Content uploaded by Shweta Nagal
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Shweta Nagal on Dec 11, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 1
International Journal of Industrial Biotechnology and Biomaterials
Vol. 1: Issue 1
www.journalspub.com
Sourdough in Bread-Making: An Ancient Technology
to Solve Modern Issues
Snigdha Chawla
1
, Shweta Nagal
2*
1
School of Biotechnology, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201308, India
2
School of Vocational studies and Applied Sciences, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Abstract
The production of sourdough can be traced back to ancient times. It is a mixture of flour and
water, fermented with lactic acid bacteria. Use of sourdough to improve texture and
palatability of cereal products is gaining importance. In addition to providing structure,
texture and aroma to rye and wheat breads, sourdough also improves the nutritional quality
and provides health benefits. It can retard starch digestibility leading to lower glycemic
responses, modulates accessibility of bioactive components, and improves mineral
bioavailability. It also enhances gut health. During fermentation, acidification and activity of
enzymes leads to hydrolysis of proteins as well as cell wall polysaccharides and degradation
of gluten. Sourdough can thus, be consumed safely by celiac patients as it offers many
advantages over commercially available gluten-free products. This review compiles
information reported on the physiological effects of sourdough, which will be helpful in
developing new products.
Keywords: Sourdough, tocopherols, tocotrienols, phytic acid, glycemic responses
*Author for Correspondence E-mail: shweta_nagal@yahoo.co.in
INTRODUCTION
In the recent years a wealth of research has
been carried out on the process of bread
making in order to improve the quality of
bread and provide health benefits to
humans. In bread-making, fermentation by
yeast is of prime importance for its
leavening function. Leavening of bread
can be traced back to prehistoric times.
However, the development of
Chorleywood Bread Process in 1961
changed traditional bread-making. This
process uses intense mechanical working
of dough to combine the flour, improvers,
vegetable fat, yeast, and water to make the
dough. It reduces the fermentation period
and time taken to prepare the dough. The
process is able to use lower proteins wheat
and the whole process can be completed in
2–3 h
[1].
This fast-made bread has
destructive implications on human health.
Such bread may lead to digestibility issue,
gluten-intolerance, obesity, diabetes and
many other conditions
[2]
. Only properly
formed wheat gluten is healthy for human
consumption. Due to this, the concept of
sourdough gained importance. The use of
sourdough process as a form of leavening
is one of the oldest biotechnological
processes in food production
[3]
. The main
purpose of sourdough fermentation is to
leaven the dough, producing more aerated
dough resulting in a crumb that is soft and
pleasant to eat. Sourdough is a mixture of
flour and water fermented with yeast and
lactic acid bacteria, having a sour taste due
to the formation of lactic acid by the
Lactobacillus.
Naturally leavened sourdough bread has
many advantages over the commercially
produced bread. In the process making
sourdough bread, during the proofing
stage, the bran of the wheat flour breaks
Sourdough in Bread-Making Chawla and Nagal
__________________________________________________________________________________________
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 2
down, releasing the nutrients into the
dough. Also phytic acid in the grain is
neutralized by the action of bacteria
present in sourdough starter. The complex
carbohydrates are broken down into
digestible simple sugars and protein is
broken down into amino acids. As the
centre of the loaf is at a lower temperature
than the crust, therefore, during proofing,
the enzymes developed are not lost in
baking. Thus, proper fermentation by
bacteria, aids in digestion and restores the
functioning of digestive tract. Sourdough
wheat bread is richer and more aromatic
than wheat bread
[4].
Sourdough is important in baking rye
bread, which is healthier than wheat bread.
Differences in the biochemistry of wheat
and rye affect the bread making process.
Amylases present in wheat are generally
not heat stable and are inactivated at high
temperatures thus, have no effect on wheat
gluten whereas rye amylases are heat
stable and remain active at high
temperatures
[5]
. Since, the gluten network
in rye is not strong enough, the main
structure of rye bread is composed of
polysaccharides, which are broken down
by amylases at high temperature thereby
inhibiting the rise of dough. In rye, the
functions of water binding and gas-
retaining in dough are taken over by
pentosans, whose solubility and swelling
increase with a decrease in pH
[6]
. In order
to overcome the problem of poorly
developed gluten, sourdough starter can be
used. Lactobacilli provide an acidic
environment which inactivates rye
amylases and help in the rising of the
dough. Acidification of rye dough
improves its physical properties by making
it more elastic and extensible and confers
acidic flavour characteristic of rye breads
[7]
.
