12. ID-concepts

Abstract

Information design has theoretical as well as a practical component and information designers need to have theoretical knowledge as well as practical skills. In order to perform sound reflections and make a qualified reflection regarding theory and practice, we need concepts both to structure our thoughts, and to describe them verbally. Basic ID-concepts presents short explanations of some selected basic concepts in Information Design. Obviously this selection is very subjective. Other authors may very well make other selections.
This book will soon be uploaded at the IIID Public Library < http://www.iiid.net/public-library/iiid-library/ > (almost at the bottom of the page). In the meantime you can send your e-mail-address to me./Rune Pettersson

Full text

ID Concepts
Rune Pettersson

2
ID Concepts
The illustration on the cover is part of an image from my video
program “Life Patterns” presented at the first international ex-
hibition “The Video Show” in London, may 1975. My “multime-
dia project” was one of two invited contributions from Sweden.
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this
work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee pro-
vided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or com-
mercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full
citation on the first page.
Institute for Infology
ISBN 978-91-85334-23-0
© Rune Pettersson
Tullinge 2024

3
Preface
Information design is a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary
and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as
design disciplines, communication disciplines, information dis-
ciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, art and aes-
thetic disciplines, business and law, as well as media production
technologies.
Information design has theoretical as well as practical com-
ponents. Information designers need to have theoretical
knowledge as well as practical skills. In order, to perform sound
reflections and make a qualified reflection regarding theory and
practice, we need concepts both to structure our thoughts and to
describe them verbally. Basic ID-concepts presents short expla-
nations of some selected basic concepts in Information Design.
There are no references in this book. All definitions and descrip-
tions are based on the vast literature presented in the other books
in this series. Look at these books for other viewpoints. Obvi-
ously, this selection is very subjective. Other authors may very
well make other selections.
Since my retirement I have edited and revised sections of my
earlier books, conference papers and reports about information
design, message design, visual communication and visual liter-
acy.
Previous editions of this book were published every year
2011–2023. All pictures in this book are my own.
Tullinge, Sweden
Rune Pettersson, Ph. D.
Retired Professor of Information Design

4
Contents
Preface 3!
Contents 4!
Some numerals 5!
A 9!
B 38!
C 54!
D 104!
E 127!
F 146!
G 167!
H 182!
I 194!
J 239!
K 243!
L 245!
M 272!
N 302!
O 311!
P 320!
Q 374!
R 377!
S 401!
T 443!
U 469!
V 474!
W 495!
X 505!
Y 506!
Z 507!
ID Library 508!

5
Some numerals
1 cicero = 12 points = 12 pt, = .1780 inches = 4.511 mm in the
Didot measurement system which is used in most parts of Eu-
rope (except Great Britain and France).
1 pica = 12 points = 12 pts = 1/6 inches = 0.1667 inch = 4.2333
mm in the Pica measurement system which is used in USAA and
Great Britain.
1 PostScript point =1/72 inches = 0.3527 mm.
1 pt. (1) = 0.3504 mm in the Mediaan measurement system
which is used in France.
1 pt. (2) = 0.3528 mm in the Pica measurement system which is
used in USAA and Great Britain.
1 pt. (3) = 0.3759 mm in the Didot measurement system which
is used in most parts of Europe (except Great Britain and
France).
1 pt. (4) = 1 PostScript point =1/72 inches = 0.3527 mm.
1+1 = 3, or even more, is an important effect in information de-
sign. We can >two black lines as three lines, one white line run-
ning between two black lines.
3 D-film, three-dimensional film.
3 D-image, three-dimensional image.
3 D-model. Contrary to a picture on a paper and similar to a real
object a 3 D-model has height, width and depth. 3 D-models can
only exist in the virtual world.
3 D-TV, three-dimensional television.

6
3 pt. traditional name for Excelsior (USA), Minikin (Great Brit-
ain).
4 pt. traditional name for Brilliant.
4.5 pt. traditional name for Diamond.
5 pt. traditional name for Pearl.
5½ pt. traditional name for Agate (USA), Ruby (Great Britain)
6 pt. traditional name for Nonpareille.
6½ pt. traditional name for Minionette (USA), Emerald (Great
Britain).
7 MT, Seven Management Tools for Quality Control, a set of
methods for analysis of verbal data.
7 pt. traditional name for Minion.
7 QCT, Seven Quality Control Tools a set of methods for analysis
of numerical data.
8 pt. traditional name for Brevier, Petit or Small text.
9 pt. traditional name for Bourgeois or Galliard.
10 pt. traditional name for Long Primer, Corpus or Garamond.
11 pt. traditional name for Small Pica or Philosophy.
12 pt. (1) = 12 points = 0.1649 inches = 4.205 mm. in the Medi-
aan measurement system which is used in France.
12 pt. (2) = 12 points = 1 cicero = 0.1780 inches = 4.511 mm in
the Didot measurement system which is used in most parts of
Europe (except Great Britain and France).
12 pt. (3) traditional name for Pica.

7
14 pt. traditional name for English, Mittel or Augustin.
16 pt. traditional name for Columbian (USA), Two-line Brevier
(Great Britain).
18 pt. traditional name for Great Primer.
20 pt. traditional name for Paragon.
21 pt. traditional name for Double Small Pica.
21st century literacy is the set of abilities and skills where au-
ral, visual and digital literacy overlap. These include the ability to
understand the power of images and sounds, to recognize and
use that power, to manipulate and transform digital media, to
distribute them pervasively and to easily adapt them to new
forms.
22 pt. traditional name for Double Small Pica (USA), Double
Pica (Great Britain).
24 pt. traditional name for Double Pica (USA) Two-line Pica
(Great Britain).
25.4 mm, size of the Anglo-Saxon compromise inch of 1959. In
systems for desktop publishing twelve points make up a pica and
six picas make up an inch.
28 pt. traditional name for Double English (USA), Two-line Eng-
lish (Great Britain).
30 pt. traditional name for Five-line Nonpareil (USA).
32 pt. traditional name for Four-line Brevier (USA).
36 pt. traditional name for Double Great Primer (USA), Two-
line Great Primer (Great Britain).
44 pt. traditional name for Meridian (USA), Two-line Double
Pica (Great Britain), or Trafalgar.

8
48 pt. traditional name for Canon or four-line.
60 pt. traditional name for Five-line Pica.
72 pt. traditional name for Inch.

9
A
A series paper sizes are defined by halving the preceding paper
size along the larger dimension. The most frequently used paper
size is A4, 210 by 297 millimetres (8.3 in × 11.7 in). A standard
A4 sheet made from standard 80 grams per m2 paper weighs 5
grams. Size A0 is 841 × 1189 mm, A1 594 x 841, A2 420 × 594,
A3 97 × 420, A4 210 × 297, A5 148 × 210, A6 105 × 148, A7 74 ×
105, A8 52 × 74, A9 37 × 52 and A10 26 × 37 mm. The number
after A accounts for the number of folds
Abac is a nomogram. >Graphs.
Abbreviation. The term abbreviation includes both normal ab-
breviations and acronyms. Define abbreviations in full the first
time they appear in the text. Sometimes abbreviations may be
defined in a special list.
Absolute measurements have well defined and fixed values,
such as six millimetres.
Abstract is a short summary of a document put in the begin-
ning, below the author lines and above the body text. Abstracts
often have a special type. The title Abstract may appear one line
above the abstract text or begin the first abstract line.
Abstract graphic symbols look like the objects they represent
but they have less detail than pictorial symbols. Good abstract
graphic symbols are intuitive and we should understand their
meaning. In athletic contests, like the Olympic games, abstract
graphic symbols are often used to denote different sports.
Abstract expressionism is an art movement that developed
in New York City following the Second World War. It featured
forms not found in the natural world.

10
Abstract image content is complicated to measure. A subject
matter can be depicted with different pictures and a single pic-
ture can be perceived in different ways.
Abstract subjects. Pictures of abstract subjects are understood
in more varied ways than pictures with concrete subjects. Ab-
stract subjects are described in concrete terms.
Abstraction is a simplification of existing shapes.
Academic discipline. A traditional academic discipline, or
field of study, is a branch of knowledge that is researched and
taught in higher education. The boundaries of a discipline mark
what falls within its breadth and also what it excludes. Academic
disciplines are often defined by university departments and fac-
ulties, by learned societies and by academic journals.
Academic programs in information design vary. Information
design is often part of an overall program, including graphic de-
sign, interface/interaction design, message design, technical
communication, usability, cognitive and social sciences, business
and media. Programs are both intra-disciplinary within art and
design and inter-disciplinary, based on the specific goals and ob-
jectives of the different programs.
Accuracy. When accuracy is needed in graphs, numerical ar-
rays in pictorial form and in schematic pictures the graphic in-
formation should be combined with actual figures. Colours like
blue, red and green are liked very much but they do not improve
our possibility to read a message.
Acetate overlay is clear plastic overlay that permits the posi-
tioning of units on a pasteup that cannot be put together on a
single sheet.
Achromatic colours are black and white. >Natural Colour
System.

11
Acoustic shadow is an area through which sound waves fail to
propagate, due to topographical obstructions or disruption of the
waves via phenomena such as wind currents.
Acoustic signals may be used to convey warnings in many sit-
uations, e.g. fire alarms. >Warnings.
Acronym is a pronounceable word formed from the first letter
or letters of the significant words of a descriptive phrase: LASER
(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). Let-
ters forming an acronym are capitalised and have no punctua-
tion. Sometimes acronyms may be defined in a special list.
Action theory. In a theory of action, as double loop learning
theory, the focus is on solving problems that are complex and
badly structured. It is necessary to change underlying values and
assumptions. An important aspect is the distinction between
what individuals think and what they actually do. It is a theory of
personal change that is oriented towards professional education,
especially related to leadership in organizations.
Active–passive. Avoid complicated word order and subordi-
nated clauses. Use the active voice. It is usually more direct than
the passive; it tells the readers exactly who or what is performing
the action. Constant use of the passive voice can make your writ-
ing imprecise and difficult to follow.
Active processing. All learning requires substantial cognitive
processing in the verbal and visual processing channels.
Active readers make good use of the structure embedded in a
document. Table of contents and headings provide an overview
of the content.
Active space, or positive space, in a visual is the part represent-
ing different objects. Negative space or passive space is the part
that is not filled with picture elements. The negative space is

12
usually the background. Space has no meaning in itself, but it
may be used to separate or bring together different picture ele-
ments.
Active voice is the grammatical form in which a person or a
thing performs an action of a verb. The active voice is clear, con-
cise, direct and vigorous.
Ad is a short form of advertisement.
Additive colour. In a picture tube the additive combinations
of the primary colours red, green and blue (RGB) can produce a
huge range of colours. The additive colour combination starts in
dark adding light to produce different colours into white.
Additive primaries are blue, green, and red, which combine to
produce white light.
Adjective describes a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun. Words
like big, fat and old give us more information. Adjectives is a ma-
jor word class.
Adjunct information or background information helps us
understand the content of the text. Explanatory information
places a text within a realm of understanding.
Administrative documentation is important for document-
ing, filing and saving information on events, prices, processes
and products. Examples of administrative messages are agendas
(for meetings), calendars, directives (on work tasks), distribution
lists, electronic mail, letters, lists (of various kinds), memos,
minutes, summonses to meetings and tables.
Administrative documentation–history. Many contempo-
rary business documents have their roots in the medieval
bookkeeping conducted by churches and monasteries. We can
learn a great deal by studying administrative routines in different
organisations.

13
Administrative documentation–objectives. Some of the
objectives of administrative documentation are to show how to
deal with various processes and issues, i.e. to explain, inform, re-
port and describe.
Administrative documentation–structure. The following
information components can be used in maintaining functional
administrative documentation: 1) A standardized layout for all
kinds of administrative documentation in an organisation, i.e.
“graphical templates.” 2) A system for numbering documents. 3)
A system for numbering versions. 4) Addresses. 5) Bank giro ac-
count numbers. 6) Dates. 7) Logotypes, 8) Postal giro account
numbers. 9) Prose. 10) Tables.
Administrative documentation–templates. Ready-to-use
templates save time and contribute to the creation of a distinct
and uniform structure for documentation and to a uniform iden-
tity for an organisation. Each organisation needs a carefully
thought-out programme for its graphical profile. Many organisa-
tions utilize a set of governing “profile rules.” It must be easy for
an organisation’s own employees, as well as external receivers, to
find relevant information in each document. >Administrative
documentation structure.
Administrative messages is a term for a group of information
materials in the category Administrative documentation.
Administrative principles is the name of one of the four
groups of information and message design principles. This cate-
gory of includes four principles: 1) Information access, 2) Infor-
mation costs, 3) Information ethics, and 4) Securing quality.
Adolescent literacy refers to the set of skills and abilities that
students need in grades 4–12 to read, write and think about the
text materials they encounter.

14
Address concerns the way the writer addresses the reader and
is verbally realized by the type of sentence and the person of the
verb.
Adverb phrases can be used in a sentence as if they were ad-
verbs.
Adverbs describe information about an adjective, an adverb, a
clause, a verb. “Adverbs” is an open word class. Adverbs give an-
swers to questions: How? What? When? Where?
Advert is a short form of advertisement.
Advertisement. 1) An advertisement is the activity of advertis-
ing and attracting public attention to a business, product or ser-
vice. 2) An advertisement is a paid announcement. Printed ad-
vertisements need a graphical form that arouses interest. Here
unusual typefaces can be useful and stimulate attention, entice
the reader to look at the pictures and begin reading the text.
Shortened forms are ad and advert. Broadly interpreted certain
kinds of advertisements can be included in the concept infor-
mation material.
Advertising is generally regarded as the means for persuasion.
It appears in paid announcements in broadcast, electronic me-
dia, and print. Advertising presents positive images and speaks
to the heart as well as the head. We seldom expect advertise-
ments to be objective and unbiased, and we should try to retain
some preparedness for interpreting advertisements. When a
message is repeated often, we may lose our ability to be analytical
and critical about it.
Advertising and propaganda is a term for a category of in-
formation materials.
Advertising business. Advertising may be the world’s most
powerful industry. It is more powerful now than it has previously
been at any time in history.

15
Advertising campaign. An advertising campaign is a form of
mass-communication that can resemble both infotainment and
factual information. It may change the public opinion. It can
make a company’s fortune and it can put politicians in power.
Advertising effects. It is complicated to measure effects of ad-
vertising. People forget most advertising messages. However, ad-
vertising is used so frequently and is so pervasive in our daily
lives that we often fail to recognize that we are exposed to it.
Advertising history. Advertising is not a new activity. Already
5,000 years ago crude advertisements appeared as inscriptions
in Egyptian tombs. Later the Greeks engraved theatre ads in
stone about 2,500 years ago. Different signs were hand painted
on the lime-whitened walls of buildings in Rome and Pompeii.
Advertising illustrations are images created for the purpose
of selling a product or a service.
Advertising literacy is an analytical concept with respect to
media education and research. From the consumer point of view,
advertising literacy is the individual’s ability and skill of observa-
tion, recognition and understanding commercial messages. For
the communicator advertising literacy provides directions for
planning of advertising.
Advertising media. It seems that all media can be used for ad-
vertising. The advertising process involves a source or a sender
(the advertiser), encoding (the professional in advertising), a
representation with a message (the advertisement) and one or
more channels (the selected media), noise (various obstacles),
receivers (listeners, readers, viewers), decoding of the message
(understanding) and feedback (the viewer’s responses).
Advertising messages are common and we may be exposed to
thousands every day. The elements of advertising messages are
words, pictures, graphic design, music, sounds, characters, the

16
setting and the action itself. The more often a message is sent,
the more familiar it becomes and the more likely it is to be re-
membered. >Attention to advertisements.
Advertising objectives. The objective of advertising is to sell
ideas, products and services, although at times its purpose may
also be to identify or to inform. While propaganda often creates
negative images, advertising presents positive images.
Advertising posters are used for advertising. >Jules Chéret,
Toulouse-Lautrec.
Advertising process. The advertising process involves a
source or a sender (advertiser), encoding (professional in adver-
tising), a representation with a message (advertisement), one or
more channels (selected media), noise (various obstacles), re-
ceivers (listeners, readers, viewers), decoding of the message
(understanding) and feedback (viewer’s responses).
Aerial perspective, atmospheric perspective. The air is never
absolutely clear. It is filled with greyish blue haze, moisture and
dust. This acts like a filter and makes distant objects seem ob-
scure and wrapped in mist. They are partly hidden. Objects
viewed from a long distance are indistinct and pale. Many artists
in the Netherlands followed Jan van Eyck and used aerial per-
spective in their own paintings. Later Leonardo da Vinci used
aerial perspective in many paintings, such as the Mona Lisa.
Aerial view. The term aerial view can refer to any view from a
great height, even at a wide angle. Sometimes this term is used
for the bird’s-eye perspective.
Aerial viewpoint. Sometimes the term aerial viewpoint is
used for the bird’s-eye perspective.
Aesthetic and usability. We could argue that the very moment
that shape exceeds functionality is the point at which usability is
compromised. However, we may also argue that art and aesthetic

17
concerns in general serve a basic human need. We may say that
artistry makes a thing more usable and useful by way of making
it special. In information design, functional properties are always
more important than aesthetic properties. However, it may be an
advantage if an information material also looks good.
Aesthetic criticism implies a judgement that utilises analysis,
evaluation, feeling and synthesis in the understanding of beauty.
Aesthetic designs are perceived as easier to use than less-aes-
thetic designs.
Aesthetic literacy refers to interpreting and understanding of
advertisements as a source of aesthetic pleasure and entertain-
ment. It includes the possibility of valuing the artistry and un-
derstanding the elegance of decisions in design, execution and
production.
Aesthetic messages, or Aesthetic value of a message, is how
intended receivers perceive it with respect to its beauty. Material
with a (sufficiently) pleasing form has greater potential for con-
veying a particular message than does non-aesthetic material.
Aesthetic principles, is a group of design principles for infor-
mation and message design including: 1) Harmony, and 2) Aes-
thetic proportion.
Aesthetic proportion is very subjective. We may all have dif-
ferent ideas of what we find beautiful and rewarding, and what
we find boring, distracting, disturbing or ugly. When a design is
out of proportion it may be disproportionate, exaggerated or
overemphasized. Classical formats are based on the proportions
of the golden rectangle (3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc.) and the
golden section (1:1.618).
Aesthetic value of a message is how the intended receivers per-
ceive it with respect to its beauty. Material with a (sufficiently)

18
pleasing form has greater potential for conveying a particular
message than does non-aesthetic material.
Aestheticians try to understand art in fundamental ways. They
study art from all countries and from all periods of history, in re-
lation to their cultural, physical and social environments.
Aesthetics may be defined as an “appreciation of the beautiful.”
It is usually regarded as a branch of philosophy, along with epis-
temology, ethics, logic and metaphysics. Aesthetics treats the
conditions of sensuous perception and aims to establish general
principles of art and beauty and of harmony and proportion. Aes-
thetics is often divided into the philosophy of beauty, and the phi-
losophy of art.
Aesthetics theory for ID is an external theory with influences
from art and aesthetic disciplines.
Affective use of colour. Colour enhances the attention and
perception of a visual message. If people like the contents in a
picture, they like them even more when presented in colour. Usu-
ally people prefer colour in visuals.
Affordance is the possibility to perform an action on an object
or an environment. The handle on a teacup provides an af-
fordance for holding it.
After publication. A picture analysis, i.e., a descriptive rating
of a picture and various practical tests can be carried out to de-
termine whether or not an information disseminator’s intentions
are accurately realized. The results of these tests can be used for
revision of the picture description that, in turn, could result in
even more effective informative material.
Agate lines are vertical measurements of space. There are four-
teen agate lines to an inch.

