambique showing the extent of mangrove forests around the bays.
(Source: TRANSMAP Project Final Report 2010).

13
Mangroves have been gazetted as forest reserves, which
allow regulated extraction, since 1928. As a result,
mangrove degradation and loss has occurred though at a
slower rate than in most other countries in the region. The
greatest losses have been in the environs of Dar es Salaam
due to urbanization and cultivation. The widespread and
excessive exploitation of mangroves for timber, fuel and
tannin is degrading some forests and putting them at risk
(Spalding et al. 2010).
Tanzania is the regional leader in its approach to mangrove
protection and sustainable usage through the Mangrove
Management Project (Semesi 1991, 1998) which was
initiated in 1988 by the late Dr Adelaida Semesi. This
and other projects have helped to reduce illegal cutting
and clearance and have encouraged the replanting of
large areas of degraded forest (e.g. Samoilys et al. 2007).
In 1996 the government of Tanzania approved plans for
a prawn farm in the Ruji Delta covering 100 km2. The
project was abandoned in 2001 after it became clear that it
would displace local communities, destroy the delta and be
highly damaging to offshore ecosystems. The Ruji Delta
and Maa mangrove forests are now included in the Ruji-
Maa-Kilwa Ramsar site (Ramsar 2004).
Kenya
Estimates put Kenya’s mangrove cover at between 5,300
and 6,100 km2 with 67% occurring in the northern Lamu
area and 10% further south in Kili and Kwale Counties
(Table 1.1). The largest forests are concentrated in the
Lamu Archipelago and the permanent Tana Delta. Smaller
mangrove areas are found on the south coast in creeks
around Shimoni and Vanga; in the bays of Funzi and
Gazi, in Mombasa’s Port Reitz and Tudor; and in Mtwapa,
Kili and Mida Creeks. Most of these forests occur not in
estuaries but in intertidal areas where there is submarine
ground water discharge or seepage (Mwatha et al. 1998).
The mangroves of the Lamu Archipelago combined with
the nutrient-rich Somali Current (Figure 2.2) create a
conducive habitat for some of the greatest inshore densities
of nsh and crustaceans in Kenya. They are likely to
support highly productive offshore sheries, but this is not
yet quantied. The Lamu mangroves are also a valuable
source of wood for local communities.
Kenya has 9 of the 10 species found in the WIO.
Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal predominate
and can be found in almost all mangrove forests. The
rarer species are Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarpus
moluccensis with individual trees occurring in the Tana
River Delta and the Lamu mangrove forests. Kenya’s
mangroves form a strong zonation of species controlled
by the large tidal regime. The typical sea-to-land zonation
pattern is Sonneratia alba, R. mucronata, Brugeria
gymnorrhiza, C. tagal, Avicennia marina, X. granatum,
Luminitzera racemosa and H. littoralis.
Mangroves were declared government reserved forests in
1932 and are managed by County Forestry Ofcers, who
supervise licensing, offtake and conservation. Legislation
governing mangrove management comes under the Forest
Act (2005). However, insufcient attention is paid to
mangrove forest ecosystems. The Kenya Forestry Service
is primarily concerned with terrestrial forests as their
timber is deemed to be of far greater value (Samoilys et al.
2011c). It is estimated that 10,300 ha of mangrove forest
have been lost to either agricultural cultivation, excessive
exploitation or pollution (Ruwa 1993). Depending on the
degree of alteration to the mangrove forest, recovery is
lengthy or does not happen at all.
Fortunately, many of the forests are in protected areas
such as the Kiunga Marine National Reserve to the
north of Lamu; Mida Creek in Watamu Marine Park and
Reserve; and the Shimoni-Vanga area in the Kisite and
Mpunguti Marine Park and Reserve. Watamu Marine
Park and Reserve and Kiunga Marine National Reserve
were declared UNESCO Heritage Sites in 1979 and 1980
respectively. Despite the national protection status of these
mangrove forests, particularly the two largest formations in
northern Kenya’s Tana Delta and Lamu Archipelago, they
remain under threat from development (Bosire et al. 2008;
Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas 2008; Spalding et al. 2010).
Development projects are planned for the Tana Delta
ranging from dams and irrigated sugar cane plantations
to prawn and jatropha farming. They invariably meet
local objections and garner mixed community support
(Samoilys et al. 2011a). Since 2012 tensions have been
further heightened by periodic and deadly conicts over
access to grazing during the dry season.
Summary
In the last 50 years, about one-third of the world’s
mangrove forests have been lost (Spalding et al 2010).