Rye bread offers many health benefits. It
contains a large amount of fibre and is low
in fat. It improves digestion and
distribution of fat in the body. Due to the
high fibre content, it satisfies hunger and
so fewer amounts are consumed thereby,
decreasing the intake of calories. Rye
grains maintain healthier blood sugar
levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular
diseases
[8]
. These advantages of rye over
wheat have contributed to the development
of sourdough in rye bread.
SOURDOUGH
Sourdough is a mixture of flour and water
fermented with Lactic acid bacteria and
yeasts, which help in leavening and
production of acid and aroma. Sourdough
is an intermediate product. It is
metabolically active and can be
reactivated. It has been useful in
improving texture and palatability of
cereal products. Wheat sourdough is used
in more than 30% of Italian bakery
products.
In a healthy sourdough starter, lactobacilli
live in a symbiotic relationship with
yeasts. Numerous species of lactic acid
bacteria have been isolated from
sourdough, mainly belonging to the genera
Lactobacillus
[7]
. Lactobacillus is a genus
of Gram-positive rod-shaped bacteria that
form major part of Lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) group. Lactobacilli convert lactose
to lactic and acetic acid, resulting in a sour
taste and lowering the pH down to around
3.8. Hence, lactic acid is the principle
product of fermentation by lactic acid
bacteria. Bacteria may be homo-
fermentative, which produce lactic acid as
a sole product or hetero-fermentative,
which produce by-products like acetic acid
along with lactic acid. Lactic acid
fermentation in sourdough leads to
improved texture. It contributes to bread
flavour, increases the loaf volume, delays
starch retrogradation and bread-firming
and inhibits ropiness by spore-forming
bacteria
[9]
.
On the basis of technology applied,
sourdough has been classified into three
types Type I, Type II and Type III. Type I
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 3
International Journal of Industrial Biotechnology and Biomaterials
Vol. 1: Issue 1
www.journalspub.com
sourdoughs are the traditional ones. They
are characterized by continuous
propagation to maintain the
microorganisms in an active state.
Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis is dominant
in Type I sourdoughs. Type II sourdoughs
are those produced by continuous
propagation, extended fermentation time
(2–5 days) and fermentation temperatures
sometimes greater than 30°C to speed up
the process
[6]
. Type II dough can be
produced in large volumes and can be
stored up to 1 week. L. pontis, L. panis, L.
reuteri, and L. fermentum are commonly
found in type II dough
[10]
. Type III
sourdoughs are dried preparations
containing lactic acid bacteria resistant to
the drying process
[6]
. The following
species have been isolated from type III
sourdoughs: L. plantarum, L. brevis, and
Pediococcus pentosaceus.
Properties of Sourdough
Consistency
Sourdough can vary in consistency. It can
be in the form of dough or a liquid
suspension of flour in water. The
proportion between flour and water is
called Dough Yield (DY) and it deals with
dough consistency. It can be calculated as:
Dough yield= (Dough weight X 100)/Flour weight
Wheat sourdough with DY 160 is firm
dough while wheat sourdough with DY
200 is a liquid sourdough. Firmer the
sourdough (lower DY value) more is the
acetic acid produced and thus, the dough
will have a sharp acid taste. Dough yield
also affects the flavour profile of
sourdough.
Temperature during Fermentation
Temperature during fermentation is an
important parameter as it affects the rate of
acidification. It also affects the microbial
composition of sourdough. Temperature is
usually kept between 28 and 44°C.
Starter Culture
Microorganisms used for fermentation
play an important role. Homofermentative
bacteria produce lactic acid and are fast
acidifying while heterofermentative lactic
acid bacteria produce lactic acid and acetic
acid and contribute to flavour. A
commercially available sourdough starter
commonly consists of mixture of LAB
groups to enhance the acid production as
well as aroma of sourdough. Starter
cultures can be developed using fermented
dough from a previous batch.