19
Age of information, information age. We have to learn how to
handle various new situations. Throughout the 1980s, major
changes occurred in the way our society produced, stored, pro-
cessed and accessed information. Modern information technol-
ogy has an increasing impact on all aspects of our lives. We pro-
duce more information than ever before. Quite frequently, peo-
ple find that their basic knowledge is inadequate. However, the
tools of the information age have put vast volumes of information
at our fingertips. In the future, we will focus even more on the
information content, the actual message, rather than on the tra-
ditional information materials as such.
Aggressive colours are yellows, oranges and reds.
Agreement subject–predicate. The predicate (verb) in any
sentence must agree in number with the subject. Words that
come between subject and predicate do not affect the number of
the predicate.
Agreements. The predicate (verb) in any sentence must agree
in number with the subject. Words that come between subject
and predicate do not affect the number of the predicate.
Agricultural literacy is a phrase used to describe programs to
promote the knowledge and understanding necessary to analyse,
synthesize and communicate basic information about agriculture
to students, producers, consumers and the public.
Aha learning focuses on comprehension and understanding
based on insight. People acquire several little pieces of infor-
mation until they >the whole–the “aha” experience. We must
never assume that disseminated information is the same as re-
ceived information.
Aid is a designation for the channel, or information carrier and
the equipment required for encoding and decoding of data.
Alberti >Leon Battista Alberti.

20
Albertus Pictor (about 1440–1509) is the most famous and
prominent of all late medieval church decorators and painters in
Sweden. In the latter part of the 15th century he and members of
his workshop decorated the walls and vaults of over thirty small
gothic style countryside churches around Lake Mälaren in cen-
tral Sweden with fresco secco murals. Some 6,000 paintings and
accompanying text scrolls have been documented and examined
by a group of scholars. Albertus Pictor was a skilled predecessor
in information design–more than 500 years ago.
Alciato, Andrea >Andrea Alciato.
Aldus Pius Manutius (1449–1515) was an Italian humanist.
He founded the Aldine Press in Venice and became the most fa-
mous printer and publisher of his own time. He commissioned
the punch cutter Francesco Griffo (1450–1518) to cut a compact,
narrow and slanted typeface. This “Italic typeface style” allowed
for more economical use of space and became known as Aldus
Roman type. They designed a scheme of book design for inexpen-
sive small size books, in octavo book format. Manutius published
the beautifully illustrated book Hypnerotomachia Poliphili
(1499) with 170 refined woodcut illustrations nicely matched to
the typeface and in an elegant page layout.
Aliasing is a visual effect that occurs on a computer’s visual dis-
play screen whenever the detail in the image exceeds the availa-
ble resolution.
Alignment is the placement and positioning of graphics, head-
ings, tables, and texts in relation to axes, lines or margins.
Alignment chart is a nomogram. >Graphs.
Alinea sign ¶ or paragraph mark, paragraph sign, paraph,
and pilcrow is a typographical character showing individual par-
agraphs.
Alpha version. The first complete version of a new product.

21
Alphabetic languages. Most alphabetic written languages
evolved from the Phoenician language that appeared around
1200 BC. It reached the Greeks in 800–900 BC. They added
vowels to the Phoenician alphabet, which only consisted of con-
sonants and began writing from left to right instead of right to
left. Many languages have alphabets based on the Greek alpha-
bet, including the Latin of the Romans. Latin, in turn, has given
rise to the alphabets employed in most modern written languages
in Western countries. >Signs and words.
Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt about 5,200 years ago.
Ancient Egyptians often used papyrus scrolls for writing. Papy-
rus is a paper-like material made from a plant.
Alphabets evolved when characters designating words began to
be used to represent the initial sounds of words. Alphabets have
a standard set of letters. Letters, or groups of letters, represent
phonemes of the spoken language. Alphabets typically use 20–
35 letters.
Alphanumeric signs. Traditional database systems are usu-
ally based on alphanumeric characters. It is possible to search for
text strings and numbers. In an image database, e.g. on a video-
disc, pictures are usually assigned keywords and other alphanu-
meric information, which can later be used to find a particular
image. However, it is impossible to search for iconic signs, for
example structures in an image.
Alternating rhythm is a regular variation on a repeated visual
theme.
Amenhotep II reigned in Egypt from about 1,427 to circa 1,400
BC. In his mortuary temple in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes
(KV35) the pillars supporting the ceiling have fully drawn figures
of Amenhotep II with funerary deities. The hieroglyphic texts are
of great importance as they contain a complete version of the

22
Amduat. This is the book of the afterlife, and tells the story of the
Egyptian sun-god Ra.
American Quarto. The most commonly used paper sizes in
North America are called Ledger, Legal, Letter and Tabloid. A
letter size paper is 215.9 × 279.4 mm (81⁄2 × 11 in). Letter size is
also known as American Quarto.
Amount of information. The amount of information being
disseminated is increasing every day. No signs indicate a paper-
less society, maybe a “less paper” society.
Ampersand is a contraction of the Latin phrase ‘and per se
and’. It translates: ‘the symbol for and by itself means and’ as the
logogram & represents the conjunction word “and.” Ampersands
are commonly seen in author partnerships of two or more people,
in business names, as well as some abbreviations containing the
word and, such as R&D (research and development).
Amygdala in the brain is involved in the regulation of higher-
order motivational states.
Analog coding. Data are stored as continuous signals. These
signals are often electrical, but they can be hydraulic, mechanical
or pneumatic. Analogue coding takes up much less space than
digital coding. Video data stored in analogue form is suitable, for
example, for entertainment when sequential viewing of a pro-
gram from beginning to end is desired. >Digital coding.
Analog is a signal that may be varied continuously. Since com-
puters are not able to process this kind of signal, their data must
be converted to digital.
Analog signals may be continuously varied. So far, computers
cannot process these signals, they must be converted to digital.
Analogous colours are hues that lie next to one another on a
colour wheel.

23
Analogy is a comparison between two things, used for a clarifi-
cation or an explanation.
Analysis is the first sub-process in the actual writing of a text. It
is important to define the problem during an introductory anal-
ysis and planning phase. The different steps include defining the
purpose and receivers of the intended message.
Analytical drawings are schematic pictures working in con-
cert with photographs. >Drawings.
Andrea Alciato (1492–1550) was an Italian lawyer. Alciato
wrote a collection of short moralizing Latin epigrams in the em-
blem book Emblematum liber, or Book of Emblems. The printer
and publisher Heinrich Steyner included selected woodcuts in
the book. At that time emblems were usually printed on single
sheets of paper, with a header, a picture and an explanatory text.
Steyner began a process that resulted in the recognition that a
combination of text and pictures was a genre in its own right. An-
drea Alciato is called “the father of the emblem.”
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) was born in Belgium. Professor
Vesalius revolutionized the study of biology and the practice of
medicine by his careful verbal and visual descriptions of the anat-
omy of the human body. On the basis of Vesalius’ own drawings
Johann Stephan van Calcar (1499–1546 or 1550) drew the final
illustrations. Andreas Vesalius and Johannes Oporinus (1507–
1568) worked together in Basel with an advanced and skilled
graphic presentation of the human anatomy in the book De hu-
mani corporis fabrica libri septem (On the Fabric of the Human
Body in Seven Volumes). Johannes Oporinus printed the Fabrica
in 1543 in a deluxe folio format. The Fabrica consisted of 663
pages and 83 plates containing 430 illustrations. Vesalius is
called the “founder of modern human anatomy.” He was a pio-
neer in information design.

24
Angular perspective, oblique perspective, two-point perspec-
tive, have lines that vanish in two directions to two different van-
ishing points.
Angular type conveys cultural meanings. It is abrasive, brisk,
controlled, decisive, harsh, masculine, modern, rational and
technical.
Animation include different methods to make still pictures ap-
pear as being moving images. Today, most animations are made
with computer-generated imagery.
Anomalies of colour vision, or colour blindness, is a condi-
tion in which certain colour distinctions cannot be made. This is
more commonly observed among men than among women, with
estimates ranging as high as 10% of the male population. Only
1% of the female population has abnormal colour vision. Failure
to distinguish between red and green is most common. Red and
green are often used as discriminating colours in symbols and in
warning signals and signs.
Antique describes: 1) typefaces with bracketed slab-serifs, and
little variation of stroke weight, 2) Some sans-serif typefaces.
Apex is the point that is formed at the very top of a character.
Application. New applications develop within already estab-
lished academic disciplines. Examples of such disciplines are ar-
chitecture, computer science, gender studies, information design
and visual literacy. These disciplines are multi-disciplinary.
Application of knowledge. After attention, perception and
processing of information we apply our new knowledge and test
it in different applications for confirmation. We will remember
relevant and meaningful information if we have use for it. The
usefulness of conclusions made by other people is limited.

25
Applied art and design are the disciplines that use elements
and principles of design in order to create functional pieces for
commercial use.
Applied research. To a large extent research in message design
consists of applied research. This research has a pragmatic per-
spective on knowledge. New findings are tested and the results
are confirmed. Critically selected results from other research
may often be used as starting points. It is possible to create guide-
lines for the production of effective information and learning ma-
terials. Evaluation of the use of these materials provides useful
information for further studies.
This picture shows my research process for applied research in
information design. The seven sub-processes between the for-
mulation of a problem (P) and a finished report (R) are: 1) Anal-
ysis of the problem, 2) Planning the project, 3) Study of litera-
ture, 4) Collection of data, 5) Analysis of data, 6) Interpretation
and discussion, and 7) Publishing. Study of literature is a par-
allel activity throughout the whole research process.
Applied science, people try to apply basic existing scientific
knowledge to develop practical applications for different needs.
An example of this is engineering and development of technol-
ogy. We may view an applied science, as a “combined discipline.”
Approaches. An artistic approach tends to judge success by
whether the product feels right and whether the critics like it or
not. A design approach minimizes the need for rewriting and ed-
iting. The design approach judges its success by whether the
product achieves the objectives specified by measurable

26
performance objectives, within the specified resources and situ-
ational constraints. The focus is on workability.
Appropriation is the process of copying the style of one thing,
and then applying it to another thing.
Aquatint engraving is a type of etching specially used for areas
with many shades and nuances. In tonal quality aquatint is sim-
ilar to the wash effect of a watercolour drawing. Aquatint is often
combined with other printing techniques, such as line etching.
The method has been known since the 17th century. Graphic art-
ists mainly use this method as a fine arts technique.
Arbitrary colour is any colour that an artist “needs” to use in
creating artwork.
Arch is a series of paper sizes used in architecture. In this series
the aspect ratios vary, 4:3 and 3:2 are common. Five successive
paper sizes are defined by halving the preceding paper size along
the larger dimension. Here the aspect ratio varies between 3:4
and 2:3. Arch A is 9 x 12 in (229 x 305 mm), Arch B 12 x 18 in
(305 x 457 mm), Arch C 18 x 24 in (457 x 610 mm), Arch D 24 x
36 in (610 x 914 mm), Arch E 36 x 48 in (914 x 1219 mm), Arch
E1 30 x 42 in (762 x 1067 mm), Arch E2 26 x 38 in (660 x 965
mm) and Arch E3 27 x 39 in (686 x 991 mm).
Archaeological cultures. Today archaeologists have named
“archaeological cultures” based on characteristic ceramics with
their decorations. Regardless of the expected short lifetime pot-
ters spent time on decorating their pottery, often with abstract
patterns. Today pieces of pottery can often be used for dating of
archaeological sites. Pottery analysis may provide information
about past cultural networking and communication patterns.
Architecture is 1) the art/practice (verb) of constructing build-
ings, and 2) the carefully designed structure (noun) of buildings.
Architecture has been defined as the art and practice of desig-

27
ning, planning, and constructing buildings. Furthermore archi-
tecture includes designing and constructing of other structures,
such as monuments.
Archive pictures. Frequent use of archive pictures in textbooks
may cause quality problems. In many situations, it may be better
not to have any pictures at all than employing pictures not pro-
duced for the occasion. >Photo archives.
Archives. There are four main types of archives: 1) Personal,
private collections. 2) Commercial photo agencies. 3) Personal)
research archives in different fields. 4) Collections in museums
and other public institutions.
Area of knowledge is a well defined part within a field of
knowledge. Some areas of knowledge emerge and some disap-
pear. At some point, new areas get the status of new disciplines.
Area principle. Most likely we will interpret a small shape
within a larger shape as the “figure,” and the larger shape as the
“ground.” Our ability to quickly distinguish the boundaries of an
image is usually very high.
Area specific literacies. Several literacies are “area specific.”
At the same time, they may belong to more than one of the five
main categories of literacy. Advertising literacy, aesthetic liter-
acy, agricultural literacy, cultural literacy, diaspora literacy, eco-
logical literacy, ecoliteracy, environmental literacy, health liter-
acy, information literacy, informational literacy, media literacy,
media and information literacy, mental health literacy, mental
literacy, political literacy, promotional literacy, rhetorical liter-
acy, scientific literacy, social literacy, software literacy, techno-
logical literacy and television literacy all belong in this category.
Area-based positional perspectives include aerial perspec-
tive, colour perspective, overlapping perspective, shadow per-
spective, and tonal perspective.

28
Areas belong to the simplest components in visual language. An
area can be varied with respect to brightness, colour, colour com-
binations, context, emptiness, grain, grey scale, shaded or non-
shaded parts, shape, size, texture and value. >Basic elements.
Argument messages based on facts are useful tools when the
goal is to change an attitude. Such messages may also increase
the credibility of the sender.
Art abstract styles are expressionistic style and cartoon style.
Children equate abstract art styles with imaginative, “pretend” or
“make-believe” literature.
Art and aesthetic disciplines include research areas and dis-
ciplines such as aesthetics, architecture, art history, fine art, ico-
nography, music, painting, photography, sculpture and more.
Art criticism may be defined as the process of judging the aes-
thetic qualities of visual art, mainly architecture, painting and
sculpture, but also craft. This has become a specialised field, but
judgements about works of art have appeared since ancient
times. We can use three simple questions: 1) What is it? 2) What
does it mean? 3) What is it worth? The answers to these questions
result in a description, an interpretation and an evaluation.
Art Deco is a decorative design style. It was first used at an ex-
hibition in Paris, 1925.
Art definitions. Usually definitions of art aim at establishing a
set of characteristics applicable to all kinds of fine arts, as well as
the differences that set them apart. After some hundreds of years
of discussions aestheticians have not yet agreed upon a definition
of art. Some say that it is impossible to define art.
Art experiences. It is a common belief that a person’s response
to art is a mystical experience that has no basis in reality and
serves no practical purpose. But the opposite may very well be
true. A positive response to art is a phenomenon of reality that

29
may reflect a person’s most important values. Another belief is
that art is entirely subjective and cannot be evaluated on an ob-
jective basis. >Perceptual aesthetics.
Art interpretations. In aesthetics one area of study is con-
cerned with the study of the interpretations of art, how people
use, enjoy and criticise art. Knowledge of psychology helps the
aestheticians to understand how people act, desire, feel, hear, im-
agine, learn, >and think, in relation to art and aesthetic experi-
ences. >Perceptual aesthetics.
Art is valued for its originality and expressiveness. Its focus is on
individual artefacts crafted through the manual and aesthetic vir-
tuosity of the artist. Art strives to express fundamental ideas and
perspectives on the human condition. Design, in contrast, is val-
ued for its fitness to a particular user and to a particular task.
Art metaphysics. Some philosophers have concluded that
works of art represent mental entities, such as visions and
dreams. Other philosophers have noticed that artists may ex-
press their attitudes, emotions and personality traits in their art
and have concluded that art works belong in a category with non-
verbal communications rather than with physical objects. Still
other philosophers argue that works of art exist only in the minds
of their creators and of their audiences.
Art Nouveau (the new art) describes ornamental styles in ar-
chitecture, decoration, and design, 1894–1914.
Art production. Questions about the production of art deal
with creativity, imagination and the role of innate ability in any
artistic production. Ancient and medieval philosophers assumed
the same model for producing fine art and crafts. The present
distinction between the production of fine art and crafts emerged
in Western culture after the renaissance. Today most aestheti-
cians assume that something is unique about producing fine art.