However, the mangrove decline in Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya from 1980 to 2005 has been
estimated at only 8%, which is exceptionally low
compared with global gures. This slow rate of attrition
indicates that the mangrove systems of eastern Africa are
in a relatively good state of health even though mangrove
harvesting and the export of poles to the Middle East
have been staple activities for centuries and are still
ongoing. Nevertheless, in some parts the ungoverned
felling of mangrove trees has cleared large areas of
productive forest. Elsewhere unchecked and often illegal
exploitation has degraded trees to such an extent that
they are stunted and more sparsely distributed. Mangrove
forests are also the rst to be cleared for the excavation
of salt pans, which produce most of the region’s sea salt.
Pressure from tourism developers, coastal construction,
farmers and the ever-growing need for fuel wood further
encourages the indiscriminate cutting of swathes of

14
primary mangrove forest with little or no replanting
(Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas 2008; Spalding et al. 2010;
ASCLME 2012 a,b,c).
Oil and gas extraction is one of the greatest potential
threats to mangroves in eastern Africa. One of the
largest gas reserves in the world has been discovered
off Cabo Delgado Province in Mozambique. Offshore
drilling to a depth of 1,500 m started in 2013 (IUCN
2013). Safeguarding ethical extraction practices will
be critical, hence the development of initiatives such as
the Fair Coasts Programme9, aimed at facilitating direct
dialogue between local communities, the government
of Mozambique and the drilling companies. Damage to
mangroves is expected to be minimal as the drilling rig
is far from the mangrove forests, and the onshore support
terminal will be sited in Palma Bay to the north where
there are very few mangroves. It should be noted that some
gas extraction sites in Tanzania such as Songo Songo and
Mnazi Bay appear to have had no obvious environmental
impact (Samoilys pers. obs. in Mnazi Bay) although this
has not been substantiated through formal monitoring.
Prawn farming and other commercial shing operations pose
another potential threat to mangrove ecosystems. Mariculture
is expected to expand rapidly to meet the growing demand for
food and job creation. Prawn farming needs to practise new
methods and technologies to limit the damage to mangroves
using lessons learnt from Asia and the Pacic (e.g. Ponia
2010). It is vital that eastern Africa learns from these recent
initiatives and does not repeat the mistakes made in Asia,
which resulted in the widespread destruction of mangrove
forests (Naylor et al. 2000) with disastrous consequences
during the Asian Tsunami of 2004 (Danielsen et al. 2005).
Poorly planned coastal development, particularly port
construction, is a further threat to the region’s mangroves
forests. For instance, local community groups, environment
managers and conservationists have voiced concern over
expansion plans for the ports at Mtwara and Tanga to
accommodate the shipping trafc generated by oil and gas
companies. The most critical threat to the mangrove forests
in the Lamu Archipelago–Tana Delta area is the construction
of the Lamu Port. The mangrove forests around Manda and
Pate Islands, including the Magogoni and Dodori creeks
will be either removed or damaged when work begins on
the Lamu Port Southern Sudan–Ethiopia Transport Corridor
(LAPSSET). The project is designed to give Ethiopia, South
Sudan and Uganda access to a Kenyan port for their exports,
primarily crude oil. However, the EIA has only just been
released (March 2013) for public scrutiny, and there is a
considerable lack of information available to the public on
the proposed development.
9 The Fair Coasts Programme was developed with the support of
the Mechanism for Strengthening Capacity of the Civil Society
(MASC), the Mitsubishi Foundation for Europe, Middle
East and Africa (MCFMEA), We Effect and Irish Aid. The
programme was developed by IUCN ESARO in collaboration
with a consortium of national and regional partners.
In the region, mangroves are more commonly managed
as forest reserves rather than for biodiversity conservation
and are subject to forestry regulations that were drawn up
with a view to resource utilization rather than conservation.
Their role as ecosystem service providers to a broad range
of other systems (e.g. coral reefs, sheries, prawns, land
protection) generally goes unrecognized and carries little
weight in the face of development alternatives.
Coral reefs
Coral reefs dominate the WIO ecosytems and are widely
distributed along the Mozambican, Tanzanian and Kenyan
coasts (McClanahan et al. 2000). They are typically
shallow fringing reefs, often enclosing a lagoon, and often
closely associated with seagrass beds (Figure 2.7a; Obura
et al. 2012). The reefs in southern Tanzania at Mnazi Bay
and in northern Mozambique in Cabo Delgado Province
are the exception. They are more developed, covering
extensive submerged areas. They are also deeper and tend
not to be associated with seagrass beds (Davidson et al.