Health Importance of Sourdough
There is a growing consumer interest in
health aspect of food including the
functional food products, but good sensory
properties as well as other criteria such as
safety and convenience still remain a
prerequisite for any food to be successful.
Due to these reasons sourdough has gained
importance. In addition to enhancing the
flavour and structure of rye and wheat
bread
[4]
, sourdough also imparts various
health benefits to bread.
There is an increasing evidence that intake
of grain fibre and whole grain foods
protect against chronic diseases such as
type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases
[11]
. The outer layers of grain are rich in
dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and
phytochemicals such as phenolic
compounds, sterols, tocopherols and
tocotrienols, lignans and phytic acid
[12]
as
well as endogenous enzymes such as
amylases, proteases, hemicellulases and
phytases. These enzymes are activated
during fermentation and act on various
compounds thereby, influencing the
nutritional quality of cereal product. Thus,
with sourdough process, it is possible to
improve the palatability without removing
any nutritionally important components.
Sourdough is a key element in traditional
rye bread baking, where it improves the
processability, aroma, flavour and texture.
Wholemeal rye bread cannot be produced
Sourdough in Bread-Making Chawla and Nagal
__________________________________________________________________________________________
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 4
without the help of fermentation process
[13]
. Endogenous rye proteases-especially
aspartic protease, hydrolyses rye proteins,
especially secalins during rye-sourdough
fermentation, which generates amino acids
and peptides, that act as flavour precursors
[14]
.
Wholemeal bread is a good source of
minerals including calcium, potassium,
magnesium, iron, zinc and phosphorus.
The bioavailability of these minerals may,
however, be limited due to the presence of
phytate
[13]
. Phytic acid has a strong
chelating capacity and forms insoluble
complexes with dietary cations, thereby
impairing mineral absorption in humans.
Phytases are responsible for hydrolysis of
phytic acid and release of usable form of
inorganic phosphorus
[15]
. Phytase activity
is present in grains, yeast and lactic acid
bacteria. It is accelerated in the acidic
environment during sourdough
fermentation. The optimum pH of wheat
phytase is pH 5.0, whereas that of yeast
phytase is pH 3.5
[16]
. A decrease in pH
during sourdough fermentation activates
phytase and reduces the phytate content,
thus increasing mineral bioavailability
[13]
.
It has been shown that pre-fermentation of
bran with lactic acid bacteria increases
phytate breakdown up to 90% as well as
increases magnesium and phosphorus
solubility
[17]
.
Sourdough fermentation has been reported
to increase folate content
[18]
, decrease
tocopherol and tocotrienol content
[18]
, and
decrease or increase thiamine content
depending on the process. The presence of
yeast favours formation of folates and
thiamine
[19]
. The fermentation step can
thus affect the overall retention of vitamins
in the baking process
[13]
. The fermentation
stage also increased the antioxidativity
(DPPH radical scavenging activity) in
methanol extracted fraction of rye
sourdough, concurrently with increased
levels of extractable phenolic compounds
[18]
. The antioxidant capacity of traditional
rye breads baked with sourdough has been
shown to be higher than common white
wheat bread; highest values reported for
breads made with wholemeal flour
[20]
. The
lactic and acetic acid produced in the
souring process enhances the storage
stability of the bread by inhibiting the
growth of molds and other spoilage
microorganisms.
Dietary carbohydrate is a major source of
plasma glucose. Rapidly digestible
starches cause a rapid and large increase in
blood glucose levels. Consequently, many
starchy foods like breads, breakfast
cereals, and potato products produce high
glycemic responses
[21]
. Large amount of
rapidly available glucose derived from
starch may lead to elevated plasma glucose
and insulin concentrations that are
detrimental to health. In many starchy
foods such as white wheat bread, starch is
highly gelatinized and product structure is
very porous, resulting in rapid degradation
of starch in small intestine and a very rapid
rise in blood glucose level (high glycemic
index).