30
Articulacy is the condition of being articulate, that is the ability
of speaking in a clear and effective manner.
Artistic approach. >Approaches.
Artistic layout may please the individual artistic graphic de-
signer but may have no relation to the content of the message.
Arts & Crafts Movement was a special movement from the
late nineteenth century in architecture, decorative arts, design,
furniture and typography.
Ascender is the part of a lower-case letter that ascend above its
x-height (b, d, f, h, k, l). These letters may be taller than the cap
height.
Assemblage is produced by fitting pieces together, often mak-
ing use of unrelated or found objects.
Assessing image content. It is relatively easy to assess con-
crete image content, but not abstract image content. A subject
matter can be depicted with many different kinds of pictures and
a single picture can be perceived in many different ways. We need
to further develop methods for measuring image properties.
>Picture analysis.
Assign meaning. People do not derive the same information
from things they hear, read, or see. The meaning of any language,
verbal or visual, is not only resident in words or pictures but in
ourselves. We have to learn the codes and how they differ in dif-
ferent societies and in different cultures. We have to learn to as-
sign meaning to language symbols.
Associations. A text and a picture will give rise to many indi-
vidual associations and interpretations.
Associative concept system shows relations, that is, func-
tional relations, between different concepts. >Conceptual model.

31
Associative learning is among the most basic forms of learn-
ing. The learner builds an association between two stimuli, or be-
tween a behaviour and a stimulus. Learning is based on imitation
and memorising with a strong emphasis on the intellectual abil-
ity of the teacher.
Associative perception. The reader ignores variation on one
visual dimension when reading a picture. A visual variable is as-
sociative when it does not influence our perception of other di-
mensions in the visual variables. A visual variable is dissociative
when it severely influences our perception dimensions in the vis-
ual variables.
Associative psychology. In accordance with associative psy-
chology learning is based on associations. The “law of contiguity”
states that mental associations occur when two events take place
close to each other in space or in time. The “law of similarity”
states that a person is likely to connect two things that are almost
the same. On the other hand, the “law of contrast” states that
greatly different things are likely to be associated.
Asterisk is a typographical symbol with different meanings in
different areas. In scientific publications, the asterisk may be em-
ployed to denote the statistical significance of results when test-
ing hypotheses. Popular significance levels are <0.05 (*), <0.01
(**), and <0.001 (***).
Asymmetric grids have a bias towards one side of a page. As
an example, the left hand margin on a page is wider than the right
hand margin on the same page.
Asymmetry is the distribution of shapes of different visual
weights over a page or over a picture creating an overall impres-
sion of balance.
Asynchronous communication is communication in which
sender and receiver are separated by time and/or distance.

32
At sign @ reads aloud as “at,” or “at symbol”, and “commercial
at”. This symbol is most commonly used in email addresses.
Atmospheric perspective, aerial perspective. When the dis-
tance to an object increases, the contrast decreases. As a conse-
quence, objects viewed from a long distance are indistinct and
pale. Many artists in the Netherlands followed Jan van Eyck and
used aerial perspective in their own paintings. Leonardo da Vinci
used aerial perspective in manypaintings, such as the Mona Lisa.
Attached shadow. >Shadow.
Attention. Among thousands of stimuli we only see, hear, smell,
feel, taste and “pay attention to” one at a time. Attention is direct,
distinct and sudden. The sequential flow of attention to the parts
of a message is determined by the sequence in which information
is presented to us. There are always far more stimuli than we can
ever notice at any given situation. Attention may be controlled:
1) automatically, 2) by instructions and 3) by the specific de-
mands of the particular task at hand.
Attention qualities. There are several attention models and at-
tention theories. We can pay attention to the content of a mes-
sage, to the execution of that message, to the context in which the
message is presented and to the actual format or medium that
carries the message. Our attention will not last for long. Any ma-
terial must constantly re-draw the attention to hold the interest
of the viewer.
Attention time span is the length of time a subject can focus
on an object or a topic. Our attention will usually not last for long.
Any information material and any presentation must constantly
redraw the attention to hold the interest of the viewer. A presen-
tation may hold the viewer’s attention when the rhythm, layout
and pace are not predictable and boring. As children grow, their
attention spans grow with them. They can concentrate on tasks

33
for longer periods of time and can more easily “block out” objects
and events that are irrelevant to a task at hand.
Attention to advertisements. Advertisements in different
media must be noticed, otherwise they are completely useless.
Here, unusual typefaces can be useful to attract attention to the
text. In these situations, the graphic form should stimulate atten-
tion, entice the reader to look at the headings and pictures and
then actually begin reading the text.
Attention to colour. To some extent colour is a language of its
own. Bold and bright colours may be used to enhance the atten-
tion to and perception of a visual message. Colour creates instant
impact and it becomes a vital part of our first impression. The
number of colour codes must be limited and they must always be
explained. Improper use of colour can be distracting, fatiguing
and upsetting and actually produce negative results.
Attention to information sets. The intended message may be
hidden within verbal or visual puns, within metaphors, satires,
parodies, or within humour. In these cases, designers break the
traditional rules or guidelines of instructional message design. A
visual material must constantly redraw the attention to hold the
interest of the viewer.
Attention to layout. Layout and typography should be trans-
parent and not cause any specific attention in information and
learning materials. Irregular, unexpected and unstable design
will attract attention. Arrows, bullets, icons, underlining, margin
notes, repetition, and/or white space can highlight the relevant
information. Caricatures, cartoons and pictures that are tilted on
the page attract attention. Each picture needs a caption to direct
attention and interest. Put pictures as close to the relevant text
as possible; between the appropriate paragraphs get maximum
impact. Pictures on odd-numbered pages attract more attention
than pictures on even pages.

34
Attention to messages. We are almost always paying atten-
tion to something, whether it is information in our environment
or information already in our heads. Paying attention requires
mental effort. Usually we can only attend to one thing at a time.
One of the message designer’s first problems is to gain the atten-
tion of the audience and thereafter she or he has the continuing
problem of holding the attention.
Attention to movement. Our peripheral vision is especially
sensitive to movement and brightness, both highly relevant to
the detection of any approaching danger. When we look at a
multi-image slide and film presentation it is obvious that we only
have a limited capacity for attention. As soon as the film starts,
our attention is directed towards the movement in the film from
the surrounding stills. It is just impossible for viewers not to be
influenced by the movement. The fact that one must select infor-
mation implies that there are limits to the ability to perceive,
think, or do several things at once.
Attention to novelty. Attention is drawn to changes and any-
thing unusual, but not necessarily excessively bright, extraordi-
nary, or loud stimuli. Attention is drawn to what is quantitatively
different from what has been attended to previously. We need to
find a balance between novelty and familiarity, between com-
plexity and simplicity, between uncertainty and certainty. Famil-
iarity in excess produces boredom, while novelty in excess pro-
duces anxiety.
Attention to oral communication. Various media may be
used in oral communication in order to improve attention and
perception. It is hard for the presenter to gain and hold the inter-
est of the viewer/listener, who easily are distracted. It is easy to
lose an audience and hard to get it back.
Attention to pictures. Pictures attract attention and may hold
and maintain attention. People, especially our faces, will get

35
maximum attention in images. Arrows and lines in various col-
ours can attract attention to specific elements within a picture.
Captions can effectively direct attention where the designer
wishes it to be directed within the picture. If people like the con-
tents in a picture, they like them even more when the visual is
presented in colour.
Attention to symbols. The receiver must be able to >or rather
“discover” symbols. This is especially important for symbols on
warning signs. Such signs should be put close to the hazard and
need to have reflectance and good lighting conditions. It must be
possible to >warning signs in degraded conditions such as fog,
low illumination, or smoke. Arrows and lines in various colours
can draw attention within information and learning materials
and also for wayshowing.
Attention to text. Since there are over 60 000 different type-
faces (with still more being introduced), it is easy to combine
them in many ways. Most of these typefaces are, however, of lim-
ited value in information and learning materials. Usually only a
few typefaces are needed. When text is shown on a visual display,
there is no easily read colour combination. Rather than focusing
on specific colours as always best, designers should work to en-
sure good contrast between text and background.
Attitude change. Adding illustration to text may fail to en-
hance attitude change. Results depend on how pictures are exe-
cuted and how they are used. Association is facilitated when
items are shown together.
Audial language comprises sound effects, music and paralin-
guistic sounds (all aural). Audial language + visual language can
be designated audio-visual. Many artistic slide-tapes show and
multi-image presentations employing images, music and sound
effects belong to this category.

36
Audibility in the spoken word is comparable to legibility in the
written message. In oral presentations, it is important that it is
easy to clearly hear the individual words and sentences.
Audiences. >Receiver groups.
Audio messages should be audible, distinct and well worth lis-
tening to for the intended audience.
Audio-visual instruction has nowadays more or less become
an obsolete term. The audio-visual scholars of the 1920s and
most of the 1930s followed prevalent methodological and theo-
retical trends in educational psychology. Texts were mainly con-
cerned with operation of machines in public school classrooms.
Films were used for teaching of facts.
Auditory principles. Some visual Gestalt principles also apply
in the acoustic domain. Silence or background noise, interrupted
by a loud sound, followed again by silence or noise, is an auditory
analogue of a figure on a ground.
Auditory modality. Children with auditory modality rely very
much on hearing and verbalisation. They learn by hearing; they
are “auditory learners.” Thus, these children remember names
rather than faces. They learn from verbal directions and descrip-
tions. They think in sounds. Auditory modality children talk a lot.
They like to hear their own voices. Auditory learners miss signif-
icant details in pictures. However, they may appreciate a work of
art as a whole. They favour music. >Modality.
Auditory threshold is the lowest sound intensity we are capa-
ble of perceiving.
Augmented Reality, AR, is an interactive experience of a real-
world environment where some real objects are “augmented” us-
ing computer-generated virtual objects. AR brings components
of the digital world into a person’s perception of the real world.
Augmented reality can “co-exist” with the real world.

37
Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas Lumière. >Lumière.
Auguste Rodin (1840–1917) was a French sculptor. He had a
traditional schooling. François-Auguste-René Rodin collabo-
rated with established sculptors. In the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, sculpture re-emerged from centuries of
semi-eclipse. Rodin became an extraordinary creative artist. He
recalled sculpture to a close contact with the nature of its mate-
rial. He possessed a unique ability to work with clay. worked the
surface of his sculptures so that the light emphasizes and ex-
plains their forms. Rodin worked in an “object-oriented way.” He
used the same form elements in several of his sculptures and he
worked very consciously to make castings in bronze. Under the
pinnacle of his career, Rodin had up to 50 assistants.
Aural perspectives. The ear is efficient in receiving and local-
izing sound in our environment. Our ears bring us a world of
sound that has depth and distance. Any “soundscape” has three
layers of acoustical information. There are foreground sounds,
context sounds and background sounds. People have a natural
ability to isolate sounds in relationship to their approximate po-
sitions: behind, above, below, to the sides, or in front of the head.
Author lines are the lines at the beginning of a paper with the
name of the author or the authors. It is often centred and set in
smaller type than the heading.
Avant Garde is 1) an artistic work that pushes established limits
of what is considered acceptable. 2) a typeface created by Herb
Lubalin and Tom Carnase in 1967.
Average picture size is the average part of a page covered by
pictures, mentally measured by dividing pages in a document
into four or six equal parts.
Axes. X-axis is the horizontal, and Y-axis is the vertical line to
frame a chart or a graph.

38
B
B series paper. The B series is less common than the A series.
The area of a B series sheet is the geometric mean of successive
A sheets. The B-series is widely used in the printing industry.
Many posters use B-series paper or a close approximation, such
as 500 cm × 700 mm. Size B0 (B zero) is 1000 × 1414 mm, B1
707 × 1000, B2 500 × 707, B3 353 × 500, B4 250 × 353, B5 176
× 250, B6 125 × 176, B7 88 × 125, B8 62 × 88, B9 44 × 62, B10 31
× 44 mm.
Background information or adjunct information is needed
to fully understand any text. Explanatory information that is eas-
ily reachable places a text within a realm of understanding, as
opposed to information without any additional easily accessible
references.
Bacon, Roger. >Roger Bacon.
Baird, John Logie. >John Logie Baird.
Balance is the sum of all elements, the darks and lights, the hor-
izontals and verticals. A composition is balanced when the visual
weight of graphical elements on either side of the centre of bal-
ance are approximately equal. Balance can be formal or informal.
Formal balance has total symmetry and it is felt to be static and
harmonious. It may, however, also be boring.
Balance in design. Man has an intuitive sense of balance.
When a single element is too large or small, too light or dark, too
indistinct or prominent, the entire design will suffer from this
imbalance. However, good balance is something subjective. As
with a physical balance, lighter elements can balance heavier el-
ements if their size or value is increased, or if they are moved far-
ther away from the centre of balance. It is also possible to move
the heavier elements closer to the centre of balance. >Harmony
in design.

39
Balance in information materials. An information material
should usually display good balance, in a manner, that is inter-
esting but not distracting or disturbing. Different people may
have quite different opinions on any aesthetic issues. Altering
even a single attribute of one part in a complex composition
could have a significant impact on the balance, the unity and ul-
timately the harmony of the whole.
Balance in pictures. A picture should usually display the best
possible balance. Elements of the picture should fit together in
an aesthetic and harmonious relationship. Unexpected, irregular
and unstable design will attract attention. As soon as instability
is introduced in a picture the result is a provocative visual expres-
sion. The eye will struggle in order to analyse the relationships
and the balance within the picture.
Bands in typography are rules wider than 12 points. >Rules.
Bar chart. I) A bar chart is a schematic picture. II) A bar chart
is a diagram. This category includes nine groups: 1) Vertical bar
chart, or column chart. 2) Horizontal bar chart. 3) Segmented
bars. 4) Stacked bars. 5) Clustered bars, or multiple bars. 6)
Overlapping bars. 7) High-low bars. 8) High-low close bars. 9)
Enhanced high low bars.
Bar chart map is a schematic picture. >Maps.
Baroque. The Baroque style began in Rome, Italy and spread to
most of Europe. This style produced drama, exuberance and
grandeur in architecture, painting and sculpture. This is the
phase between the Renaissance and the Modern age. Sculptures
from the Baroque period focused on energy and passion. Baroque
architects often used a sense of central projection and strong col-
ours on the interior of their buildings. Gianlorenzo Bernini was
an important Baroque architect and sculptor. He was a light de-
signer, motion designer, and sound designer.

40
Bars in typography are lines wider than 12 points. >Rules.
Basal ganglia in the brain are involved in complex action se-
quences.
Base disciplines are already established disciplines, research
areas and professions contributing to information design. These
contributions may be facts, influences, methods, practices, prin-
ciples, processes, strategies, theoretical approaches and tools.
Baseline is a horizontal imaginary line upon which all upper
and most lower case letters are positioned. It is the main point of
reference in typography.
Basic elements, or graphic elements, are dots, lines, areas,
and volumes. These elements can be varied and put together in
many ways. Basic elements are sometimes meaningful, some-
times not.
A dot (1) may vary in size. A line (2) may be defined as an ex-
tended dot, at least to the length of two dots, and usually into
many more. An area (3) may be defined as a line that is broad-
ened. Thus, the smallest line possible has the length of two
dots, and the smallest area possible has the size of four dots.
Basic instructional team. >Instructional technologist.
Basilica of San Francesco d’Assisi. The building started in
1228. The basilica comprises two churches and a crypt. In 1253
Pope Innocent IV consecrated both churches. In the Upper
Church 28 scenes show the events in the text Life of St. Francis.
These 230 x 270 cm large frescos are placed on the lower part of
the nave and on the inner facade on either side of the entrance
wall and made from 1297 to 1300, maybe by Giotto. All 28 scenes
have an accompanying inscription in Latin. These inscriptions

41
were written below each painting. It was important to use com-
bined verbal and visual messages–more than 700 years ago.
Baskerville is a common serif typeface, created by John Bas-
kerville about 1757.
Bauhaus. The German architect Walter Gropius (1883–1969)
was a pioneer in design. He was the founder and leader of the
Bauhaus School (1919–1933). At Bauhaus, the function of an ob-
ject was crucial to its appearance. Bauhaus combined crafts and
the fine arts. The goal for all design was clarity, effectiveness and
objectivity. These objectives are now also important in infor-
mation design.
Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered cloth, which is 68.38 me-
tres in length by 51 centimetres in height (224.3 ft. × 1.6 ft.). It is
a visual narrative; 79 consecutive scenes depict the events lead-
ing up to the Norman conquest of England in 1066. More than
fifty scenes have Latin tituli, a form of captions. These texts give
names of people and places and explain briefly the depicted
events. Most of these short texts are placed within the image area
of each scene, but some are placed in the top border. The decora-
tive borders above and below the main narrative story show as-
sociated events, animals, beasts and scenes from agriculture, fa-
bles and hunting. This was almost 950 years ago.
Beauty. Philosophers have made many unsuccessful attempts to
define beauty. In the 18th century philosophers agreed that
beauty could not be defined in terms of the qualities shared by all
beautiful objects. >Alberti.
Beck, Harry >Harry Beck.
Behavioural design deals with our own assessments and ex-
periences of the product and if we can learn how to use it.
Behind objects. Current laser techniques make it possible to
create three-dimensional images, holograms, enabling viewers to

42
see “behind” image objects. These techniques are at about the
same stage of development as photography was at the beginning
of the century. Many people are aware of the dramatic develop-
ments in photographic and film techniques since that time. The
development of holography is dramatic, although more rapid in
coming decades.
Bellyband is a loop of paper or plastic that enclose the pages of
a publication.
Beneficial results. Information materials often consist of
words. There is probably no other instructional device that leads
to more consistently beneficial results than adding pictures to a
verbal presentation, oral or written.
Berling is a common serif typeface.
Bernini, Gianlorenzo (1598–1680) was the main Italian ar-
chitect and sculptor during the Baroque period. Like Michelan-
gelo Bernini was very versatile. As well as a sculptor, he was also
active as an actor, architect, city planner, designer, painter, set
designer and writer. Gianlorenzo Bernini made his personal
mark on an entire epoch. He had up to 200 employees who car-
ried out many of his different projects. Bernini has inspired a
large number of followers in both architecture and sculpture, but
none of these reached at all up to his level.
Bernini–architect. Bernini was the main Italian architect dur-
ing the Baroque period. He was a leading person in the emer-
gence of Baroque architecture in the entire city of Rome. The city
was more or less one big construction site during the mid-1600s.
Bernini changed the city's entire image. His main task as an ar-
chitect was to design the Piazza San Pietro in front of St. Peter's
Basilica (1656–1667).
Bernini–light designer. Bernini was a pioneer in the design
of light. He used light as an important metaphorical device in his