2006; Hill et al. 2009; Samoilys et al. 2011b). For example,
good coral cover and growth were recorded to maximum
depths of 35–40 m off Pemba in Mozambique and Mnazi
Bay in Tanzania (Figure 2.7b, MS pers.obs.).
Obura (2012) recorded 369 hermatypic (hard) coral
species in the WIO region. The IUCN Red List has a total
of 398 species for the WIO, from which Obura estimated a
potential species pool of at least 450 across the WIO. The
highest coral species diversity was recorded at sites in the
northern Mozambique Channel ecoregion from northern
Mozambique, southern Tanzania, northwest Madagascar
and Comoros (Figure 2.8).
Corals that are unique to the WIO and are of rare and ancient
lineage are found on the eastern African mainland, particularly
on the coastline of Cabo Delgado and Nampula Provinces in
Mozambique and in Kiunga, Kenya (Figure 2.9). They have
only recently being discovered (Obura 2012) and warrant
much more research to understand their extent and distribution.
Standardized SCUBA-based surveys to assess coral-reef
sh diversity across four countries in the WIO Region
(Comoros, Madagascar, Mozambique and Tanzania) using
a checklist of 19 families of sh that are associated with
coral reefs (see Samoilys and Randriamanantsoa 2011 for
details) recorded a total of 375 species. The greatest number
of species was located at sites in Cabo Delgado Province,
northern Mozambique, together with Maa Island and one
site in Mnazi Bay, both in Tanzania (Figure 2.10).
Corals are threatened by an increase in the SST caused
by global warming. The warmer water bleaches corals
and eventually kills them if raised water temperatures
persist. This threat has been well documented in the WIO
(Linden and Sporrong 1999; Wilkinson 2008; McClanahan
et al. 2011). Levels of coral bleaching from the extreme
temperature during the 1998 El Niño event and the
subsequent recovery of coral reefs have been quantied in
the WIO. They show that recovery rates and resilience to

15
Figure2.7:a)TypicalshallowfringingcoralreefsofeasternAfricaatMaaIsland,Tanzania,3mdepth.
b) Coral cover at 35 m depth at Pemba, Mozambique. (©Melita Samoilys)
a) b)
bleaching vary considerably within the region. The northern
Mozambique and southern Tanzanian coral reefs appear
to be the most resilient with the quickest rate of recovery
(Obura 2005; McClanahan et al. 2007a; Obura 2011).
Mozambique
Only Madagascar and Tanzania (Table 1.1; UNEP 2009)
have more coral reefs than Mozambique, which has 14.4%
of the WIO’s coral reefs. They are concentrated in the
north in Cabo Delgado and Nampula Provinces. Further
to the south, the silt and sand discharged into the mouths
of the Limpopo and Zambezi Rivers inhibit coral growth.
Figure2.8:Estimatedmaximumspeciesrichnessofreef-buildingcoralsatsurveylocationsintheWIO
region,orderedbydecreasingdiversity.ThegraphshowsSmax,derivedfromtheMichaelis-Menten
regression equation on presence or absence from a pool of 369 coral species across all locations, and the
numberofspeciessampled.Symbolsagainstthexaxiscorrespondtothesignicantclustersofsites:blue
triangles—northern Mozambique Channel; purple circles—smaller islands in the Mozambique Channel and
NWSeychelles;redstars—low-diversityoutliers.(Source: Obura 2012).
The northern Mozambique Channel region has the greatest
species diversity of corals in the WIO (Figure 2.10) and is
an important contributor to biodiversity in the Indian Ocean
(Obura et al. 2012). The reefs of Cabo Delgado and Nampula
Provinces contain some of the highest numbers of coral
species in the WIO (Figure 2.8). Obura’s (2012) sampling in
Cabo Delgado Province was limited, and it is likely that future
surveys will show that there are between 350 and 400 coral
species on the northern Mozambique coastline. Maps from
Veron (2000) and related publications suggest a diversity of
some 300 species. Davidson et al. (2006) surveyed the Vamizi
Island area and reported 183 coral species in 46 genera from

16
Figure 2.9: Rare and endemic corals from the Western Indian Ocean.(©David Obura)
Figure2.10:Totalnumberofcoral-reefshspeciesat45sitesacrossfourWIOcountriesbasedon
a standardized SCUBA method. (Source: Samoilys et al. 2012).