Glycemic Index (GI) provides a measure
of how quickly blood glucose levels rise
after eating a particular type of food. It can
be reduced by use of pre-fermentation
technology or addition of soluble fibres, in
case of wheat bread
[22]
. Sourdough
process has been shown to lower GI of
wholemeal barley bread
[23]
and wheat
bread
[24]
, and insulin index of rye breads
with varying fibre content
[25]
. The slower
starch digestibility has been assumed to be
due to the formation of organic acids,
especially lactic acid, during fermentation.
Acetic and propionic acid appear to
prolong the gastric emptying rate
[23]
. It has
been postulated that chemical changes
taking place during sourdough
fermentation diminish the degree of starch
gelatinization. Also during sourdough
fermentation, pH-dependent proteolysis
occurs
[26]
. This produces significant
amount of peptides and amino acids into
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 5
International Journal of Industrial Biotechnology and Biomaterials
Vol. 1: Issue 1
www.journalspub.com
the sourdough, which may play a role in
regulating glucose metabolism
[27]
. The
increased amount of free phenolic
compounds during sourdough fermentation
may have an impact on lowering the
glycemic index
[28]
.
Sourdough and Celiac Disease
Celiac disease is one of the most common
food intolerance. It is a food-
hypersensitivity disorder caused by an
inflammatory response to wheat gluten and
similar proteins of barley and rye
[29]
. It is
also known as celiac spruce or gluten-
sensitive enteropathy. Celiac disease is
characterized by the damage of the small
intestinal mucosa caused by the gliadin
fraction of wheat gluten and similar
alcohol-soluble proteins (prolamins) of
barley and rye in genetically susceptible
individuals
[30]
. It is estimated to affect
about 1% of the world’s population
[31]
.
Currently, a lifelong elimination of gluten
from the diet is the only treatment for
celiac disease and only gluten-free
products can be consumed by celiac.
Gluten-free (GF) foods are dietary foods
either consisting of ingredients which do
not contain wheat, kamut, spelt, rye,
barley, or made of ingredients from such
cereals, which have been specially
processed to remove gluten
[32]
. Rice,
maize, sorghum, millet, buckwheat,
amaranth are suitable for celiac patients.
Overall, the gluten content in GF products
does not exceed 20 mg/kg in total
[33]
.
Researchers are currently focussed on
improving the mouth-feel, flavour and
rheology of GF products. In baking,
absence of wheat gluten results in a liquid
batter rather than a dough pre baking
[34]
and poses a challenge to maintain good
bread structure and softness retention
during storage. The use of sourdough in
baking of gluten free bread has proved to
be efficient in improving bread texture and
to delay staling
[35]
. Sourdough
fermentation of total sorghum flour
resulted in improved textural properties
[36]
. Changes that occur in the rheological
characteristics of dough are caused due to
the substantial hydrolysis of gliadin and
glutenin proteins which occurs during
sourdough fermentation due to pH-
mediated activation of cereal enzymes
[37]
.
Also, lactic acid bacteria used for
fermentation might exhibit proteolytic
activity, but since their activities are strain-
specific
[38]
, they appear to play only a
minor role in the overall proteolytic events
during fermentation
[39]
. Thus, proteolysis
by lactic acid bacteria has been suggested
as a new tool for food processing for celiac
patients
[24]
.
A sourdough made from a mixture of
wheat (30%), non-toxic oat, millet and
buckwheat flours was started with the
selected Lactobacillus alimentarius 15M,
Lactobacillus brevis 14G, Lactobacillus
sanfranciscensis 7A, and Lactobacillus
hilgardii 51B and subjected to a long-time
fermentation (24 h) at 37°C. A fractionated
method of protein extraction and
subsequent two-dimensional gel
electrophoresis were used to estimate
proteolysis. Albumin, globulin, and gliadin
fractions were hydrolyzed. The
concentration of free amino acids,
especially proline, glutamic acid and
aspartic acid, also increased in sourdoughs
[38]
. Proteolysis by lactobacilli positively
influenced the softening of the dough
during fermentation.