43
religious settings. Bernini unified sculpture and richly poly-
chrome architecture and the carefully effects of designed light.
One of his most important works is the sculptural group L'Estasi
di Santa Teresa (Ecstasy of Saint Theresa, 1644–1652) in the
Cornaro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria, in Rome. Bernini
designed this burial chapel in marble, stucco and paint. He shows
saint Teresa of Ávila in the highest moment of her religious ec-
stasy. Golden light, made of rays in bronze, flowes into the sculp-
ture group through a hidden aperture high up in the vault.
Bernini–motion designer. Bernini was a pioneer in the de-
sign of movement. He solved a number of complicated spatial re-
lationships and various motion problems with great imagination
and great skill. Bernini transformed immobility and certainty
into movement and ambiguity. In the sculptural group L'Estasi
di Santa Teresa, the main figure have undulating and dissolved
forms and distinct movements. She seems floating around on a
bed of clouds.
Bernini–sound designer. Bernini was a pioneer in the design
of sound. With his fountains, Bernini created a naturalistic type
of fountains. One of the most beautiful fountains is Fontana del
Tritone (Fountain of the Triton) in Piazza Barberini (1642–
1643). From his shell the sea god Triton has sprayed water
through a conch for more than 350 years. The fountain was cre-
ated at the request of Pope Urban VIII Barberini. The Fountain
of the Four Rivers (1648–1651) is a compilation of allegorical fig-
ures and raw natural stone, combined with cascading water and
a crowning obelisk. Here the sound of moving water may be very
intense.
Bernini–sculptor. Bernini was the main Italian sculptor dur-
ing the Baroque period. He developed sculpture to a level that no
one had seen before or since. His sculptures were often an inte-
gral part of the surrounding space. The Baroque period was the

44
great century for sculpture. Bernini developed sculpture to a level
that no one had seen before or after him.
Beta movement is an optical illusion. Fixed images seem to
move. It is an apparent movement caused by luminous stationary
impulses. The psychologist Max Wertheimer defined the beta
movement in 1912. >Phi phenomenon.
Beta version. Version of software tested by users before com-
mercial marketing.
Bible paper, India paper, is a lightweight, opaque, strong, and
thin paper that helps reduce the weight of a publication.
Biblia Pauperum. From about 1250 this was a collection of
about 50 colourful hand-painted lose pages. These sheets were
copied in many varieties. It was often called the “bible of the
poor.” In the 1460s printed copies were produced in from Ger-
many. Here both images and texts were cut entirely in one single
wood block for each page. The text-face was about 25 x 18 cm. It
is difficult to produce text in small type on a plate of wood and it
is not possible to use thin lines in the pictures. However, wood-
cuts became very important when the art of printing expanded.
Printed 40-page block-book versions of Biblia Pauperum were
far cheaper than the previous illuminated manuscripts.
Bibliography. References to cited works are usually put in a
reference list, or a bibliography, at the end of a chapter or at the
end of a book. Write references in accordance with one of the in-
ternational conventions. Reference lists are often voluminous
and may take up a great deal of space. Since the reader will usu-
ally peruse such a list to find only certain entries, they should be
made easy to find. Therefore, the text should be distinct even
though it is relatively compact.
Binary. A digital data system with two possible states, on or off,
represented by 1 or 0.

45
Biovisualisation, or biovisualization, is a visualisation of bio-
logical systems.
Bird’s-eye perspective, bird’s-eye view, is a level perspective.
Here an object is viewed from a high position. We may be looking
down from a vantage point in a high building, on a mountain, or
in an airplane. Sometimes the terms aerial view and aerial view-
point are used for bird’s-eye perspectives. The term aerial view
can refer to any view from a great height, even at a wide angle.
This is the opposite of a worm’s-eye perspective.
Bit, Binary digit, is the most basic unit of digital information. A
bit can be expressed in only one of two states, 0 or 1, meaning is
on or off. It is yes or no. This is the only data a computer can
process. Eight bits are needed to store one character.
Bitmap is the set of bits representing the position of items form-
ing an image on a display screen.
Bit-mapped image, or pixel image, consists of a large number
of small pixels or picture elements, e.g., small squares. These pix-
els have either a colour (usually black, but they may also be e.g.
green or blue, depending on the design of the screen) or no colour
at all. All pixels have the same size. Bit-mapped graphics can be
modified, stretched, condensed, inverted, rotated and outlined.
Paint-programs are effective multi-purpose drawing tools.
Bitplane is a single bitmap, only one bit deep. It stores “zero or
one” in each pixel location to represent black or white.
Black letter is a version of the roman type developed through
the 1150–1500 period. It is based on the ornate writing style
prevalent during the Middle Ages.
Black letter type style resembles old German manuscript
handwriting. Black letter type is difficult to read and rarely used
in the USA. Examples are Fraktur, Rotunda, Schwabacher and
Textura.

46
Blanquart-Evrard, Louis-Désiré (1802–1872) was a French
photographer. He was a pioneer in photography. Louis-Désiré
Blanquart-Evrard published the Calotype process (1847) and de-
veloped the albumen silver paper print technique (1850).
Bleed is text and/or pictures that extend beyond the trim edge
of the printed page.
Blended learning integrates models of distance learning and
traditional learning. It emerged as a new teaching method for
distance learning in the late 1990s. Teachers adopted a more stu-
dent-centred learning model rather than a teacher-centred learn-
ing model. It is also called hybrid learning and mixed learning.
BLIX is a picture readability index with values from zero to five.
A BLIX-5 picture: 1) is executed in a true-to-life colour/has a
clear contrast and grey scale in the picture. 2) Has a shape other
than a square or a rectangle or covers an entire page. 3) Has a
caption which is brief, easy to understand and deals with the pic-
ture. 4) Is unambiguous and not too “artistic.” 5) Has a dominant
centre of interest at or near its optical centre (middle of the pic-
ture) and few details, which can be regarded as distracting. Pic-
ture readability is positively correlated with both aesthetic rating
and usefulness in teaching.
Block book. The ability to print images on paper was achieved
in Europe in the 14th century. It is a relief printing technique.
The block book contained text that was written by hand but had
printed images, coloured by hand. >Early books.
Block diagram is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Blow-up is an enlarged picture.
Bodoni, Giambattista (1740–1813) was an Italian printer,
publisher, type-designer, and typographer. Giambattista Bodoni
designed his Bodoni typeface (1788), and no less than 297 other
typefaces. In page layout, Bodoni used several type sizes, wide

47
margins and few selected illustrations. Giambattista Bodoni was
called “The Kings book printer and the book printers king.” For
more than 200 hundred years the Bodoni-style has been called
“modern”, or “modern type.”
Body art. Throughout the ages, people have adorned them-
selves with various decorations. Prehistoric hunters smeared
their bodies with clay and earth to better blend into the land-
scape. Body painting, tattoo and scarification occur in all tradi-
tional tribal cultures. But body art pictures are Obviously, nor-
mally not preserved.
Body language may account for up to half, or even more, of all
our communications with others. Many gestures and movements
can be interpreted without ambiguity in a given cultural commu-
nity, but not outside that community. Body language is partly in-
stinctive, partly imitative and learned.
Body messages. The credibility of a speaker is influenced by
her or his actual performance. Any message must always be in
close agreement with the body language. An audience will believe
what they >much more than what they hear. The choice of cloth-
ing can also convey fairly detailed information. This is especially
the case for markers and symbols associated with particular
groups of people. >Speech and body language.
Body paintings are temporary and often worn during ceremo-
nies. These paintings are painted directly onto the human skin.
Body paintings may last from a few hours up to a couple of weeks.
Some body paintings are limited to the face. >Body art.
Body type, text type, is type that is smaller than 14 point. It is
generally used for the main body of text in a document.
Bold type, or boldface, is a member of a family of type in which
letters are heavy, bold. Bold type has been seen as aggressive,

48
assertive, daring, difficult to read, domineering, masculine, over-
bearing, solid, stable, strong, substantial and unprofessional.
Boldface. The same as Bold type.
Bonus information is information that catches our interest
when we browse through a paper, an encyclopaedia, or a hyper-
media system.
Book. Today the definition of a book may be “a written text with
or without illustrations, published in printed or in electronic
form”, or “a set of papers fastened together inside a cover”.
Book art generally involves projects that engage with the
conventions of book production.
Book machines may be installed in bookstores throughout a
country. The digital telecommunications networks make it pos-
sible to transfer all necessary data from central databases to any
individual book machine. This may eliminate the need for phys-
ical distribution and warehousing of books. The development of
Internet and the WWW has in fact made it possible for anyone to
publish their own books.
Book of Hours were prayer books carefully adopted for indi-
vidual use with selected and appropriate prayers for specific
hours of the day, days of the week, months and seasons of the
year. Usually these manuscripts had beautiful illustrations. The
illustrations should help the reader to meditate on the subject of
the prayers. Monks in monasteries had produced these books
from the 13th century.
Book production. Book-making techniques have been succes-
sively improved, making it possible to print large runs of better
quality in less time. Only the creative work of authors and illus-
trators remain about the same.

49
Books of the dead, the first “travel guides”, were produced and
sold as early as about 4,000 years ago in Egypt. They contained
advice and information, in an integrated design with a verbal and
visual amalgam of text and pictures on coping with the trip to the
Kingdom of Death. The Books of the Dead may be the first ex-
amples ever where text, pictures and graphic design really are
integrated. The Books of the Dead were completely hand-made
scrolls of papyrus and, thanks to their high price, only available
to truly wealthy families.
Bookman is a common serif typeface.
Books have major advantages, but also some shortcomings. One
advantage is size and convenience. Books can be used virtually at
any time and at any place, without any special equipments or
preparations. Readers do not have to think about cords, fuses,
technical standards and voltage requirements. These aspects of-
ten complicate use of new media. One disadvantage is the rela-
tively long time to produce a book. Economic considerations usu-
ally comprise major restraints to illustrations. Books may take up
a lot of space and they are heavy to transport in volume. They
also tend to be in the wrong place when you need them.
Books, databases. When both text and pictures are stored in
digital form in databases, direct production of printing plates for
large printing runs is possible. However, modern copying equip-
ment can be efficiently employed for smaller runs, e.g. a single
chapter of a book.
Bottom margin, or footer, is the space below the text-face at
the bottom of the page.
Borders are ornamental rules around the edge of a page or a
page component. >Rules.
Bouncer, shiner, is a method of printing colour, where black is
seen as darker.

50
Box. Text may be included in a box like this.
Boyd cycle. >OODA-loop.
Bracketed serifs have small and thin supporting brackets.
>Serif.
Bracketed slab serifs are supported by subtle curved brackets.
>Serif.
Brackets. There are four different kinds of brackets: 1) ordinary
brackets ( ), 2) square brackets [ ], 3) brace brackets { }, and 4)
angle brackets < >. All the different brackets are used for paren-
thesis in a text with comments, explanations and references.
Square brackets may be used inside of an ordinary parenthesis.
Brain. Our brain is arranged hierarchically. The higher region of
the brain consists of the cerebral hemispheres. The basal ganglia
are involved in complex action sequences. The hippocampus is
an important structure in memory and spatial behaviour. The
amygdala is involved in the regulation of higher-order motiva-
tional states. The top layer of the brain, the cerebral cortex, is the
main region for complex thought and other intellectual func-
tions. Vision is processed by the occipital lobes at the back of the
head. Hearing is processed by the temporal lobes on each side of
the head. The parietal lobes are association regions that combine
information from different sources. The frontal lobes are special-
ized for planning and execution of complex activities.
Brain capacity. The brain has 100 billion brain cells (neurons)
and 900 billion supporting glia cells. Each neuron may be con-
nected to other brain cells via more than 20,000 structures called
synapses. The brain cells communicate with each other by trans-
mitting electrical impulses through this gigantic network, which
Messages can be “boxed-in” to gain special attention. Boxes
may be filled with a background colour.

51
is constantly changed and adopted to new situations. Many esti-
mates have been made of brain capacity. It has been said that the
number of possible connections between the brain cells are
greater than the number of molecules in the universe.
Brain halves. The two halves of the brain function inde-
pendently of one another. At the same time either half appears to
be capable of assuming the functions of the other half. There is
an immense communication between the two halves, estimated
at six billion pulses per second. The left half of the brain is said
to be mainly verbal. It is capable of counting, speech and writing.
It is specialized in abstract thought. It is analytical, detailed, log-
ical and sequential. The right half of the brain is said to be
speechless, but it is capable of concrete thought, perception of
space and it can understand complicated relationships. It is also
said to be creative holistic, intuitive and spatial.
Brain research. The modern era of brain research began in the
mid 1960’s, when Dr Roger Sperry and his associates published
their findings regarding patients who were operated on to control
life-threatening epileptic seizures. All predictions that our brain
cells have been decaying from the moment we were born have
been refuted. Research suggests that brain cells can regenerate
and that nerve cells certainly can grow again.
Brain stem is the lower region of the brain. It consists of four
parts: the medulla oblongata, the pons, the cerebellum and the
midbrain. The medulla oblongata regulates autonomic func-
tions, such as control of movements and breathing. The pons
contains circuits for basic movements. The cerebellum regulates
the fine control of timing in movement and perception. The mid-
brain is involved with sensory and motor integration. >Brain.
Branch is a sub-discipline within a discipline.

52
Brand is a mark, phrase, symbol or word that differentiates and
identifies a product, an organisation, or a service or from its com-
petitors. Often brands represent different values.
Brief messages includes information, instructions, prohibi-
tions, and warnings. Information can be impressed or printed on
machinery and signs, in the form of letters, symbols, and words.
Useful messages are supplied in traffic, e.g. on route signs. Other
examples are emergency signals, such as flares or signal rockets
from hikers who get lost or injured.
Brightness is the experienced intensity of light (bright-dull). In
colour displays it is very difficult to distinguish brightness from
lightness (white-black). When the signal to a colour display is in-
creased, the brightness of the total screen is increased.
Brightness constancy is our tendency to judge the brightness
of objects to be constant, even though changes in illumination
make the objects appear brighter or darker.
Brightness of value refers to how dark a colour is. Changes of
brightness can be achieved by mixing a colour with different
amounts of black or white.
Brinton, Willard Cope. >Willard Cope Brinton.
Broadcast media include both audio and television services.
Main products are radio, television, and data.
Broca’s area is an anterior zone in the left frontal cortex. The
functions regulate articulation of speech. >Speech.
Brochure. A brochure is a booklet, usually twelve pages or
more.
Broadside refers to images and texts that have been rotated 90
degrees in a publication.
Browse. >Bonus information, Navigation.

53
Brunelleschi, Filippo > Filippo Brunelleschi.
Bubble chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Bullets • are typographical symbols commonly used to list items
in bulleted lists. This list is “unordered”. In a numbered list the
importance of every item is clear. However, many “unordered
lists” are sorted in alphabetical order. Because it is easier to find
a specific item in an alphabetical list than in any “unordered list”.
Consider a telephone-book without any system! The bullets can
have almost any shape, such as circle, square, and triangle (and
still they are all called “bullets”). However, all numbered lists
must be arranged in hierarchical order.
Business documents is a term for a group of information ma-
terials in the category Administrative documentation.
Business graphics is a designation for information graphics
that present economic and statistical data, for example: “the pro-
duction of crude oil over the past five years.”
By-line is a printed line of text giving the name of the author and
the date for an article in a magazine or a newspaper. It can also
include a brief summary of the article. >Credits.
Byte is a unit of data made up of eight bits. Bytes are commonly
used to represent alphanumeric characters from 0 to 255.

54
C
C series paper. The C series is used only for envelopes. The
area of a C series sheet is the geometric mean of the areas of the
A and B series sheets with the same numbers. A letter that is writ-
ten on A4 paper fits inside an envelope in size C4. Size C= (C
zero) is 917 × 1297 mm, C1 648 × 917, C2 458 × 648, C3 324 ×
458, C4 229 × 324, C5 162 × 229, C6 114 × 162, C7 81 × 114, C8
57 × 81, C9 40 × 57 and C10 28 × 40 mm.
CAD, computer-aided design. >Technical visualisation.
CAD/CAM is short for computer-aided design/computer-aided
manufacturing.
CAI, Computer-aided instruction, one kind of >E-learning.
Calligraphy is the art of writing by hand using a chiselled nib
or paintbrush. The flowing lines have varying thicknesses.
Calliper is the thickness of a sheet or a stock that are used in
printing.
CAM, computer-aided manufacturing.
Camera angle is a variable that will influence our perception of
individuals in photographs. An individual appears powerful if he
or she is photographed from below with the photographer look-
ing up at the subject. An individual appears less powerful if he or
she is photographed from above.
Camera placement is a variable that will influence our percep-
tion of individuals in photographs. Photographs showing a sub-
ject straight on are more positive than those showing a subject
from the side and much more positive than those showing a per-
son from behind.

55
Camera-ready is the term for a final printout of a page with text
and pictures, or art that is ready for reproduction.
Camera-ready art is artwork that is ready for reproduction.
Camouflage. The objective in military camouflage is to hide po-
sitions, troops, weapons and vehicles in the background, from
the eye of the enemy. As a result of considerable research military
camouflage on land, at sea and in the air developed rapidly in the
20th century. Thus, camouflage is the opposite to information
design, it is disinformation design.
Canadian binding is a method for book binding. Here, the
pages are bound with a metal or a plastic spiral. There is a “wrap-
around” cover.
Cap height, height, or H-height, is the size of capital letters in a
typeface, expressed as a percentage of the point size. >x-height.
Cap-line, a horizontal imaginary line, at the top of capital letters
in a typeface. >x-height.
Capacity theory. We are not able to attend to more than one
stimulus at a time. Attention is a limited capacity channel that
determines the serial processing of the perceptual system. Con-
tent of an unattended message may be perceived if it is relevant.
Capital letters, or caps, are harder to read than a combination
of upper and lower-case letters. Without sufficient white space
around words in all capitals, the words will become too difficult
to read. In most situations, text should contain a mixture of up-
per and lower-case letters.
Capitalisation. Internationally, there are several conventions
for how to capitalise titles, chapter headings, section headings
and concepts in body text. The conventions differ between the
USA and Britain. They also differ within each country, between
different publishing firms and between companies.