Total number of species by site
Other groups with apparent Tethyan
origins and diversication

17
14 families. Surveys in 1999 for the Mozambique Coral Reef
Monitoring Programme built up lists of 127 species. A later
survey in Pemba Bay (Obura 2003) found 208 coral species
in 54 genera and 16 families. Obura’s (2012) most recent
gures use a survey technique that gives an actual number
of coral species found and a predicted maximum number
based on species accumulation curves simulating unlimited
surveys. This method gives 254 (288) actual (predicted)
species for Pemba Bay, and 207 (269) for Vamizi Island. By
comparison, 219 (297) species were reported for Nacala, in
Nampula Province, and 265 (276) in Mnazi Bay Marine Park
in Tanzania. Given the low sampling rate at specic areas in
Mozambique, a more accurate coral diversity for the northern
coastline (Cabo Delgado and Nampula Provinces) can be
estimated by combining Pemba, Vamizi, Nacala and Mnazi
Bay to give a total actual number of 307 species (Obura 2012).
A total of 295 sh species associated with coral reefs were
counted in Mozambique, the highest in the WIO (Table 2.2),
with a predicted total of 232 species based on cumulative
species curve analysis (Samoilys et al. 2012). This is not
surprising given the region’s remarkable coral diversity. The
highest number of species was located at sites in Cabo Delgado
Province and Maa Island in Tanzania (see Figure 2.10).
Tanzania
Tanzania has by far the largest area of coral reefs within the
WIO (3,500 km2, Table 1.1, Figure 2, UNEP 2009). They
fringe most of the mainland coastline, except where there are
large river basins, Zanzibar’s Unguja and Pemba Islands, and
Maa. The southern reefs around Maa Island and Mnazi
Bay, where protected, are some of the most biodiverse in the
region due to their location in the WIO current systems (see
above). However, unchecked dynamite shing along much of
the mainland coast has had a serious impact on Tanzania’s
reefs (Burke et al. 2011; see also www.wri.org/reefs/stories)
and altered them to such an extent that many are now
dominated by macro-algae (Samoilys et al. 2007; Wells 2009;
Wells et al. 2010). This practice is seriously undermining
Tanzania’s marine biodiversity and coastal sheries as well as
the protection of its shoreline (see chapter 3).
Obura (2011) describes high resilience and an excellent
recovery rate for reefs around Maa Island and the Songo
Songo Islands near the Ruji Delta. This resilience rate is based
on an index combining hard coral and crustose coralline algae
(CCA) to give a more integrated picture of the ability of reefs
to return to a coral-dominated state. CCA is often a precursor to
increased coral growth, particularly after a mortality event. The
index indicates that even though Maa reefs are vulnerable to
bleaching, they are very resilient and have the ability to return
to their prior state. Long-term monitoring data from the Maa
Island Marine Park suggests that, given ideal conditions, the
recovery trajectory for reefs in this system is about 10–15 years.
Despite the mass coral bleaching and mortality in 1998
that affected the entire Indian Ocean, the region’s coral
community has not changed. The dominant genera are
Acropora, which is present across all sites and reef zones,
and Galaxea, which forms large stands in sheltered,
turbid locations. Reefs throughout this region have been
reported to be on a clear recovery trajectory (Obura
2011). Obura also found that coral cover was higher in
Songo Songo than in Maa. It is likely that the turbid
water from the Ruji Delta protected the reefs in Songo
Songo from the high temperatures in 1998 which resulted
in lower coral mortality.
Kenya
Kenya has the fewest coral reefs in the WIO (630 km2,
Table 2.1, Figure 2.5, UNEP 2009), but they are some
of the best protected and managed in the region. This is
largely due to Kenya’s long-standing and well supervised
national marine parks (McClanahan et al. 2007b, Samoilys
and Obura 2011). More recently, a network of community
conservation areas (Maina et al. 2011) has been established.
In the past, the government of Kenya tended to choose coral
reefs to gazette as parks because of their aesthetic appeal
and rich biodiversity. Later the government introduced
marine reserves that were larger than the parks and
encompassed neighbouring seagrass beds and mangrove
forests. The reserves provide a more balanced ecosystem-
based approach to marine conservation and management
(Samoilys and Obura 2011). Unlike the parks, they allow
carefully managed shing by local communities.
The good management of marine parks has led to
signicant recovery in sh populations over the last 20
years (McClanahan and Graham 2005, McClanahan
et al. 2007b). Even so, reefs in the Lamu Archipelago
were badly damaged by the El Niño event in 1998 with
mortality levels of > 80% (Obura and Church 2004). Their
recovery, which has been monitored from 1998 to 2008,
has progressed slowly in the shallow inner and outer reefs
to levels varying from 20 to 80% of pre-bleaching levels
(Obura pers. comm.).