Many food grade microorganisms produce
exopolysaccharides (EPS)
[40]
. EPS act as
bio-thickeners and can be added to variety
of foods, where they serve as stabilising,
emulsifying or gelling agents. Glucan and
fructans produced by lactic acid bacteria
can strongly influence the quality of wheat
bread in terms of bread volume and crumb
firmness
[41]
. Lactic acid bacteria can also
produce gluco- or fruto-oligosaccharides
(FOS)
[42]
, which have been well described
for their prebiotic effects
[43]
. Sourdough
Sourdough in Bread-Making Chawla and Nagal
__________________________________________________________________________________________
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 6
fermentation modulates dietary fibre
complex and its subsequent fermentation
pattern, produces EPS with prebiotic
properties, and provides metabolites which
influence gut microbiota
[13]
.
Rye Sourdough Fermentation
Rye is the fourth most important cereal
crop after wheat, rice and maize. The
advantages of using sourdough for bread
production include the possibility of
leavened bread dough with little or no
baker’s yeast added, improved dough
properties and more aromatic bread
flavour and texture. The addition of
sourdough can also extend the shelf life of
bread by preventing mould growth and
retarding the development of rope. Rye
flour does not contain gluten and hence, no
gluten network is formed during mixing.
Pentosans play a key role in during rye
dough development
[44]
. Due to
acidification during fermentation, water
absorption by pentosans is increased. This
water can then be released during the
baking towards the starch resulting in
softer and moist bread. Also, the lowered
pH of sourdough starter inactivates
amylases, allowing the carbohydrates to
gel and set properly.
Challenges of Gluten-Free Bread
Commercially available gluten free breads
are characterized by low quality,
exhibiting poor crumb and crust
characteristics. They have poor mouth feel
and flavour. Since these products are
starch based, they have low content of
various nutrients and undergo fast staling.
In most cases, GF foods are not fortified
[45]
and contain lower levels of some B
vitamins, iron, folate and dietary fibre
when compared to their gluten-containing
counterparts
[46]
. Clinical evidences state
that malabsorption of certain important
nutrients is associated with celiac disease
[47]
; the rigorous consumption of
commercially available GF products may
yet worsen the already unbalanced diet of
celiac patients
[48–54]
. Table 1 shows the
challenges of gluten-free bread and the
properties of sourdough that can help in
overcoming these defects.
Table 1: Quality Defects of GF Bread and Possible Improvements due to Sourdough
Fermentation.
GF Bread: Challenges
Sourdough: Positive Effects
Dry crumbling texture
Improved dough softening
Low loaf volume
Increase of bread volume.
Improved gas retention
Low nutritional value
Improved mineral bioavailability
Decreased glycemic index
Prebiotic exopolysaccharides
Poor mouth-feel
Improved palatability
Poor flavour
Release of flavour compounds
Short shelf life
Decrease bread staling
Anti-ropiness and anti-fungal activity
High cost: expensive ingredients
Reduced need for expensive ingredients
CONCLUSION
Sourdough technology has proven useful
in improving sensory characteristics as
well as nutritional quality of whole-grain
and fibre-rich products. Fermentation and
acidification by lactic acid bacteria and
yeast enhance the physical properties of
wheat and rye bread. Sourdough has an
interesting biodiversity of the microflora.
Several new species have been identified
and many are being discovered. Sourdough
encourages steady blood glucose levels
and thus, protects from health risks such as
type II diabetes, obesity, and
cardiovascular diseases. It also enhances
mineral bioavailability and levels of
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 7
International Journal of Industrial Biotechnology and Biomaterials
Vol. 1: Issue 1
www.journalspub.com
bioactive compounds and reduces
glycemic index. Due to acidification, there
is degradation of gluten and hence, it can
be consumed by patients suffering from
celiac disease. Sourdough also helps in
production of rye bread, which lacks well
developed gluten network. In the future,
sourdough technology can be used to
manufacture foods that affect gut health.
The extracellular polysaccharides
produced by lactic acid bacteria can be
exploited for their prebiotic properties and
influence on gut microflora. Use of
sourdough should also be extended to
products other than bread such as biscuits
and healthy snacks.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Authors Shweta and Snighdha declare that
they have no conflict of interest”.
REFERENCES
1. Cauvain SP, Young LS. The
Chorleywood Bread Process.
Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge.
2006.