56
Caps, short form for Capital letters.
Caption. Always write captions to explain the intended meaning
of pictures. It is possible to interpret most pictures in several dif-
ferent ways until they are “anchored” to one interpretation by a
caption, or legend. >Caption content, Caption form, Caption
heading, Caption placement, Caption typography.
Caption content. Captions heavily influence our interpretation
of image content. In information design the main function of cap-
tions is to help the reader select and read the intended content in
the picture. We need to tell the readers what we want them to
>and learn from each illustration. Photographs nearly always
need a partnership with words that will clarify, confirm and re-
inforce their messages.
Caption form. A caption should be edited to fit different reader
categories, such as general readers (children, teenagers, adults),
technical readers and specialist readers. A printed photo is, in
fact, past tense. However, when an activity must be explained,
present tense and active verbs are appropriate. The caption
should be brief and easy to understand.
Caption heading. A caption can have a short and distinct head-
ing. This is an additional link between the picture, the caption
and the main text. Quite often one word is enough. The title of
the caption could be printed in boldface.
Caption placement. A caption may be placed in many ways,
but always close to the picture. Readers usually expect to find the
captions beneath the pictures. However, captions can also be
placed above, to the left, or to the right, of the picture, but never
inside the picture frame.
Caption typography. The caption should have a different ty-
pographic size or even a different typeface so it can be easily dis-
tinguished from the main text. The captions should not be in

57
negative form in a colour picture since the slightest misalignment
in printing makes the captions extremely difficult to read. Never
make the caption type larger than the main text. The title of the
caption could be printed in boldface.
Captured images are projected images that are seen on a
screen of any sort.
Cartesian coordinates represent a two-dimensional area nu-
merically. The horizontal axis is called X-axis, and the vertical
axis is called Y-axis
Cartoon is a schematic picture. >Drawings.
Cartoon style is a pictorial artistic style, an animated caricature
of the subject.
Carved figures. Ever since the Stone Age, artists have used
other people as motives for artistic. Female images in bone, ivory,
stone and wood show the Palaeolithic hunter’s concern with fer-
tility. During the 1900s, several archaeologists have found many
female statuettes in various parts of Eurasia. These female im-
ages are collectively referred to as “Venus figurines.” Other com-
mon motifs are small animal figures, which perhaps gave the
hunter-gatherer peoples hopeful of good hunting.
Caslon is a common serif typeface, created in England by Wil-
liam Caslon in 1734.
Cast shadow. >Shadows.
Cathode ray tube, CRT. >Picture tube.
CAVE (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment) is a virtual reality
system, room-sized, high-resolution, 3D video and audio envi-
ronment. Inside a 10x10x9 foot theatre people use lightweight
stereo glasses. Viewers may be completely surrounded by 3D

58
computer graphics projected in stereo onto the walls, the roof
and the floor.
CBI, Computer-based instruction. >E-learning.
CBT, Computer-based training. >E-learning.
CCD, Charge Coupled Device. >CCD-technology, Desktop scan-
ner.
CCD-technology. A CCD-cell consists of a number of light sen-
sitive crystals that can transform light into digital codes.
CD-I, Compact Disc Interactive, is a CD disc capable of holding
audio, images, text and data. CD-I can store 10,000 hours of
“synthetic sound,” 384 hours of natural speech, 40,000-line
drawings, 4,000 “TV quality” colour frames or combinations
thereof. CD-I was announced in February 1986 and has been for
sale since 1990
CD-ROM is a “compact disk-read only memory”. This is a stor-
age system with large capacity.
Central perspective, one-point perspective, or Renaissance
perspective is a Line perspective. In a central perspective, lines
in the picture converge at a common point of intersection–the
limit or main point–even though they are parallel in reality. Cen-
tral perspective is a “one-point perspective.” All lines vanish in a
single point in the picture. >Bird’s-eye perspective, Eye-level
perspective, Gentleman’s perspective, Line-based positional
perspectives, Military perspective and Worm’s-eye perspective.
Central Processing Unit, CPU, is the part of a computer sys-
tem that contains the circuits that control and execute all data.
Centre justified texts, centred type, is a layout where lines of
type have been centred over one another in a column. Symmet-
rical centre justified texts may be seen as formal, grave and

59
momentous. They may be used for menus, poetry, short captions
and tables of contents. In films and in television programs the
participants are usually listed centre justified.
Centred type, see Centre justified texts.
Centres of interest. A visual should only have a few centres of
interest, preferably only one at or near its optical centre just
above and to the left of its geometric centre or otherwise in the
upper third of the visual. The centre of interest should be imme-
diately apparent. Thus, the visual has unity. According to the
“rule of thirds” the centre of interest may be selected at any one
of the four points where two equidistant vertical and two hori-
zontal lines divide a picture in a total of nine parts.
Century Old Style is a classical newspaper serif typeface.
Cerebellum in the brain stem, the lower region of the brain,
regulates the fine control of timing in movement and perception.
Cerebral cortex is the top layer of the brain. This is the main
region for complex thought and other intellectual functions. The
cerebral cortex contains sophisticated circuits for the processing
of sensory information and the execution of movement. Different
regions of the cerebral cortex have different functions.
Cesare Ripa (c. 1560–c. 1645) was an Italian art historian and
scholar. He wrote the didactic encyclopaedia Iconologia. This is
a collection of abstractions with descriptions of allegorical fig-
ures. The emblems usually have a header, name of author, a pic-
ture, a caption, a reference to the engraver, an explanatory text
and references to sources. Iconologia was first published in
Rome 1593, then followed by many editions. Ripa was knighted
for the success of his book. The book was extremely influential in
the 17th and 18th centuries. For more than three hundred years
experts in art history all over Europe used Iconologia as their

60
prime source of knowledge when they discussed description,
identification, and interpretation of the content of classical art.
Chalk talk. Many teachers spend most of their time in the class-
rooms talking to their classes. Teaching is very much “chalk talk.”
It appears that teachers generally teach the way they were taught,
following the traditional approach to education, providing pre-
packaged information to students. Frequent types of illustrations
are words, tables and formulas, followed by diagrams and
graphs. On average, pictorial images are not used often.
Changing scale. Pictures should always be adjusted to fit into
their final context. A picture can be enlarged or reduced in the
same proportions as the original if the new dimensions meet at
the diagonal of the original. There is an optimum size for each
visual. The content remains the same but the chosen scale can
influence our perception of it. The original width (w1) divided by
the original height (h1) is the same as the reproduction width
(w2) divided by the reproduction height (h2). w1/h1 = w2/h2.
Character. The properties of characters, letters, are limited. A
letter has a given position in an alphabet. It has a name. It is rep-
resented by one or more sounds and is used in a specific context.
Character count is the number of characters in a text.
Character index offers more thorough information about a
text than the readability index. Each sentence is analysed and
noted on a chart. The y-axis represents the number of long words
and the x-axis the number of words per sentence. Long words
and long sentences make a text difficult to read.
Charles-Joseph Minard (1781–1870) was a French engineer.
He was a pioneer in diagram design. After his retirement Minard
designed more than fifty graphic tables and thematic maps with
statistical information showing changes and movements of vari-
ous kinds, in space, time and volume. He is known for his

61
inventions in the field of information graphics. Minard designed
a map using pie charts to represent the cattle sent from all
around France for consumption in Paris (1858) and a unique
flow map of Napoleon’s disastrous Russian campaign 1812–1813
(1861). Here Minard combined statistical data with a time-line
treatment in a single two-dimensional image.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) was an American logi-
cian, mathematician, philosopher, and scientist. He used the
term semiotics in his study of the meaning of signs. According to
Peirce a sign is composed of three semiotic elements in a three-
part relationship, representamen, semiotic object and interpre-
tand. >Sign.
Chart junk is various distracting and unnecessary decorative
elements that interfere with the content in graphs. These graph-
ical embellishments do not represent data directly and are re-
dundant elements.
Chauvet Cave. The prehistoric cave paintings illustrated early
man’s observations of the world around him. The images in the
Chauvet Cave in southern France belong to the oldest in Europe.
They may be 32,000 years old. The cave has 200–300 painted or
carved animal figures, such as bison, horses and rhinos.
Check boxes (£) can be used in instructional materials when
learners may make check marks when they have finished assign-
ments.
Chéret, Jules. >Jules Chéret.
Chichén Itza–El Castillo. The old cultures and civilizations in
Mesoamerica used advanced pictorial messages, especially in
their temple cities. A temple for the god Kukulcan was built on a
platform on top of the big pyramid in Chichén Itza. The temple,
El Castillo, (the castle) was completed about 830 AD. The pyra-
mid is a huge calendar, rising 21 meters above the jungle floor.

62
Chichén Itza–light design. Every year up to 40,000 people
gather on the ground in front of the big pyramid in Chichén Itza,
at the vernal Equinox (March 21) and at the autumnal Equinox
(September 21). People want to experience a remarkable phe-
nomenon, a “story” produced by light and shadow on the pyra-
mid. These days the light from the dying sun casts shadows from
the terraces in such a way that an illuminated image of a snake
appears on the northern staircase. Thus, during the hours before
sunset “the feathered serpent” appears to move from its temple
at the top of the pyramid and down to the ground. To the Ma-
yans, this represented their god coming down to reward his loyal
followers and to ensure another good harvest.
Chief Experience Officer, CXO, is the person that is respon-
sible for the design of an organisation’s user interface and how
their intended audience will experience the organization. >User
experience.
Chief Information Officer, CIO, is the most significant addi-
tion to the executive room as a result of the information age. In
many companies, the CIO is technically oriented rather the hu-
man-centric. However, a CIO needs to know more of leadership
and management than technology. The major concern today is
information assurance. >Information assurance.
Choke is a method of altering the thickness of a letter, or a solid
shape. It is used to ensure proper registration of colours.
Chop-mark is a symbol of a printer specializing in printing of
fine arts, such as etchings, etc.
Chroma, saturation, is the colour variation of the same tonal
brightness ranging from none to pure colour. In relation to hue
it is a measure of the amount of grey, purity, or strength. At max-
imum chroma a colour contains no grey. Such colours are de-
scribed as bright, or vivid.

63
Chromatic colours are blue, green, red and yellow. >Natural
Colour System.
Churches. Many of the medieval cathedrals had great splendor.
They have been called “theological encyclopedias,” because they
presented church teachings in pictorial form for the many people
who could not read. >Gregorius the Great.
Cinema Scope is a system for wide-film first used in 1953. Cin-
ema Scope uses a special camera in which the “anamorph” optics
“crowds” the image from the sides so that it fits onto a normal
35-mm film. When projecting the film, a special projector
“spreads out” the image again. The projected picture has the
height-width relationship of 1:2,35. The screen is slightly curved
to get the whole picture in focus. In the middle of the screen the
resolution is 200 pixels per square inch.
Cinema-U is a modification of the cinema system OMAX. This
system has one of the world’s largest cinema screen. The screen
is 23 x 16 m, 368 m2 and a relationship of 1:1.44.
Cinematography is art and science of motion-picture photog-
raphy, and filming either electronically by means of an image
sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such
as film stock. Cinematographers use a lens to focus reflected
light from objects into a real image that is transferred to some
image sensor or light-sensitive material inside a movie camera.
Cinerama is a system for wide-film first used in 1952. Cinerama
uses three separate 35-mm films simultaneously. Three different
cameras carefully put together record these. The films are pro-
jected on a wide, curved screen by three projectors. The viewers’
angle is 70-80 degrees compared to 40 degrees for 35-mm film.
Cinerama uses many speakers and stereo sound. Cinerama films
often show car hunts and dangerous rides in airplanes, helicop-
ters, boats, trains and the like. The result is often very suggestive.

64
CIO. Chief Information Officer.
Circle chart is a diagram with comparison of areas.
Circle chart map is a schematic picture.
Circle graph is a schematic picture.
Circuit diagram is a schematic picture..
Circulation diagram is a schematic picture.
Circulation is a schematic picture.
Citation is a quotation from, or a reference to, a published
source like a book or a paper, but also to an unpublished source.
Clarity refers to 1) The quality of being clear and easy to under-
stand, 2) The ability to think clearly and not be confused, and 3)
The quality of being easy to see or hear. In information design
the concept clarity refers both to legibility and to readability.
Clarity of communication refers to the two concepts legibil-
ity and readability.
Clarendon is a type of slab-serif type created in Great Britain in
1820. It has clear, objective and timeless forms. Clarendon
is legible in small point sizes.
Classical conditioning. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
found that his dogs gave the same response to different stimuli.
Classical conditioning helps to explain children’s and adults’
strong positive and negative attitudes, feelings and emotions to-
ward school and teachers. Many commercials for alcohol, cars,
cigarettes and perfume employ the classic “sex appeal,” so that
the product is paired with a stimulating male or female.

65
Classical formats are based on the proportions of the golden
section or golden rectangle, 3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc. The
proportions of the golden section are 1:1.618.
Classification of information materials is here based on six
main objectives for information materials. (However, some in-
formation materials simultaneously contain more than one kind
of information message.)
Advertising and propaganda.
Informative entertainment.
Brief messages.
Simple instructions, Prohibitions, Information, Warnings.
Administrative documentation
Administrative messages, Business documents, Working materials.
Factual information
Facts, Descriptions, Reports.
Instructions
Directions for use, Production and maintenance documentation,
Good advice, Interfaces, Recipes, Guidance.
Teaching aids
Classification of representations. There are two main cate-
gories of representations, each with two categories. The catego-
ries are further divided in groups. (continued)
Figurative representations
Visuals
Three-dimensional images, Photographs, Realistic drawings,
Schematic drawings.
Graphic symbols
Pictorial symbols, Abstract symbols, Arbitrary symbols.
Non-figurative representations.
Verbal symbols
Verbal descriptions, Nouns or labels, Letters and characters
Non-visual and non-verbal representations
Sounds, Odours and scents.
Classification of visuals. Visuals can be classified according
to various criteria, such as content, context, execution, format,

66
function, means of production, receiver and sender. With refer-
ence to the distance to and the size of the motif, photographers
may classify pictures as long shots, full-length portraits, half-
length portraits and close-ups.
Claude Elwood Shannon (1916–2001) was an American
cryptographer, electrical engineer, and mathematician. He is
known as the “father of information theory”. >Shannon and
Weaver Model of Communication.
Claude Garamond (c. 1490–1561) was a French printer. He fo-
cused on punch cutting, type design and type founding. Gara-
mond provided a successful service to many famous publishers.
His typefaces spread all over Europe and they were often copied.
Garamond insisted on clarity in design. His typefaces are con-
sidered the typographical highlight of the 16th century.
Clause is the smallest unit that can express if something is false
or true. Typically, a clause has a subject and a predicate.
Clear. In information design the concept clear refers both to leg-
ibility and to readability.
Clear objectives. Several researchers have pointed out that it
is always important to define clear objectives in message design
or in instruction design, as well as in information design.
Clear structure. A clear structure will facilitate perception, in-
terpretation, understanding, learning, and memory of the infor-
mation content. Layout and typographic variation provides a
large number of possibilities to make the structure clear.
Clip art refers to pre-made images that may be used for illustra-
tions in any medium. Today clip art is often available in computer
software, often with copyright-free pictures. It does not include
stock photography.

67
Close context is an external context, such as the lighting in a
room when we read a book or view projected images.
Closed word classes. The four-word classes conjunctions, de-
terminers, prepositions and pronouns, are regarded as “closed
word classes.”
Closure, the eye completes a curve, or a line, in order to form a
familiar shape.
Closure principle is also known as the law of closure, natural
law, and theory of closure. The closure principle is based on our
tendency to >complete figures even when the available stimuli is
incomplete. When a figure, letter, picture, shape, or symbol is in-
complete, and parts of its border actually are missing, our minds
will automatically fill in these missing parts and “close” or
“mend” the outline of the structure.
Our minds fill in missing details and make the best possible in-
terpretation of any given stimulus. We perceive these figures
as a square and as a triangle.
Clustered bar is a kind of schematic picture.
CMC, is sort for Computer Mediated Communication.
CMYK is short for Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and K (representing
black). These are all subtractive primary inks. In the four-colour
printing process these primary inks are combined to reproduce
the blue, green, and red additive primaries.
Cognition is a mental processing model used in cognitive psy-
chology. It establishes that our working memory is limited to five

68
to seven “chunks” of information. Our attention must frequently
be refreshed and recalling information requires more cognitive
effort than recognizing information. We see, hear and taste cohe-
sive and unified information. Touch panels in information kiosks
and graphic displays in most video games overcome many psy-
chological limitations. They share the “load” between physical
and cognitive activity. Immediate feedback and easily reversibil-
ity invite user exploration.
Cognitive apprenticeship. Traditionally people have learned
to speak, learned their crafts and to use tools by observing and
imitating parents and masters. When we watch someone carry-
ing out a skill the performance appears to be automatic, confi-
dent, consistent, easy, effective, efficient, fast and smooth. When
problems arose, apprentices understood the reasons for the
problems in a natural way. They asked the necessary questions
and imitated the observed steps to solve the problems. Appren-
tices acquired their skills through a combination of observation,
coaching and practice.
Cognitive development takes place along with remarkable
neurological, physical and perceptual changes during the first
years of our lives. What learning is, and how it develops is a pri-
mary concern for scientists interested in human development.
Children, of all ages, recognise visual stimuli better than they rec-
ognise auditory stimuli. Learner characteristics, such as age, gen-
der, culture, prior knowledge of the subject matter, scanning
habits and visual and text processing abilities affect learning abil-
ities and learning skills.
Cognitive disciplines include disciplines and research areas
such as attention, cognitive science, didactics, memory, mental
processing, pedagogy, psychology, sociology and more.
Cognitive levels. Perception and thinking are activities that
take place where no one can >them — inside our heads. Because

69
thinking is hidden we can only infer its existence from people’s
behaviour. When we think, we classify, combine and manipulate
internal information. When we are through, we know something
that we did not know before. Much of our thinking involves ver-
bal language. We use concepts and words, but we also think in
images and shapes.
Cognitive load is the amount of mental demand or effort on
our working memory at a given moment when processing infor-
mation.
Cognitive overload is a situation when a learning task exceed
the processing capacity of our cognitive system.
Cognitive principles is a group of design principles for infor-
mation and message design including: 1) Facilitating attention,
2) Facilitating perception, 3) Facilitating processing, and 4) Fa-
cilitating memory.
Cognitive resources. All cognitive tasks place demands on a
pool of limited cognitive resources. When a task imposes a heavy
load on the cognitive system, it will in turn interfere with learning
by misdirecting attention and limiting remaining resources that
are necessary for construction of knowledge. Resource models
based on individually allocated pools of resources have been de-
veloped to explain the effects of structural alteration and time
sharing that cannot be effectively explained by other attention
models such as structural theories and capacity theories.
Cognitive science is the multidisciplinary scientific study of
the mind and its processes. It examines cognition.
Cognitive style describes the learner’s typical modes of per-
ceiving, thinking, problem solving and remembering of infor-
mation. This term has often been used interchangeably with
learning style, the affective, cognitive and physiological traits

70
that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with and respond to the learning environment.
Cognitive use of colour. For some learners and for some edu-
cational objectives, colour improves the achievement of the
learners. However, in some cases the added cost of colour will
not be justified. Colour is important in a visual when it carries
information that is vital to the contents in the visual.
Colon (:) tells the readers that the following words are closely
related to the preceding clause.
Collaborators in learning. When students work together they
take part in a cooperative learning process. Here the dialogue is
primarily between students, not with the teacher or with the
teaching material. However, some dialogue with the teacher is
desirable to secure understanding of the subject matter content.
Faculty members can assist in building well-structured, re-
source-based learning environments.
Collage is a technique for creation of images. Artists may stick
together pieces of fabric, paper, photographs, and other media in
surprising ways. In the early twentieth century Georges Braque
and Pablo Picasso used collage as an art form.
Colon (:) tells the readers that the following words are closely
related to the preceding clause.
Colour. When we talk about the colour of an object we usually
refer to the hue of that object. Most people are familiar with hue
through our labelling of colours such as red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet. There are strong cultural differences in in-
terpreting the meanings of colour.
Colour and advertising. Advertising is known to be much
more effective when visuals are in colour than in black and white.