The Lamu Archipelago is situated at the northern extreme
of the eastern African coastline in ecoregion 2 (Figure 2.1,
Table 2.2). Together with southern Somalia it hosts an
interesting mix of coral species that are rarely encountered
elsewhere (Samoilys et al. 2011a). Species of special
interest that are either rare, endemic or have limited ranges
include Horastrea indica, Siderastrea savignyana, Porites
nodifera, P. columnaris, and an undescribed Coscinaraea.
Summary
Mozambique’s northern reefs in the Quirimbas Archipelago
of Cabo Delgado Province are some of the healthiest, most
resilient and diverse coral reef systems in the WIO, which
is why they have been recommended as a World Heritage
site (Obura et al. 2012). Tanzania’s southern reefs in Mnazi
Bay, Maa Island and the Songo Songo Archipelago are
also highly diverse and resilient to climate change (Obura
2011). However, the mainland reefs are being destroyed by
dynamite shing to the point where the damage is likely to
be irreversible. Kenya’s coral reefs, though less diverse and
less resilient, are among the best protected and healthiest,
particularly in terms of their sh population densities.

18
Looking at these three countries in the Resilient Coasts
area of action, there is a clear gradient of coral species
and general reef diversity from Cabo Delgado Province to
northern Kenya. This also applies to coral reef complexity
and resilience. Because the ocean currents ow in a
northerly direction, the southern region is a critical source
of larvae for all species, including important sheries
species. To maintain a healthy and vibrant coral reef
ecosystem in eastern Africa, its countries must commit
themselves to creating a large-scale network that can
oversee MPAs and manage sheries regionally in an
ecosystem-based approach. This is particularly relevant
for the northern reefs in the WIO, which will be more
vulnerable to bleaching events than the southern reefs.
Seagrass beds
Seagrasses, marine angiosperms, are widely distributed
in both tropical and temperate coastal waters. They are
credited with creating one of the most productive aquatic
ecosystems on earth (Green and Short 2003). Their
habitat ranges from high intertidal to shallow subtidal
soft bottoms such as sandy bays, mud ats, lagoons
and estuaries where they tend to form extensive mono-
and multi-specic meadows. They often occur in close
proximity to coral reefs and mangroves. They generally
occur in shallow water because they depend on sunlight
for photosynthesis. They have been known to grow at
depths of up to 70 m in water of exceptional clarity in
places other than the WIO. Seagrasses are the preferred
food of the Vulnerable Dugong.
Of the 60 seagrass species identied worldwide, 13 are
found in the WIO. Mozambique and Tanzania, and Kenya
have the greatest diversity of seagrasses with 12 species
widely distributed in each country in extensive seagrass
beds (Table 1.1). The seagrass species of eastern Africa are
as follows (UNEP 2009):
Cymodocea serrulata
Cymodocea rotundata
Enhalus acoroides
Halodule wrightii
Halodule univernis
Halophila ovalis
Halophila minor
Halophila stipulacea
Syringodium isoetifolium
Thalassia hemprichii
Thalassodendron ciliatum
Zostera capensis
Mozambique has 439 km2 covered with seagrass beds
whereas Kenya has only 34 km2 (UNEP 2009). Tanzania
has not yet fully mapped its seagrass beds and urgently
needs to do so. The only area that has been studied is Mnazi
Bay where 50 km2 of seagrass beds have been recorded
(Richmond and Mohamed 2005).
Seagrass beds are closely associated with the shallow
fringing coral reefs of the narrow continental shelf of
eastern Africa (see ‘Mangroves’ above). They occur in
bays and back-reef lagoons that are connected to the sea by
narrow channels. Existing detailed research on seagrasses
is primarily from Mozambique (e.g. Bandeira and Bjork
2001; Bandeira and Gell 2003) and Kenya (e.g. Uku 2005).
Seagrass beds provide important habitats for a diverse array
of associated fauna and ora including more than 50 species
of macroalgae; 18 species of algal epiphytes; 75 species
of benthic invertebrates; 7 species of sea urchins; various
shrimp, lobster, crab, starsh and sea cucumber; and more
than 100 sh species (Green and Short 2003). They serve
as nursery grounds and as foraging areas for dugong, turtles
and sh. Numerous sh and invertebrates seek refuge from
predators in seagrasses. They are recognized as important to
the local sheries too. Food sh such as rabbitsh (Siganidae),
surgeonsh (Acanthuridae) and seagrass parrotsh
(Leptoscarus spp.) preferentially graze the epiphytes on the
seagrass while larger sh such as snappers, groupers and
barracuda feed on the in-fauna of the seagrass beds.