2. Sillito D. Chorleywood: The Bread
that Changed Britain. 2011.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-
13670278. Accessed 24 Oct 2012.
3. Rocken W, Voysey PA. Sour-Dough
Fermentation in Bread Making. J Appl
Bact Symposium Suppl. 1995; 79: 38S–
48Sp.
4. Brummer JM, Lorenz K. Preferments
and Sourdoughs for German Breads.
In: Kulp K, Lorenz K. (Ed.) Handbook
of Dough Fermentations. Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York. 2003; 247–
267p. doi: 10.1201/9780203911884
5. Wing D, Scott A. The Bread Builders:
Hearth Loaves and Masonry Ovens.
Chelsea Green Publishing Company,
USA. 1999; 34p.
6. Hammes WP, Ganzle MG. Sourdough
Breads and Related Products. In:
Wood BJB. (Ed.) Microbiology of
Fermented Foods, Vol. 1. Springer US.
1998; 199–216p. doi: 10.1007/978-1-
4613-0309-1_8
7. Corsetti A, Gobbetti M, Rossi J, et al.
Antimould Activity of Sourdough
Lactic Acid Bacteria: Identification of
a Mixture of Organic Acids Produced
by Lactobacillus sanfrancisco CB1.
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 1998; 50:
253–256p. doi:
10.1007/s002530051285
8. Shea L. What are the Benefits of
Eating Rye Bread for Weight Loss.
2011.
http://www.livestrong.com/article/458
494-what-are-the-benefits-of-eating-
rye-bread-for-weight-loss/. Accessed
27 Oct 2011.
9. Messens W, De Vuyst L. Inhibitory
Substances Produced by Lactobacilli
Isolated from Sourdoughs - A Review.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2002; 72: 31–
43p.
10. Vogel RF, Knorr R, Muller MRA, et
al. Non-Dairy Lactic Fermentations:
The Cereal World. Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek. 1999; 76: 403–411p.
11. Mellen PB, Walsh TF, Herrington DM.
Whole Grain Intake and
Cardiovascular Disease: A Meta-
Analysis. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.
2008; 18: 283–290p.
12. Glitso LV, Bach Knudsen KE. Milling
of Whole Grain Rye to Obtain
Fractions with Different Dietary Fibre
Characteristics. J Cereal Sci. 1999; 29:
89–97p. doi: 10.1006/jcrs.1998.0214
13. Poutanen K, Flander L, Katina K.
Sourdough and Cereal Fermentation in
a Nutritional Perspective. Food
Microbiol. 2009; 26: 693–699p.
14. Tuukkanen K, Loponen J, Mikola M,
et al. Degradation of Secalins during
Rye Sourdough Fermentation. Cereal
Chem. 2005; 82: 677–682p.
15. Mullaney MJ, Daly CB, Ullah AH.
Advances in Phytase Research. Adv
Appl Microbiol. 2000; 47: 157–199p.
16. Turk M, Carlsson NG, Sandberg AS.
Reduction of the Levels of Phytate
Sourdough in Bread-Making Chawla and Nagal
__________________________________________________________________________________________
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 8
during Wholemeal Bread Baking;
Effect of Yeast and Wheat Phytases. J
Cereal Sci. 1996; 23: 257–264p.
17. Lopez HW, Krespine V, Guy C, et al.
Prolonged Fermentation of Whole
Wheat Sourdough Reduces Phytate
Level and Increases Soluble
Magnesium. J Agric Food Chem.
2001; 49: 2657–2662p. doi:
10.1021/jf001255z
18. Liukkonen KH, Katina K,
Wilhelmsson A, et al. Process-Induced
Changes on Bioactive Compounds in
Whole Grain Rye. Proc Nutr Soc.
2003; 62: 117–122p. doi:
10.1079/PNS2002218
19. Ternes W, Freund W. Effects of
Different Dough Making Techniques
on Thiamin Content of Bread. Getr
Mehl Brot. 1988; 42: 293–297p.
20. Martinez-Villaluenga C, Michalska A,
Frias J, et al. Effect of Flour Extraction
Rate and Baking on Thiamine and
Riboflavin Content and Antioxidant
Capacity of Traditional Rye Bread. J
Food Sci. 2009; 74: 49–55p.