71
Colour and associations. Yellow, orange and red hues are
perceived as warm and active. Red evokes feelings of strong emo-
tions. Violet, blue and blue-green are perceived as cool and pas-
sive hues. Blue is often used to represent truth and honesty.
White is often associated with innocence and pureness and black
often represents evil and darkness.
Colour and emotions. In the western cultural sphere, people
tend to associate colours with emotions or moods in the following
way. The red and yellow part of the spectrum is often said to be
warm and is felt to be active, exciting, happy and clear. Green to
blue are described as cold and are perceived as being passive,
comfortable, controlled and peaceful. >Emotions.
Colour and shape. Children are better at identifying objects by
their shape than by their colour. Experiments showed that there
was no natural and unambiguous correlation between colour and
shape and not between shape and colour.
Colour and text. >Text colour.
Colour as decoration. There are many situations, where col-
our and typographic elements can be used for decoration. How-
ever, a decorative use of colour or typography should never be
mixed with an intended use to provide a clear structure, simplic-
ity and hierarchy. It must always be clear and easy to understand
for the receiver when colour is used for decoration and when the
use is meant to have some cognitive importance.
Colour as language. Colour is regularly used in printed mate-
rials, not only in illustrations, but also in the text itself. Colour
can be used to clarify the structure of the text and to make learn-
ing easier. Certain parts of the text may be printed with colours
or printed on top of backgrounds in different colours. Here col-
our carry meaning.

72
Colour blindness is a condition in which certain colour dis-
tinctions cannot be made. This is more common among men
than women. >Anomalies of colour vision.
Colour Bubble-Jet Printers. Each of four high-density bub-
ble-jet print heads has 128 vertically arranged nozzles. Digitally
stored images can be printed in full colour with a vertical and
horizontal resolution of 400 dots per inch. All ink dots have the
same size and the number of dots within an area can be altered.
A colour bubble-jet printer can be used e.g. as a terminal for com-
puter graphics, or for simulations of colour plate making in the
printing industry.
Colour circle is the circumference of the NCS Colour Solid. The
chromatic elementary colours yellow, red, blue and green are all
located on the colour circle. The chromatic elementary colours
yellow, red, blue, and green are all located on the circumference
of the Colour Circle. One hundred steps, thus describing the hue
of a colour, can divide each quadrant. >Natural Colour System.
This figure illustrates a cut and opened circumference of the col-
our circle, here starting with red and ending with red.
Colour coding is a good way to show that something is espe-
cially important and interesting for a group of indendet receivers.
It can be used to improve attention in documents, in signs and in
symbols and increase learning. However, the number of colour

73
codes must be limited and they should always be explained. To
avoid any confusion and misunderstanding, it is important that
colour be used consistently. Inconsistent and improper use of
colour can be distracting, fatiguing and upsetting and it can ac-
tually produce negative results and reduce learning.
Colour combination. When text is shown on a visual display,
there is no easily read colour combination. Rather than focusing
on specific colours as always best, designers should work to en-
sure good contrast between text and background.
This illustration shows a model for subtractive colour combina-
tions (left) and a model for additive colour combinations (right).
Colour constancy is our tendency to judge the colour of an ob-
ject as the same despite changes in distance, viewing angle and
illumination. >Perceptual constancy.
Colour description systems. We can describe colour using
aesthetical, physical, physiological, psychological and technical
terms. Hue, value and saturation explain what we see. Intensity,
purity and wavelength are physical dimensions. The relationship
between brightness, hue, lightness and saturation is rather com-
plicated. For practical use in art, design, and in industry several
different systems providing numerical indexes for colour have
been developed.

74
The NCS Colour Solid. Yellow, red, blue, and green are
all located on the circumference of the Colour Circle (here
black). The Colour Triangle is any vertical sector running
through half of the NCS Colour Solid, such as e.g. white–blue–
black–white, and white–green–black–white.
In the NCS Colour Solid yellow, red, blue, and green are all lo-
cated on the circumference of the Colour Circle (here black).
The Colour Triangle is any vertical sector running through half
of the NCS Colour Solid, such as e.g. white–blue–black–white,
and white–green–black–white.
Colour displays. Colour primaries are the basic colour stimuli
used for the synthesis of any colour, by addition or subtraction.
Additive combinations of a limited amount of radiation are used
for colour synthesis of a range of colours in a cathode ray tube
(CRT) and in a visual display unit (VDU). Red, green and blue are
called the “three primaries,” RGB. Any two primary colours may
be mixed to produce other colours. Advanced systems are capa-
ble of producing up to 256 simultaneously visible colour stimuli
chosen from a palette of 16 million.
Colour in pictures. Research has shown that people prefer col-
our in visuals. Colour enhances the attention and perception of a

75
visual message. If people like the contents in a picture, they like
them even more when the visual is presented in colour.
Colour key is a process for obtaining process colours on film by
exposure it to light.
Colour laser copier. In a colour laser copier, a scanner “reads”
the original picture and converts it into digital signals. The scan-
ning resolution is often 400 dots per inch. The scanner reads the
image four times, for magenta, yellow, cyan and black. Then the
digital information about the image can be processed and trans-
mitted to the laser printer for production of colour copies.
Colour naming. All over the world people distinguish between
black and white (or light and dark). Some cultures have names
for three, four, five, or six colours, in this order: 1) White. 2)
Black. 3) Red. 4) Yellow. 5) Green. 6) Blue. 7 Brown. Different
cultures have developed highly specialized colour names for their
specific environments and societies. Hunting societies in arctic
areas had a large number of names for the colour of ice and snow
and the Comanche Indians had no less than seventeen different
designations for the colours of a horse.
Colour perception. We can >differences between several mil-
lion colours. We can distinguish about 10,000 colours, but only
about seven in the same field of view. Yellow-green is in the re-
gion of the eye’s greatest sensitivity. Our sensitivity decreases
markedly toward the red and blue ends of the spectrum. Percep-
tion of colour is strongly influenced by and dependent on contex-
tual variables such as lighting conditions and surrounding col-
ours. Considerable evidence suggests that perception of these
factors differ depending on latitude. A black and white picture
represents reality in a different way than colour pictures. In black
and white, all colour is translated into values of grey.

76
Our perception of one colour (here red), can change when it is
placed on different background colours.
Colour perspective. Colours and hues gradually change from
being clear and distinct in the picture’s foreground into being
blurred in its background. Warm-coloured objects appear closer
to the viewer than cool-coloured objects. A red or orange object
against a green or blue background will have a sense of depth.
Colour preferences. Subjects prefer surface colours in this or-
der: 1) Blue. 2) Red. 3) Green. 4) Violet. 5) Orange and 6) Yellow.
However, blue, red and green do not improve our possibility of
reading a message accurately. Colour intensity should be strong
and colour contrast should be clear. Children prefer distinct,
light and shining colours better than dark and gloomy ones. Sub-
jects dislike the use of more than three or four text colours on the
same page, screen, or slide. When text is shown on a visual dis-
play, there is no easily read colour combination. Rather than fo-
cusing on specific colours as always best, designers should work
to ensure good contrast between text and background.
Colour saturation influences our perception of shapes and ob-
jects. When colours of equal intensity are compared, the most
visible hues are white, yellow and green–in that order. The least
visible hues are red, blue and violet. Yellow is a powerful colour
because of its luminosity. It is especially powerful when com-
bined with black. Red is often seen as aggressive. In information
graphics and statistical presentations, the most important ele-
ments should have the brightest colours, with the best contrasts
to the background.

77
Colour scheme are categories of colour combinations based on
position on the colour wheel.
Colour spacing. Positioning letters so that balances of negative
and positive spaces are pleasing.
Colour triangle is any vertical sector through half of the NCS
Colour Solid. It is used to describe the nuance of a colour.
There are many thousands of
colour triangles. In this example
the figure illustrates the colour
triangle ending in pure blue.
Colour use. People in different cultures and in different socio-
economic groups use colours in different ways and with different
meanings. In cultures in Africa, Central and South America and
Indonesia, bright colours and high contrast are common in illus-
trations. Tests have indicated that viewers feel that they have a
better understanding when television images are displayed in
colour, although the use of black and white sometimes would be
sufficient. However, an improper use of colour can produce neg-
ative results; it can be distracting, fatiguing and upsetting.
Colour wheels are circular representations of the colour spec-
trum. Colour wheels are intended to explain the relationships be-
tween different colours. A colour wheel illustrates classification
of colours. It provides a reference to primary, secondary and ter-
tiary hues, and it may help designers to successfully select func-
tional colour combinations in different projects.
Colour-key is a process for obtaining process colours on film by
exposure to light.

78
Colour-shape experiment. When subjects were asked to
“draw the shape you feel best matches the respective name of a
colour” the results clearly showed that there was no natural,
spontaneous, and unambiguous correlation between colour and
shape. The study also showed that there is no real difference be-
tween boys and girls, regarding associations between colour and
shape. >Shape-colour experiment.
Colour-spacing. Positioning letters so that balances of nega-
tive and positive spaces are pleasing.
Column. A column is a vertical segment of a printed page. It is
often intended for the text.
Column chart is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
Column graph is a vertical bar graph. >Bar chart.
Column rules are vertical lines drawn between two columns on
a page.
Combination mark is a trademark combining a logo and a
symbol.
Combined disciplines. may be seen as “applied sciences,”
“practical theories” or “theoretical practices.” Architecture, engi-
neering, and information design are three of many disciplines
that have a practical as well as a theoretical part. Also see Info-
didactics, Infography, Infology.

79
This schematic picture shows the relationships between theory
and practice in Information Design, as well as in the other com-
bined design areas and disciplines.
Combined language. Texts and pictures represent different
languages that complement each other when they are used at the
same time. Both can be designed, presented, perceived and in-
terpreted in many different ways. The possibilities for using ty-
pography and layout and for combining texts and pictures are
virtually unlimited. The interplay between text, picture and
graphic form needs to be studied thoroughly before optimal com-
binations can be found. There are always several opportunities to
convey a message. Compare with the terms Graphically complex
texts, and Captions.
Combined learning. A large number of learning theories pro-
vide broad views of learning. Attention, perception, processing
and application are the basis for combined learning and the men-
tal model of learning that I call the “Learning Helix”.
Combined verbal and numerical semantic scale is a good
tool for ratings of intended and perceived image contents. Verbal
ratings are supplemented with a numerical scale from zero to one
hundred: very poor (10), rather poor (30), neither poor nor good
(50), rather good (70) and very good (90). So, it is possible to be
worse than very poor and better than very good.

80
Combined verbal and visual messages. Learners are most
able to build connections between verbal and visual representa-
tions when text and illustrations are actively held in memory at
the same time. This can happen when text and illustrations are
presented in close connection on the same page in a book, or
when learners have sufficient experience to generate their own
mental images as they read the text. Most pictures are capable of
several interpretations until anchored to one by a caption. To
large degree readers >what they are told to see.
Comenius, Iohannes Amos (1592–1670). The bishop Jan
Amos Komenský, or Iohannes Amos Comenius of Moravia (later
a part of Czechoslovakia) may have been the first person to really
demonstrate how visuals and words can interplay in an active
way. His goal of education was the development of universal
knowledge among all people, including women, children, and all
nations. His conclusion, that nonverbal communication between
parent and child precedes and forms the basis of later language
acquisition and development, is still considered to be a sound
tenet of the theory of visual language. Comenius was the first
person to introduce pictorial textbooks in education. He is cer-
tainly considered to be a pioneer in information design.
Comic Sans. This typeface was designed for Microsoft based on
lettering from comic books, but it has been used in many other
situations. Comic Sans has been seen as breezy, fun, lazy, silly
and even as vulgar.
Comic strip sequence is a group of drawings within schematic
pictures.
Comma (,) can help the readers pick out the intended meaning
more easily. We use commas to avoid ambiguity.
Commodity. Data and information are different from many
other kinds of commodities. When transferred from a sender to
a receiver data and information remains available to both. Unlike

81
the sale of a material product, like a car, data and information
transfer does not give the receiver the right of exclusive use.
Common fate principle is also known as the law of common
fate. Elements or objects that move in the same direction belong
together, and they are perceived as a collective entity. We percep-
tually group lines that seem to be moving in the same direction.
This is common in many diagrams and graphs.
In these graphs all the bars have different heights. In the first
case (left) the bars are moving upward, and in the second ex-
ample (right) they are moving downward.
Common region principle is known as the principle of closed
forms, and also as the principle of boundary. We have a tendency
to >elements or units that are enclosed by a boundary, such as a
circle or a rectangle, as single units, all other things being equal.
We group such elements together. Because of the principle of
common region any kind of lines around an area, or around an
object makes it stand out from the background.
We have a tendency, to see
elements enclosed by a line as
single units. Here are two units
of blue dots rather than eight
blue dots.
Common typefaces. A “good” typeface might actually be one
that is more or less “invisible” to us as readers. The typefaces in
common use are all more or less equally legible. Thousands of
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for information, we need only a few typefaces in different ver-
sions. Four typeface examples are Georgia, Helvetica, Times New
Roman and Verdana.
Communicate. In information design the focus is on commu-
nication between people using representations. Main emphasis
is on the design of information and learning materials.
Communication involves interplay between two or more per-
sons. If communication is to be possible at all, signals in some
form must be produced, transmitted, received, deciphered, and
understood. In information design focus should always be on
clarity of communication of data, information and instruction.
All messages must be accurately designed, produced and distrib-
uted, and later correctly interpreted and understood by most
members of the intended audience.
Several activities are involved when an intended message (left
red circle) is created, produced, and transmitted, from a sender
to a receiver, and received, processed and understood (right red
circle). These processes (blue arrows) are guided by principles
(upper yellow pentagons), performed with the help of tools
(lower dark green pentagons) and influenced by social context.
In this model the active receiver may actively reach out and
grab the representation with message/medium.
Communication design may be seen as the effective presen-
tation of ideas in any media. It examines the role of the designer
as a strategic architect/visual translator in producing language

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systems that focus on appropriateness, meaning, and the in-
tended end user. Communication can be judged successful only
when it conveys the information it sets out to convey.
Communication disciplines include disciplines and research
areas such as advertising, cultural studies, gender studies, hu-
man-computer interaction, journalism, media studies, mediated
communication, planned communication, technology of instruc-
tion and many more.
Communication models. Many information and communica-
tion theorists have devised models to explain the way the com-
munications process operates. Several activities are involved
when an intended message is communicated from a sender to a
receiver and then received as an internalized message. These
processes are guided by principles, performed with the help of
tools and influenced by the social context.
Communication theory is an attempt to explain how and why
humans communicate with each other.
Communication theory for ID is an external theory with in-
fluences from communication disciplines.
Comparison signs is a group including equal to (=), not equal
to (≠), approximately equal to (≈), less than (<), and greater than
(>).
Competence. >Design judgments, and Level of competence.
Competence areas. In a large project, there may be a need for
many different skills, such as a project manager, a subject matter
manager, a project secretary, a number of sub-project leaders,
subject matter experts, technical writers, technical editors, trans-
lators, information brokers, graphics editors, photographers, il-
lustrators, fine art artists, subject matter reviewers, linguistic
consultants, terminology experts, pedagogues, graphic designers
and web-masters. In a small project, it is usually not possible to

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employ a large number of experts. However, also in small pro-
jects we need to organise various reviews.
Competence level. >Level of competence.
Complementary hues are colours that are opposite one an-
other on a colour wheel.
Complete communication. All information materials must
be legible and readable. They should also be well worth reading
for members of the intended audience. The information designer
should not view communication as complete until the intended
audience understand the messages.
Complex matrices are a kind of matrix. >Matrices.
Complexity. A visual should usually possess a selected degree
of complexity. Too little or too much complexity in a visual can
interfere with the communication and learning processes. Too
much complexity reduces the interest for the content in the vis-
ual. Too little complexity makes it impossible to understand the
picture. >Structural complexity.
Composition can be defined as putting various elements in po-
sition according to aesthetic principles. It concerns the whole ge-
stalt of the information and the relationship between elements.
>Balance in pictures, Centres of interest.
Composition of a page refers to a “visible area for display of
text and pictures.” This information can be printed on paper (or
any other material), or displayed on a screen as a “screen page.”
Each “screen page” in an E-book is designed to fit on the screen,
and can usually be printed.
Comprehensibility in a text depends on abstraction, complex-
ity, context, perspective and redundancy. A message is compre-
hensible if the receiver can grasp it without difficulty.