Not enough attention has been paid to eastern Africa’s
seagrass beds by conservationists and environmental
managers even though the future of this ecosystem is
uncertain. Trawling and seine netting, particularly beach
seines, pose the greatest threat to eastern Africa’s seagrass
beds. These activities are widespread along the coasts of all
three countries. Trawling for prawns occurs in Ungwana
Bay adjacent to the Tana Delta in Kenya; and in Mtwara
adjacent to the Ruji Delta in Tanzania. In Tanga, 80% of
prawn trawl catches have been known to consist of seagrass
sh species (Ochieng and Erftemeijer 2003). Farming
activities in river basins have also led to reduced seagrass
beds in estuarine and deltaic areas such as the Athi-Sabaki
and Tana Rivers in Kenya and the Ruji River in Tanzania.
Oil pollution, port construction and other coastal
developments are emerging threats. The proposed Lamu
Port in northern Kenya will affect the large tracts of seagrass
beds in the Pate, Wange and Dodori Channels, which are
important turtle and dugong feeding grounds. Similarly,
further port development at Mtwara in southern Tanzania
will damage the seagrass beds at the edge of the channel, as
will the planned reclamation of the Selander bridge coastal
waterfront in Dar es Salaam. When coastal development is
not well managed, it can destroy seagrass beds through the
unregulated dumping of solid waste, sewage and dredge
soil. Water pollution indirectly affects seagrass beds too as
these ecosystems are invariably close to shore in shallow
protected waters (Green and Short 2003).
Mozambique
The largest seagrass beds in Mozambique occur at Fernao
Veloso, Quirimbas and Inhaca-Ponta Do Ouro. Of the total
of 439 km2 there are 25 km2 around Inhassoro and Bazaruto
Island; 30 km2 at Mecu-Pemba and 45 km2 in the southern
Quirimbas Archipelago (Bandeira et al. 2009).

19
There are 12 seagrass species in Mozambique. They occur
in mixed seagrass stands, especially in intertidal areas
(Bandeira and Bjork 2001; Bandeira and Gell 2003; UNEP
2009). The three predominant mixed seagrass communities
on the sand substrates of southern Mozambique (southern
coastline to Save River) are combinations of Thalassia
hemprichii, Halodule wrightii, Zostera capensis,
Thalassodendron cilitum and Cymodocea serrulata.
In contrast, the seagrass communities of the northern
limestone areas from Zambezia Province to Cabo Delgado
Province are quite different. They are typically surrounded
by coral reefs and tend to be intermingled with algae
(seaweed) such as Gracilaria salicornia, Halimedia spp.
and Sargassum spp. The predominant seagrass species are
Thalassia hemprichii and Halodule wrightii. They cover
up to 88% of the shallow intertidal soft-bottom areas in
Cabo Delgado Province (Bandeira and Gell 2003).
Some species such as Enhalus acorodies, Halophila
stipulacea and Halophila minor are only found in the north
while pure stands of Zostera capensis are largely conned
to the south (Bandeira and Bjork 2001).
Drag netting, port construction and other coastal
developments threaten Mozambique’s seagrass beds.
Further, the authorities do not fully recognize the value of
this ecosystem although they have taken steps to protect
it by creating Bazaruto and Quirimbas Marine Parks.
Research recently conducted on the importance of seagrass
beds to the Vulnerable Dugong (Green and Short 2003;
IUCN Red List 2012; Obura et al. 2012) as a habitat and
food source may help to raise the ecosystem’s prole.
Tanzania
The most extensive seagrass beds of the back reef
lagoons and bays in Tanzania are found in Tanga,
Bagamoyo, Mohoro, Kilwa, Mtwara and Mnazi Bay
(Green and Short 2003). Mnazi Bay has some of the
most studied seagrass beds. They cover 50 km2 and
are in good condition with luxuriant growth and high
diversity (Richmond and Mohamed 2005).
Tanzania’s rst two marine protected areas were
established in 1995 and included seagrass beds, but as in
Kenya, there were no management practices or guidelines
for seagrass beds. Further, outside the protected areas
they were ignored. Trawling and dynamite shing are
the principal threats. The National Integrated Coastal
Management Strategy process (see undated USAID
report: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pdacq826.pdf) went some
way to raising the prole and level of understanding of
seagrasses and other marine resources. Even so, there still
is not much information on the seagrass beds of Tanzania
as there has been little research and management focus on
this particular ecosystem. Moreover, poor shing practices
such as the use of beach seines and dynamite shing have
accelerated since 2005 and continue to damage seagrass
beds and their associated fauna and ora.