21. Foster-Powell K, Holt SHA, Brand-
Miller JC. International Table of
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load
Values. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76: 5–
56p.
22. Fardet A, Leenhardt F, Lioger D, et al.
Parameters Controlling the Glycaemic
Response to Breads. Nutr Res Rev.
2006; 19: 18–25p. doi:
10.1079/NRR2006118
23. Liljeberg HG, Bjorck IM. Delayed
Gastric Emptying Rate May Explain
Improved Glycaemia in Healthy
Subjects to a Starchy Meal with Added
Vinegar. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998; 52:
368–371p.
24. De Angelis M, Coda R, Silano M, et
al. Fermentation by Selected
Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria to
Decrease Coeliac Intolerance to Rye
Flour. J Cereal Sci. 2006; 43: 301–
314p. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2005.12.008
25. Juntunen KS, Laaksonen DE, Autio K,
et al. Structural Differences between
Rye and Wheat Bread but not Total
Fiber Content may explain the Lower
Postprandial Insulin Response to Rye
Bread. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 78: 957–
964p.
26. Ganzle MG, Loponen J, Gobbetti M.
Proteolysis in Sourdough
Fermentations: Mechanisms and
Potential for Improved Bread Quality.
Trends Food Sci Technol. 2008; 19:
513–521p. doi:
10.1016/j.tifs.2008.04.002
27. Nilsson M, Holst JJ, Bjorck IME.
Metabolic Effects of Amino Acid
Mixtures and Whey Protein in Healthy
Subjects: Studies using Glucose-
Equivalent Drinks. Am J Clin Nutr.
2007; 85: 996–1004p.
28. Solomon TP, Blannin AK. Effects of
Short-Term Cinnamon Ingestion on in
vivo Glucose Tolerance. Diabetes Obes
Metab. 2007; 9: 895–901p.
29. Maki M, Mustalahti K, Kokkonen J, et
al. Prevalence of Celiac Disease
among Children in Finland. N Engl J
Med. 2003; 348: 2517–2524p.
30. Fasano A, Catassi C. Current
Approaches to Diagnosis and
Treatment of Celiac Disease: An
Evolving Spectrum. Gastroenterology.
2001; 120: 636–651p.
31. Makharia GK, Verma AK, Amarchand
R, et al. Prevalence of Celiac Disease
in the Northern Part of India: A
Community Based Study. J
Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011; 26: 894–
900p. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-
1746.2010.06606.x
32. Moroni AV, Dal Bello F, Arendt EK.
Sourdough in Gluten-Free Bread-
Making: An Ancient Technology to
Solve a Novel Issue. Food Microbiol.
2009; 26: 676–684p.
33. Deutsch H. Gluten-Free Diet and Food
Legislation. In: Arendt EK, Dal Bello
F. (Ed.) The Science of Gluten-free
Foods and Beverages. AACC Press.
2009; 23–34p. doi:
10.1094/9781891127670
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 9
International Journal of Industrial Biotechnology and Biomaterials
Vol. 1: Issue 1
www.journalspub.com
34. Gobbetti M, Rizello CG, Di Cagno R,
et al. Sourdough Lactobacilli and
Celiac Disease. Food Microbiol. 2007;
24: 187–196p. doi:
10.1016/j.fm.2006.07.014
35. Moore MM, Dal Bello F, Arendt E.
Sourdough Fermented by
Lactobacillus plantarum FST 1.7
Improves the Quality and Shelf Life of
Gluten-Free Bread. Eur Food Res
Technol. 2008; 226: 1309–1316p.
36. Schober TJ, Bean SR, Boyle DL.
Gluten-Free Sorghum Bread Improved
by Sourdough Fermentation:
Biochemical, Rheological, and
Microstructural Background. J Agric
Food Chem. 2007; 55: 5137–5146p.