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Comprehensible language. Accidents occur and products
break down because of poor quality of the complicated language
in instruction manuals. As a result, people bring an increasing
number of law suits against manufacturers (in the USA). The
courts are demanding that brochures, information sheets, labels
and technical manuals are written in comprehensible language
and that descriptions and instructions are legible and readable.
Comprehensible messages. A message is comprehensible if
the receiver can grasp it without difficulty. It is difficult to create
easily understood information. Esoteric and impenetrable jargon
can be perceived as incomprehensible by the uninitiated.
>Providing simplicity, Providing structure.
Comprehension. In one industry sample 56 percent of the doc-
uments that workers were required to understand were above
their level of comprehension.
Comprehension fluency is the degree to which one under-
stands metaphorical information efficiently.
Comprehensive, COMP, is a highly finished layout for a pre-
sentation.
Computer graphics is a branch of computer science dealing
with creating and modifying pictorial data.
Computer images are digital. In some systems, the square or
rectangular pixel is either white (light) or black (dark). In other
systems, the pixels can be varied in a grey-scale and/or in a col-
our range. The number of colours that can be reproduced de-
pends on the computer, operating system, program and com-
puter. Quite often eight bits of information is used for red, green
and blue colours, respectively and eight bits for text and graph-
ical effects. Each colour can be stored in 256 levels. In total, it is
possible to create 16 millions of nuances in the image. Pixels are
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Computer literacy is the ability and knowledge to use comput-
ers and technology efficiently. A computer-literate person only
needs to be a computer user, not a computer programmer. As
personal computers have become commonplace and more pow-
erful, the concept of computer literacy has moved beyond basic
functionality to more powerful applications under the heading of
multimedia literacy. Computer literacy relates both visual liter-
acy and media literacy to the traditional concepts of literacy,
reading and writing.
Computer literate. A computer literate person only needs to
be a computer user, not a computer programmer.
Computer media include fields such as digital conferences, ex-
pert systems, games, hypertext, Internet, multimedia, virtual re-
ality, and WWW.
Computer science comprises research on the principles for
construction, operation, programming and applications of com-
puters. A special focus is on computer software and analysis of
instructions and information needed to solve formalised prob-
lems.
Computer screens can be constructed and manufactured in
many different ways and have very different characteristics. Ex-
amples are picture tubes, liquid crystals, plasma screens, mag-
netic field boards, light emitting diodes and head up displays.
Computers may also be connected to different kinds of projection
systems.
Computer-aided design, CAD. >Technical visualisation.
Computer-aided instruction, CAI, is a kind of E-learning.
>E-learning.
Computer-assisted instruction is a kind of E-learning. >E-
learning.

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Computer-based instruction, CBI, is a kind of E-learning.
>E-learning.
Computer-based training, CBT, is a kind of E-learning. User-
friendly computer-based training environments help learners
gain and maintain confidence in their ability to perform with
minimal confusion. User-unfriendly training environments do
the opposite, leaving learners confuse, lost, frustrated and lack-
ing confidence in their ability to perform satisfactorily.
Concentric circles around a centre is a schematic picture.
>Metaphorical pictures.
Concept is an idea of something formed by mentally combining
all its characteristics or particulars, a mental notion of a referent.
It is not bound to a particular language, but it must get denomi-
native and descriptive linguistic expressions.
Concepts and terms. The five principles that guide the selec-
tion of concepts and terms within a project may be summarised
as follows:
• Be careful with acronyms.
• Concepts and terms must be relevant and suited to their spe-
cific purposes.
• Create concepts and terms early in the development phase.
Avoid terms with several different meanings.
• Define and describe concepts and terms that are specific to
the project.
• Use words that convey a positive message and avoid ambigu-
ous words.
Conceptual design. During conceptual design the aim is un-
derstanding of the problem and producing working documents
to outline possible draft solutions. Prototype design aims to exe-
cute one, or maybe a few of those conceptual solutions.
Conceptual hierarchies. >Conceptual model.

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Conceptual model is a systematic description of concepts in a
subject field. Conceptual models are also called conceptual hier-
archies and concept systems.
Concrete image content may only be assessed and measured
by subjective means. There are functional and suggestive prop-
erties.
Condensed are type designs that are horizontally narrow.
Conditioning. In accordance with the behaviourist theory, we
learn to act in acceptable ways by being praised and rewarded
when we do good things and by praise being withheld when we
do not. To get attention, it is most effective to present material in
a way that is both interesting and understandable to those who
are to learn it. The behaviourist learning is a process of expand-
ing the behavioural repertoire, not a matter of expanding the
ideas in the learner’s mind. Behaviourism grew in popularity
throughout the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. There are two traditions:
Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.
Cone of experience. The basic assumption in the model “cone
of experience” is that learning will be more complete as the num-
ber of cues in the learning situation increases.
Conjoint retention. >Dual-coding memory model.
Conjunctions express logical relations between clauses,
phrases and sentences. In English, main conjunctions are: and,
as well as, but, for, nor, or, so, such as and yet.
Connectedness principle is also called Element connected-
ness principle. It states that elements that are connected by other
elements tend to be grouped together. We have a tendency to
>uniform, connected regions as single units. The region may be
points, lines, or a more extended area. This is generally how we
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We easily make “wholes of units.” Two dots suggest there is a
line between them. Three dots suggest the existence of a triangle
and four dots suggest a rectangle.
Connotation is the socio-cultural and personal associations
produced when a reader decodes a text, a visual, or a combina-
tion of words and visuals.
Consistency. Inconsistencies will confuse the readers. Always
use the same words for the same concepts. Do not mix tenses.
Consistent style. For centuries monks produced hand-drawn
manuscripts in their monasteries. They paid careful attention to
the selection and placement of each graphic element and they
tried to maintain a consistent style throughout every single work.
Constance is an example of the script type style. >Script type
style.
Constancy is our tendency to judge colour, contrast, shape and
size as the same despite changes in distance, illumination and
viewing angle. >Perceptual constancy.
Construction drawing is a schematic picture. >Plans.
Construction of knowledge. Within any discipline, the con-
struction of knowledge and its subsequent cultural practice is al-
ways elusive. If carefully read, early texts can yield voluminous
information about the formation of a specific field, such as which
discourses influenced their communications, who the founders
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Constructivism in art refer to a movement in modern art that
originated in Moscow around 1920. Artists used industrial mate-
rials, such as glass, metal, and plastics to create abstract, geomet-
ric, and non-representational objects.
Constructivism in learning refer to a philosophy of learning.
We construct our rules, mental models, and understanding of the
world, based on our unique sets of experiences. Learning is a pro-
cess of adjusting mental models to accommodate new experi-
ences. Rather than mapping concepts (as with objectivism) con-
structivism attempts to help individual learners construct their
own knowledge from their own experiences and their own under-
standings of reality. The learner is the central focus in the con-
structivism model, not the instructor or the teacher.
Consumer markets. Consumer and leisure markets are ex-
panding. One of the key marketing concepts in new media is to
create products that will stimulate consumers into buying or
renting the necessary hardware.
Content, context, format and structure influence the viewer’s
ability to perceive a message. >Image content.
Context. A picture has both an internal and an external context.
Factors inside the medium are “internal context.” In books, the
internal context is the interplay between texts, illustrations and
layout. Movies and TV programs have sound with speech, music
and sound effects plus visual and audio metaphors. The entire
communications situation, i.e., senders and their intentions for
the picture and receivers and their circumstances (e.g., time
available), is “external context.” >Image context.
Context dimension. >Pictorial dimensions.
Context perspective. The context in which a message is pre-
sented has a major impact on the way that the message is per-
ceived. It will influence interpretation and can convey a “pre-

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understanding” of the content. In information design a context
perspective includes 1) the internal context (inner context), 2) ex-
ternal context (with close context and social context) and 3) per-
sonal context. Each context will influence the interpretation of
the message. >Pre-understanding.
Context principles. Each context will influence the interpreta-
tion of the message. The close context and the social context are
both external contexts. The information designer will have to: 1)
Define the internal context for the message. 2) Define the exter-
nal contexts for the message. 3) Define how the context may in-
fluence the interpretation of the message. >Context perspective.
Continuation is a term used for the situation when the eye is
carried smoothly from one object into another object.
Continuation marks appear sometimes in texts in magazines
and other periodical publications. These marks may be arrows or
triangles and a reference to page number.
Continuity principle is also known as the continuity law, law
of continuity, law of good continuation, line of direction, princi-
ple of good continuation and the theory of direction. We per-
ceive a slow and gradual change in auditory or visual stimuli as a
single stimulus. Aligned elements are grouped together and inte-
grated into perceptual wholes. It is easier for us to perceive a
smooth continuation of a line than an abrupt shift of direction.
We understand the gradual changes in diagrams and the climbs
and declines of the bars in a bar graph. When there is an inter-
section between two objects, we tend to perceive this as two un-
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We perceive the pattern to the left as two lines crossing in the
middle rather than as two opposing angles joined together at
their apexes. It could also be four independent lines meeting in
the middle. This is also referred to as “line of direction.”
Continuous tone art, such as illustrations and photographs
must be reproduced with halftone screens.
Continuous tone is a complete range of grey, from black to
white.
Contradictory messages often create more confusion than
they provide help.
Contradictory relationship exists when the information in
various channels conflicts. This is disastrous for any informative
programme and any learning material. >Modality.
Contrast constancy is our tendency to judge contrasts as the
same despite changes in distance, viewing angle and illumina-
tion. >Perceptual constancy.
Contrast is result of differences along a common visual dimen-
sion that can be observed between various elements in a design.
Contrast in typography may be achieved by using different
colours, typefaces, sizes and styles. We order impressions that
form opposites, thereby reinforcing one another, in groups.
Contrast law. >Contrast principle.
Contrast principle, contrast law, is based on the difference
between the brightest and the dimmest parts of a picture, or a
text. We tend to array impressions that form natural opposites in

93
groups. The impressions are reinforcing one another. In art, de-
sign, and nature contrast has major importance for our percep-
tion. A specific line seems to be long when it is compared with a
shorter line, but it seems to be short when it is compared with a
longer line. The size of an individual area is always relative. It
depends on our knowledge of its surroundings. The size of a cir-
cle in a picture means little to us. A hand gives the circle the size
of a tennis ball. A number of wavy lines going out in all directions
from the circle make it the size of the sun.
A line (A) seems to be long when we compare it with a shorter
line (B), but it seems short when we compare it with a longer
line (C). Perception is relative.
Contributors and contributions. Information Design re-
ceives important contributions from more than fifty already es-
tablished disciplines, research areas and professions. These con-
tributions may be facts, influences, methods, practices, princi-
ples, processes, strategies, theoretical approaches and tools.
>Primary supporting sciences, Secondary supporting sciences.
Convexity principle, or law of convexity, states that convex
patterns will be perceived as figures.
Cooperative learning consists of instructional techniques that
require positive interdependence between learners for learning
to occur. In cooperative learning the dialogue is primarily be-
tween students, not with the teacher or with traditional teaching
materials. However, a continuous dialogue with the teacher is de-
sirable to secure understanding of the subject matter content.
Cooperative learning is effective for developing problem solving
skills in various content areas and grade levels. From a teaching
philosophy perspective, cooperative learning is consistent with
constructivism primarily due to the role of social interaction.

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Coordinate grid is a kind of graph. >Graphs.
Copperplate engraving. In copperplate engraving the image
is engraved in a plate of copper, which transfers the printing ink
to the paper. The line is very distinct and ends in a fine point. The
oldest copperplate engraving was printed 1446, but it is supposed
that the technology existed already a hundred years earlier. Cop-
perplate engravings were first used for book production in 1476.
During the 17th century copperplate engraving became the most
important method for production of pictures in books.
Copy is usually the text in a design, but also all the elements of a
finished design.
Copyfitting is a process of determining how much space a text
will need in different type sizes, and type styles.
Copying. Modern optics in combination with microelectronics
have given birth to small and handy copying machines that auto-
matically reduce and enlarge, retaining good quality. Concurrent
with simpler handling and better quality, the consumption of
copies increases. >Colour laser copier, Xerography.
Copyright. The rights of copyright holders are protected ac-
cording to international conventions, terms of delivery and
agreed ethical rules. Since 1989 it is optional to use a copyright
notice. The Berne Convention makes copyright automatic.
Copyright Act. Artistic works are protected for the originator’s
life plus an additional 70 years. Thus, many works are protected
for more than 120-130 years. This protection is international.
Copyright–archive photographs. Publishing rights to ar-
chive photographs are usually bought for each specific publish-
ing occasion. The buyer may not then transfer the publishing
rights to any third party without written permission from the
rightful copyright owner. In practice, also almost all photographs

95
can be said to have some “artistic merit” and thus have protection
for 70 years after the death of the copyright holder.
Copyright–commission. When photographs are produced on
commission, the client usually pays for and enjoys all copyright
rights, including rights to prints made from the originals. Usually
the client can freely utilize the pictures in any way desired.
Copyright–economic right. The economic right implies the
sole right of the originator to determine the making of copies and
presentation of the work in public.
Copyright–holder. The individual or organisation who owns
the copyright to protected artistic works.
Copyright–idealistic right. The idealistic right implies the
sole right of the originator to decide over the use of the work.
Copyright–illustrations. For drawn illustrations the client
usually pays for 1) the actual sketching, 2) the drawing work, 3)
the originals and 4) the reproduction rights for a particular pub-
lication. After publication the physical drawings, the originals,
usually remain the property of the artist. If an original should be
damaged or lost the artist becomes entitled to financial compen-
sation, equivalent to the “re-acquisition cost.” The name of the
picture creator or copyright holder must be stated in each printed
document containing the pictures, preferably, but not necessary,
in direct conjunction with the pictures.
Copyright–symbol ©, the letter C inside a circle, is used in a
copyright notice. Since 1989 it is optional to use a copyright no-
tice. The Berne Convention makes copyright automatic. A similar
symbol is the sound recording copyright symbol ℗.
Core competencies. In 2005 the partners of a federal US-EU
Fund for the Improvement of Post-Secondary Education (FIPSE)
grant for the Development of Core Competencies and Faculty
and Student Exchange in Information Design listed the following

96
essential competencies for an information designer. An infor-
mation designer should be:
• Able to identify the purpose and audience of a given project
and explicitly design effective structures, information and
presentation appropriate to that project.
• Able to cooperate with specialists to understand knowledge
structures and the data/information in terms of content,
topic and cultural context.
• Able to organize content, including writing, editing and
schema technologies.
• Able to understand and use various communication models
to form information in a manner appropriate and effective for
the data and the user.
• Able to determine and coordinate the best delivery
method/media requirements to make the information acces-
sible and useable by the given audience, including visual, hap-
tic and auditory delivery methods and computational
schema.
• Able to use appropriate presentation systems and environ-
ments, including software, hardware and digital presentation
technologies.
• Able to assess the success of a prototype, using established
usability and accessibility guidelines and testing methods.
• Understand local, regional, national and global realities in
problem assessment.
• Understand and apply the business aspects of developing and
delivering information.
• Understand the ethical challenges that arise in everyday work
environments and the necessary commitment to professional
and ethical behaviour.
Corona is a classical newspaper typeface.
Corporate identification focuses on identity, but corporate
literature will often inform and corporate advertising may also
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Corporate identity includes elements of a consistent design in
printed materials and promotions.
Corporate photography is photography created for annual
reports and other corporate publications.
Cost of reading and understanding a document is in most cases
many times greater than the cost of producing the document.
Costs. The information designer must have control over the
costs for the design and production of the information material.
It is, however, also important to consider and plan for future
costs related to technical production, distribution and storage.
This should be done early in the design process.
Counter is an empty space inside a character. In the letter ‘e’
the empty space is called ‘eye’. The empty space in the descender
of a lower case ‘g’ is called ‘loop’. A counter can also describe the
shape of the negative space within an open character, such as an
upper case ‘C’.
Counterfeit is a product that is said to be identical to an original
of some kind, usually for dishonest or illegal purposes. Counter-
feit and plagiarism occur in architecture, art, design, literature,
research, technology and more.
Coupling signs is a group including the four ways to count: plus
(+), minus (–), multiplication (x) and division (:). The characters
are used together with the surrounding numbers, without any
spaces. The group
Course objectives. We need to define the purpose of a course.
The objectives of a course may be: 1) to develop basic theoretical
knowledge of x, 2) to develop an active, analytical and critical
attitude with respect to y, and 3) to practice some editing of z.
Craftsmanship is the exercise of great skill. This is usually ac-
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Creative processes. The sender’s creative processes are influ-
enced by message design principles and are performed with mes-
sage design tools suitable for the type of representation that has
been selected. Message design principles can be seen as a set of
guidelines for design and development of messages. Main crea-
tive processes for a verbal and visual message include analysis
and synopsis, production of draft, production of script and pro-
duction of original and master.
Creativity is the ability to generate ideas that are original and
valuable as defined within a social context.
Credibility is the fact that someone can be believed or trusted.
Credibility–context. All receiver processes are influenced by
prior experience in relation to age and gender, as well as by cul-
tural, economic, historical, political, religious and social factors.
Context have a major influence on how various receivers relate
to verbal and visual messages of different kinds and on how
meaning is subsequently constructed. A combination of a draw-
ing and a photo will aid credibility to the message.
Credibility–eyewitnesses. Eyewitness identification has
been cited as the single most persuasive source of all kinds of ev-
idence that can be used in a court of law, but also as the most
frequent cause of wrongful convictions. The reliability of testi-
mony depends on many factors, including circumstances at the
time of an event, the witness’s emotional state and memory func-
tion, etc.
Credibility–medium. The credibility of a medium depends on
a number of variables, including receiver characteristics such as
age, gender and level of education.
Credibility–message. A high credibility message has a good
structure, convincing arguments, proper references and relevant
examples. It must be possible to understand the message and to

99
be able to believe that the information is honest and correct. Pho-
tographs and bright, warm colours confer credibility to an organ-
ization. Frequent use of archive pictures may cause quality prob-
lems. In many situations, it may be better not to have any pic-
tures at all than employing pictures with poor quality.
Credibility–receiver. The receiver’s evaluation of the message
will affect her or his evaluation of the source.
Credibility–sender and source. High credibility sources ex-
ert more persuasive influence on the receivers than low credibil-
ity sources. Receivers believe in a message with high credibility.
Credits. In books, it is quite common to give credits to artists
and photographers in a special “List of illustrations.” In maga-
zines and in newspapers credits are usually put next to the actual
illustration, often in a vertical position. Credits to the author are
usually in the form of a by-line.
Critical literacy is an instructional approach to literacy that
advocates the adoption of critical perspectives toward text. It en-
courages readers to actively analyse texts and it offers strategies
for uncovering underlying messages.
Critical perspective theory. In the Marxist approach media
are seen from an ideological perspective.
Critical print size is the smallest character size for which read-
ing is possible at maximum speed.
Critical television viewing skills include the ability to distin-
guish fact from fiction, to recognize and appreciate differing or
opposing points of view, and to understand the relationship be-
tween television programs and the printed word. Programmes
for critical television viewing skills can successfully be integrated
into the elementary and secondary school curricula. Critical tel-
evision viewing skills could also be called “television literacy.”