Kenya
The most extensive seagrass beds of the back reef lagoons
and bays in Kenya are found in the bays of Gazi (8 km2)
and Funzi; in Mida, Kili and Mtwapa Creeks; and in the
back lagoons around Mombasa and Diani–Chale Island
(4.5 km2). Gazi Bay and the lagoons of Diani–Chale Island
are more or less continuous and represent the largest
seagrass area in Kenya (Ochieng and Erftemeijer 2003).
Kenya has been very proactive in marine conservation.
It established its rst marine park in Malindi in 1968.
The national guidelines for establishing marine parks and
reserves and for protecting rare species, such as turtles and
dugong, were adopted by UNEP’s Action Plan for the East
African Regional Seas Programme (UNEP 1998). Even
though these protected areas include seagrasses, there are
no detailed distribution maps of seagrasses for Kenya.
Similarly, there are no management practices for protecting
seagrass beds and their ecosystem as they are not viewed
as an important resource for the national economy. As a
result, there is little attempt to control the exploitation of
fauna in seagrass beds outside protected areas.
Summary
Seagrass beds are one of the world’s most productive
aquatic ecosystems. They provide habitats for a wide
range of species including Vulnerable dugong and turtles.
They are important nursery, breeding and feeding grounds
for numerous sh and invertebrates (Green and Short
2003; Waycott et al. 2011). They are therefore vital to
commercial, subsistence and recreational sheries.
Because they are highly productive and trap carbon in
biomass and sediment, seagrass beds, like mangroves, are
shallow-marine carbon sinks that are of great signicance
in carbon sequestration to reduce the greenhouse gas build-
up in the atmosphere and oceans. They have the capacity
to store up to 500 tonnes/ha (or 50 g/m2) of carbon, nearly
all of which is trapped in the sediment (Green and Short
2003). This is equivalent to the amount of carbon stored in
primary tropical forests. There does not appear to be any
targeted research in eastern Africa on this topic although
a related study on carbon uptake strategies by different
seagrass species in Kenya provides interesting insights
into the possible direction of future research (Uku 2005).
The threats to seagrasses worldwide are similar and
widespread. Seagrasses everywhere are vulnerable to
eutrophication from nutrient over-enrichment of the
environment and to a high sediment load caused by
upland clearing and disturbance. Both these conditions
reduce light availability, which is essential for sustaining
the productivity of seagrass beds. People have no use
for seagrass plants, but the beds support coastal sheries
worldwide. These are often subsistence sheries because
they occur in easily accessible, shallow, sheltered areas.

20
Seagrass beds have many functions such as sediment
stabilization and coastal protection, water purication and
nutrient cycling, mitigating climate change, maintaining
biodiversity and safeguarding threatened species. They provide
food, shelter and nurseries for sh as well. It is clear that these
ecosystems have received insufcient attention in terms of
research and management, due in part to their low visibility
and less aesthetic appeal compared with, for example, coral
reefs. Further research is called for to understand better their
resilience and adaptability to climate change and their economic
contribution to coastal communities in eastern Africa.
Coastalforestsandotherora
The coastal ora of eastern Africa stretches from southern
Somalia, through Kenya and Tanzania to southern Mozambique
(Burgess and Clarke 2000). The forests are found inland
from the coast with outliers occurring along rivers. In several
locations the forests grade into submontane forests in the
foothills of mountain ranges (CEPF 2005). The characteristics
of the areas interspersed between the forests vary. Kenya has
predominantly farmland. Tanzania and Mozambique generally
have savannah woodland and thicket although farmed areas are
on the increase (Masanja 2004). The coastal strip also includes
the larger offshore islands of Pemba, Zanzibar, Maa and the
Bazaruto Archipelago as well as the smaller Indian Ocean
islands close to the coastline (Burgess and Clarke 2000).
Eastern African coastal vegetation has long been isolated
from other regions of tropical moist forests by expanses
of drier savannahs and grasslands. This accounts for its
exceptionally high plant endemism. Recently part of
this ecoregion was classied as the Swahili Centre of
Endemism (CEPF 2005). Studies at a few sites in Somalia
and Mozambique have noted the occurrence of endemic
trees, but overall the number of endemic species is thought
to be greatly underestimated as insecurity has prevented
any extensive exploration and eld research. The coastal
forests of eastern Africa have been dened as a biodiversity
hot spot by Conservation International because of high
levels of endemism and the threat of destruction by human
activities (http://www.conservation.org).