37. Loponen J, Mikola M, Katina K, et al.
Degradation of HMW Glutenins
during Wheat Sourdough
Fermentations. Cereal Chem. 2004;
81: 87–93p. doi:
10.1094/CCHEM.2004.81.1.87
38. Di Cagno R, De Angelis M,
Lavermicocca P, et al. Proteolysis by
Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria:
Effects on Wheat Flour Protein
Fractions and Gliadin Peptides
Involved in Human Cereal Intolerance.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002; 68:
623–633p. doi: 10.1128/
AEM.68.2.623-633.2002
39. Thiele C, Ganzle MG, Vogel RF.
Contribution of Sourdough
Lactobacilli, Yeast, and Cereal
Enzymes to the Generation of Amino
Acids in Dough Relevant for Bread
Flavour. Cereal Chem. 2002; 79: 45–
51p.
40. De Vuyst L, Degeest B.
Heteropolysaccharides from Lactic
Acid Bacteria. FEMS Microbiology
Reviews. 1999; 23: 153–177p. doi:
10.1111/j.1574-6976.1999.tb00395.x
41. Di Cagno R, De Angelis M, Limitone
A, et al. Glucan and Fructan
Production by Sourdough Weissella
cibaria and Lactobacillus plantarum. J
Agric Food Chem. 2006; 54: 9873–
9881p. doi: 10.1021/jf061393
42. Monsan P, Bozonnet S, Albenne C, et
al. Homopolysaccharides from Lactic
Acid Bacteria. Int Dairy J. 2001; 11:
675–685p.
43. Cummings JH, Macfarlane GT,
Englyst HN. Prebiotic Digestion and
Fermentation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;
73: 415s–420sp.
44. Vanhamel S, Cleemput G, Delcour JA,
et al. Physicochemical and Functional
Properties of Rye Non-Starch
Polysaccharides. IV. The Effect of
High Molecular Weight Water Soluble
Pentosans on Wheat Bread Quality in a
Straight Dough Procedure. Cereal
Chem. 1993; 70: 306–311p.
45. Niewinski MM. Advances in Celiac
Disease and Gluten-Free Diet. J Am
Diet Assoc. 2008; 108: 661–672p.
46. Thompson T. Folate, Iron, and Dietary
Fibre Contents of the Gluten-Free Diet.
J Am Diet Assoc. 2000; 100: 1389–
1396p.
47. Robins G, Wild D, Howdle P.
Significant Numbers of Celiac Patients
on a Gluten-Free Diet do not Meet RNI
Targets for Micronutrients.
Gastroenterol. 2008; 134: A-363p.
48. Mariani P, Viti MG, Montuori M, et al.
The Gluten-Free Diet: A Nutritional
Risk Factor for Adolescents with
Celiac Disease. J Pediatr
Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998; 27: 519–
523p.
49. Barclay AW, Petocz P, McMillan-
Price J, et al. Glycemic Index,
Glycemic Load, and Chronic Disease
Risk - A Meta-Analysis of
Observational Studies. Am J Clin Nutr.
2008; 87: 627–637p.
50. Brummer JM, Lorenz K. European
Development in Wheat Sourdoughs.
Cereal Foods World. 1991; 36: 310–
314p.
51. Cauvain SP, Young LS. Technology of
Bread Making. 2nd Edn. Springer,
New York. 2007; 372p.
Sourdough in Bread-Making Chawla and Nagal
__________________________________________________________________________________________
JIBB (2015) 1-10 © JournalsPub 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 10
52. Corsetti A, Lavermicocca P, Morea M,
et al. Phenotypic and Molecular
Identification and Clustering of Lactic
Acid Bacteria and Yeasts from Wheat
(Species Triticum durum and Triticum
aestivum) Sourdoughs of Southern
Italy. Int J Food Microbiol. 2001; 64:
95–104p. doi: 0.1016/S0168-
1605(00)00447-5
53. Gobbetti M, De Angelis M, Di Cagno
R, et al. Sourdough Lactic Acid
Bacteria. In: Arendt EK, Dal Bello F.
(Ed.), Gluten-free Cereals Products
and Beverages. Elsevier, 2008; 267–
288p.
54. Gobbetti M, Ganzle M. Handbook on
Sourdough Biotechnology. Springer
US. 2013; 85–103p. doi: 10.1007/978-
1-4614-5425-0
55.