Although the surviving forests scattered throughout the
hot spot’s 291,250 km² are typically tiny and fragmented,
they contain remarkable levels of biodiversity. These
forests also vary greatly in their species composition,
particularly among less mobile species (Table 2.5). For
example, forests that are only 100 km apart may differ in
80% of their plant species. Within the hot spot, the region
of highest endemism stretches from northern Kenya to
southern Tanzania and, to a certain extent, northernmost
Mozambique. Kwale-Usambara on the Kenya–Tanzania
border and Lindi in southern Tanzania are recognized as
subcentres of endemism (Burgess and Clarke 2000).
Forests in Mozambique are at risk as a result of poor
management and conservation methods and clearing land
for cultivation. An ever-growing population of subsistence
farmers still uses the slash-and-burn method of farming in
search of soil that has not been leached of nutrients. This
coupled with the expansion of commercial farming is
devastating more and more of the region’s coastal forest
habitat. Given the diversity of habitats along the length
of Mozambique’s coastline and the economic importance
of its littoral waters, remarkably few coastal areas are
protected (Soto 2007). They include Marromeu Reserve
(150,000 ha), Licuati Forest Reserve (3,500 ha), Maputo
Elephant Reserve (70,000 ha), Pomene Reserve (20,000
ha), Bazaruto National Park (8,000 ha), Zinave National
Park, Banhine National Park, Gile Reserve, Quirimbas
National Park and Niassa Reserve. The Marromeu
Reserve in the Zambezi River Delta system comprises
mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and miombo
forest. The Maputo Elephant Reserve to the south is
part of the Maputaland Centre of Endemism. It has dune
vegetation, grasslands, oodplains, swamp forests and
mangroves. The Licuati Forest Reserve is mainly sand
forest, which lies within the complex vegetation of the
Maputaland Centre of Endemism. This region includes
Maputo Elephant Reserve and part of the Natal region in
South Africa (Soto 2007).
Tanzania has about 33.5 million ha of forest and woodland.
Some 13 million ha have been gazetted as forest reserve.
Yet only 0.5% (70,000 ha) of these forest reserves are
coastal forests. Coastal forests are usually rich in endemic
tree species, but only scattered remnants are left of the
original forests (Burgess and Clarke 2000; Conservation
International 2007). Examples include the evergreen tree-
cover type of Newtonia buchananii, Allanblakia stuhmannii
and Parinari excelsa that occur in the Kwamkoro area,
East Usambara Mountains, Tanga; Kimboza on the bottom
slopes of Uluguru Mountains; and the lower slopes of the
Udzungwa escarpment in Morogoro region.
The coastal forests that have been gazetted (not necessarily
for their protection) include the Mnazi Bay–Rovuma
Estuary Marine Park (65,000 ha); the Maa Island Marine
Park (88,200ha), the Jozani Chwaka Bay National Park and
the Saadani National Park (1,062 ha) (http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_Tanzania). Illegal
and destructive logging, pit sawing, shifting cultivation,
forest res, poaching, hunting and other cultural practices,
tourism and other commercial development all pose a
threat to sustainable conservation.
Table 2.5: Hot spot vital signs of the eastern African
coastal forests.
Species/area Number
Hot spot vegetation remaining (km2) 29,125
Endemic plant species 1,750
Endemic threatened birds 2
Endemic threatened mammals 6
Endemic threatened amphibians 4
Extinct species 0
Human population density (people/km2) 52
Area protected (km2) 50,889
Area protected (km2)inIUCNcategoriesi-iv 11,343

21
In Kenya considerable areas of coastal forests are under
some sort of protection (Gachanja and Kanyanya 2004).
They include Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve (37,000
ha); Madunguni Forest Reserve (5,300 ha); the forest-
grassland mosaic of Shimba Hills National Reserve
(21,400 ha); the mixed forest and woodland Kaya
Forest Reserve (28,400 ha); the Medium Kwale Forest
Reserve (5,100 ha); the Marafa Brachystegia Trust
Land (3,000 ha); Tana River Delta; Witu Lamu Forest
Reserve (1,500 ha); the predominantly woodland-type
Boni-Lungi Forest Reserve (9,500 ha); the Tana Gallery
Forest Trust Land; the Dodori-Boni Forest Reserve
and National Reserve (22,000 ha); the thicket, forest,
woodland mosaic of Ras Tenawi Trust Land (2,000
ha); the Kilibasi County Council Forest (200 ha);
the Mwangea Trust Land Forest (1,500 ha); and the
Mwangea Hill Trust Land and Private Forest (500 ha).
Coastal forest conservation in Kenya is subject to
stresses such as encroaching human populations using
inefcient