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Cropmarks are fine, and short lines drawn on an image to in-
dicate a cropped area. Drawn at the corners of a pasteup (trim
marks) cropmarks indicate where a printed sheet will be
trimmed.
Cropping. An original picture can often be improved by removal
of irrelevant or distracting elements. Usually pictures can be
cropped a little bit from all sides. In practice, the photographer
always performs some “initial cropping” while taking the actual
photograph. When composing or taking a photograph, the pho-
tographer sets the boundaries or “frame” of the picture.
Cropping perspective, overlapping perspective, or playing-
card perspective. When certain objects are placed in front of
other objects this will enhance the impression of depth in a pic-
ture. The overlapping perspective was quite common in Euro-
pean mediaeval art.
Cross alignment refers to the means by which text of varying
sizes in columns align to a baseline grid in graphic design.
Cross section is a schematic picture. >Drawings.
Cross-disciplinary. People are viewing one discipline from the
perspective of another discipline.
CRT, Cathode ray tube. >Picture tube.
Cubism is an art movement that were developed in Paris, 1908–
1914, and led by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque.
Cue information theory claims that information that is
shared between channels facilitates learning. Cues that occur
simultaneously in auditory and visual channels are likely to be
better recalled than those presented in one channel only. Close
coordination between audio and video improved audio recall of
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Cueing refers to the addition of design elements that direct the
learner’s attention to important aspects of the learning material.
Cultivation. Today children are often repeatedly exposed to ad-
vertising. Years of exposure will influence children’s symbolic en-
vironments. Media have an indirect influence and tell us what to
think about. One estimate claims that American children have
seen an average of 350,000 commercials on television when they
reach the age of 18. >Advertising.
Cultural differences. Language and cultural differences im-
pact the effectiveness of visuals.
Cultural image literacy is familiarity with images or sets of
images that have played a role in the visual heritage of a particu-
lar culture.
Cultural literacy is the ability to fluently participate in and un-
derstand a given culture. A culturally literate person knows the
signs and symbols in a culture. This includes culturally-condi-
tioned allusions, dialectic stories, entertainment, idiomatic ex-
pressions, idioms, idiosyncrasies, jokes, names and places.
Cultural products. Pictures are cultural products shared by
many individuals. Generally speaking people like pictures show-
ing people.
Cultural skills. Professional communicators are perceptive of
opportunities to build knowledge and to advance personal inno-
vation and organizational agendas through formal and informal
social networks within organizations. They can juggle multiple
organizational constraints (such as deadlines or lack of funding)
and multiple representations of the content (what the boss
wants, what the client needs and what the author thinks is best)
and still maintain a focus on the stakeholders’ needs.
Cultural studies have a critical, humanistic orientation, with a
focus on popular culture.

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Cultural visual literacy is found where cultural literacy and
visual literacy intersect.
Culture is a way of life that expresses meanings and values.
Culture in the Mirror theory offers a new way of looking at a
culture as an ongoing process of making meaning.
Cumulative curve is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Cuneiform script. The cuneiform script is distinguished by
“wedge-shaped” marks in vertical columns on clay tablets.
Scribes used a pen made from a sharpened reed stylus. The cu-
neiform script emerged in Sumer, an ancient civilization of
southern Mesopotamia. It was used for more than 2,200 years.
This writing began as a system of pictographs and developed
through several stages. The sign inventory was reduced from
some 1,500 signs to some 600 signs. Writing became increas-
ingly phonological. Eventually the cuneiform script was replaced
by alphabetic writing.
Curvature in type is perceived as fluid, gradual, maternal, nat-
ural, organic, smooth and soft.
Curved lines. There is a tendency for curved lines and smooth
shapes to stand out more than straight lines and shapes made out
of straight lines. >Lines in visual language.
Curvilinear decorations of Neolithic rock carvings are curved
in various ways: 1) arcs, 2) circles, 3) “dot-in-circles,” circles with
a dot inside, 4) serpentiforms (lines having the form of serpents)
and 5) spirals.
Curvilinear perspective is a line perspective. It includes four-
point perspective and five-point perspective.

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Cutaway drawing, cutaway diagram, is a 3D graphics, dia-
gram, or drawing. Some surface elements are removed, in order
to show internal features. >Drawings.
Cut-off rules are horizontal lines that separate unrelated items
above and below the line.
CXO. >Chief Experience Officer.
Cyan is the particular blue-green colour used in four colour pro-
cess printing.
Cyber schools, virtual schools, offer courses and programs via
web-based technologies.

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D
D series paper. In Sweden, the ISO system of A, B and C for-
mats is supplemented by adding D, E, F and G formats.
Dada is an art movement (1916–1920) of European writers and
artists led by the French poet Tristan Tzara.
Dagger (†) and double dagger (‡), are sometimes used to link to
a footnote where an asterisk (*) is already in use on a certain
page.
Daily graphics are generally produced against tight deadlines.
News must be published in the next edition of a newspaper, or in
the next TV news slot.
Dark values of colour with black pigment added are called
“shades” of the given hue name.
Dash is a punctuation mark with a long horizontal line. It is
longer than a hyphen, and sometimes higher from the baseline.
With the typewriters, we had to create a dash (—) with two hy-
phens (--). With desktop publishing, and typography, this is not
necessary any more. In 12 points type the em dash is 12 points
wide. In desktop publishing, we can create the em dash or em
rule (—), the en dash or en rule (–), as well as the hyphen (-). The
em dash is used to indicate a break in thought. There should be
no space before or after the em dash. The en dash is used between
numerals (e.g., pp. 33–45, and as a minus sign (e.g., –12°C).
Data often refers to a collection of facts. It may be results from
experiments, measurements and observations. Data may consist
of numbers, visuals, or words, and are often complex, unorgan-
ised and unstructured. >Information.
Data visualisation, or data visualization, dataviz, and DV, is
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pictorial format. Data are primarily, but not solely, numeric. The
main goal of data visualisation is its ability to communicate com-
plex data clearly and effectively. In many disciplines, it is viewed
as a modern equivalent of visual communication. >Information
visualisation.
Data-ink-ratio is the proportion of ink that is used to present
the data, compared to the total amount of ink used in the whole
visual display.
Dataviz, data visualisations, and DV, are graphical representa-
tions of data which are primarily, but not solely, numeric. Data
visualisations are abstractions and reductions of the world.
DBIR, Design-Based Implementation Research, is a subset of
DBR. In DBIR design researchers and design practitioners have
a joint ownership of the agenda. >DBR, DBRC, and RBD.
DBR, Design-Based Research, is a term describing intersections
between design and research. DBR has five characteristics: 1) an
overlap between design and research processes, 2) cycles of de-
sign with enactments in context, analysis, and necessary rede-
signs 3) development of relevant theory, 4) understanding of de-
signs in their authentic settings, and 5) understanding that the
outcomes are the result of both the use of designed artefacts and
the way they are used. >DBIR, DBRC, RBD.
DBRC, Design-Based Research Collective, research methods
used a blended form of design activities and research activities to
produce design-relevant, empirically supported knowledge.
>DBR, DBIR, and RBD.
De Saussure, Ferdinand. >Ferdinand de Saussure.
Deboss is a design that is stamped into a substrate. There is no
ink and no foil.

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Decisions. Since the introduction of the personal computer
there has been a rapid development in the production of infor-
mation materials. Now an increasing number of decisions are be-
ing made on the basis of pictorial representations. Visual mes-
sages are a powerful form of communication. Because visual
messages stimulate both emotional and intellectual responses
they make us think as well as feel.
Declarative memory, explicit memory, is the memory for
facts, the memory of which we are aware. We know that we have
learned something and we can discuss this with others.
Decoding is comprehension and interpretation of texts by de-
coders with reference to relevant codes.
Deconstruction is a poststructuralist strategy for textual anal-
ysis to dismantle the rhetorical structures within a text.
Decoration layout differs from an information layout. In a
decoration layout pure aesthetic aspects are allowed to domi-
nate. . There are many situations, where colour and typographic
elements can be used for decoration. However, a decorative use
of colour or typography should never be mixed with the intended
use to provide clear structure, simplicity and hierarchy. It must
always be clear and easy to understand for the receiver when col-
our and typography is used for decoration and when the use is
meant to have some cognitive importance.
Decoration. There are many situations, where colour and typo-
graphic elements can be used for decoration. However, a decora-
tive use of colour or typography should never be mixed with an
intended use to provide a clear structure, simplicity and hierar-
chy. It must always be clear and easy to understand for the re-
ceiver when colour and typography is used for decoration and
when the use is meant to have some cognitive importance.

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Decorative pictures are intended to give “relief to the learning
situation and to make the material aesthetically appealing and
pleasing”. This may often not be the case. The opposite to deco-
rative pictures is instructional pictures.
Default is a pre-selected option, without any judgement of func-
tion or quality.
Defining the problem. During an introductory analysis and
planning phase it is possible to organize the work, analyse the
sender, analyse the intended receiver, analyse the intended mes-
sage, and select a suitable medium. The main goal in information
design is clarity of communication.
Definition is a linguistic description of a concept. The descrip-
tion should be short, precise and stylistically homogeneous.
Degree of detail. It is important to keep pictures as simple as
possible. A visual should contain the details that are essential in
communicating the intended message.
Degree of realism. A visual should usually possess a selected
degree of realism and be true-to-life. Rather often this means cul-
turally accurate detailed drawings in natural colour. However, to
a large extent realism is determined by conventions. Realism is
determined by the extent in which people consider something ab-
stract or concrete. Cartoons, line drawings and photographs rep-
resent a continuum of realism.
Degree symbol ° consists of a small raised circle. It is a typo-
graphical symbol, which is used to represent alcohol proof, de-
grees of arc (e.g. in geographic coordinate systems), degrees of
temperature, diminished quality in musical harmony, and hours.
Decorative pictures are intended to give relief to learning sit-
uations and make material aesthetically appealing and pleasing.
Demographic groups. >Receiver groups.

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Demonstration tables are tables explaining and illustrating a
message or a trend.
Denotation is the relationship between the signifier and its sig-
nified (or referent).
Density. According to the spatial concentration principle we
perceptually group regions of similar element density. Thus, a
visual element may belong to one group even if it is as close to
another group. >Perception “laws.”
Depiction of contents. An analysis of a photographic por-
trayal can examine positive versus negative depictions of individ-
uals seen in photographs. Individuals are viewed more positively
when they are shown walking, running or moving.
Depictive representations include physical models, pictures
and sculptures. >External representations.
Depth-enhancement dimension. >Pictorial dimensions.
Descender is the part of lover-case letters (g, j, p, q, y) that de-
scend below the baseline.
Descriptions is a term for a group of information materials in
the category Factual information. Here the purpose is to enable
the user to understand content with respect to its immediate or
its basic meaning. Descriptions depict what something looks like,
or how it works. Examples of fields for descriptions are: anatom-
ical descriptions, biological descriptions, company descriptions,
consequence descriptions, construction descriptions, ecological
descriptions, economic descriptions, event descriptions, histori-
cal descriptions, job descriptions, medical descriptions, physio-
logical descriptions, process descriptions, product descriptions,
system descriptions, and technical descriptions.
Descriptive representations include mathematical equa-
tions, spoken and written texts.

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Descriptive visualisation, or descriptive visualization, of ob-
jects and systems, has been an important aspect of technological
development since the beginning of the industrial revolution. A
technical illustration can always supplement a verbal explana-
tion and may sometimes replace the words. Descriptive visuali-
sation of objects and systems, are also used in medicine and nat-
ural history, or scientific illustration. Another specialized subject
area is architectural illustration. >Technical illustration.
Design is 1) The identification of a problem and the intellectual
process (verb) of an originator, manifesting itself in plans and
specifications to solve the problem. 2) The result (noun) and out-
come of a design process.
Design activities. >Design process.
Design aesthetics is related to the intended functions of infor-
mation products intended for widespread distribution and use.
Design approach. >Approaches.
Design areas. Examples are: apparel design, architectural de-
sign, ceramics design, communication design, costume design,
craft design, document design, editorial design, engineering de-
sign, environmental design, exhibition design, fashion design,
fine arts design, furniture design, glass design, graphic design,
image design, industrial design, information design, instruction
design, instructional message design, interaction design, inter-
face design, interior design, IT design, landscape design, light de-
sign, manufacturing design, mechanical design, message design,
molecular design, ornamental design, package design, pattern
design, persuasion design, poster design, product design, service
design, text design, textile design, type design, urban design.
Design-Based Research. >DBIR, DBR, DBRC, and RBD.
Design concepts include design activities, design areas, design
discourses, design language, design levels, design perspectives,

110
design principles, design processes, design theory, design tools
and final designs. In information design the final designs may be
called information materials or information sets.
Design disciplines include disciplines and research areas such
as ceramics design, document design, exhibition design, furni-
ture design, graphic design, information design, landscape de-
sign, light design, web design and many more.
Design discourses, a concept that includes all the design liter-
ature and research reports dealing with design matters.
Design family. Design science is a large field of academic edu-
cation, research, and training. There are common problem areas
regardless of what we design. In a common terminology, the top
level may be named “Families.” Next level may be called “Gen-
era.” The third level is “Species” (or disciplines). Each subject
matter consists of a number of courses. In five design families,
the classification depends on the purpose with the design.
Design (left) includes six families/groups: 1) Artefact design, 2)
Message design, 3) Performance design, 4) Systems design, 5)
Environment design, and 6) Design philosophy.
Design genus. Design science is a large field of academic edu-
cation, research, and training. There are common problem areas
regardless of what we design. In a common terminology, the top
level may be named “Families.” Next level may be called “Gen-
era.” The third level is “Species” (or disciplines). Each subject

111
matter consists of a number of courses. In five design families,
the classification depends on the purpose with the design.
Design judgments represent a key dimension in any design
process. It is not founded on any strict rules of reasoning, often
dependent on the individuals experienced consequences of pre-
vious design choices.
Design language, a concept that describes how interfaces com-
municate what objects are to users, what they might do and how
they should be used.
Design levels, a concept that includes areas such as design of
projects, design of processes, design of tools, design of products
and design of systems.
Design motto. Today’s design motto is very much: “function
can take any form.” This phrase is an adaptation of the famous
rule: “form follows function.”
Design perspective, or execution perspective, of message de-
sign and information design includes 1) text design, 2) image de-
sign, 3) shape design, 4) sound design, 5) light design, 6) spatial
design (expo and event), and 6) time design (the ability to deliver
information when the user needs it).
Design principles. >Message design principles.
Design processes. A good design process will guarantee re-
quired results. A small mistake early in the design process may
prove very costly.

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A design process starts with a commission (C). The goal is to
produce a final design, to be used as a master for production of
a number of representations (R) or artefacts.
Design rules. The only information design rule is: “Respect
copyright, and other laws and regulations related to infor-
mation.” In each specific case the information designer must be
able to analyse and understand the problem, and find one–or
more–practical design solutions.
Design science is a large field of academic education, research,
and training. There are common problem areas regardless of
what we design. In a common terminology, the top level may be
named “Families.” Next level may be called “Genera.” The third
level is “Species” (or disciplines). Each subject matter consists of
a number of courses. In five design families, the classification de-
pends on the purpose with the design.
Design species. Design science is a large field of academic ed-
ucation, research, and training. There are common problem ar-
eas regardless of what we design. In a common terminology, the
top level may be named “Families.” Next level may be called
“Genera.” The third level is “Species” (or disciplines). Each sub-
ject matter consists of a number of courses. In five design fami-
lies, the classification depends on the purpose with the design.
Design studies is a broad area of knowledge with connections
to several other areas. Many studies have mainly dealt with vari-
ous aspects of verbal information in different media. Quite often

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the pictures and images in the messages have been overlooked
and forgotten.
Design team. Usually a team of people with skills in different
areas are working together. The task is usually too overwhelming
for a single person. >Instructional team.
Design theory has several meanings, related to context, per-
ception, practise and supporting sciences. It explains how design
can be made more effective and how it works.
Design tools. The design process and sub-processes are influ-
enced by message design principles and are performed with mes-
sage design tools suitable for the type of representation that is
selected during an early phase of the work.
Design processes are performed with the help of design tools.
Designed messages are the finished originals that are ready
for production.
Desktop digitizer. Since photography includes a full spectrum
of greys it is not possible for a computer, working in a bit-mapped
mode, to represent the shades of grey. Computers can only show
black and white. There are different kinds of digitizers. A scanner
allows the user to digitize all kinds of illustrations on a paper.
>Desktop scanner.

114
Desktop publishing systems use a version of the Pica system
for measuring size in typography. Here 1 pica = 12 points = 12 pts
= 1/6 inches = .1667 inches= 4.23 mm. 1 pt. = .3528 mm (72
pts/inch). >Pica system.
Desktop scanner. A desktop scanner works with CCD-technol-
ogy. Most desktop scanners work with 300 or 400 dots per inch.
The scanner can digitize an image either as a full-tone picture or
as a half-tone picture. The low resolution of computer screens,
scanners and laser printers and the vast amount of storage that
it takes to store a high-resolution image electronically make dig-
itized images possible only as low-quality simulations of photo-
graphs.
Detail in electronic images depends on the amount of stored
data. >DPI, LPI and PPI.
Detail map is a schematic picture. >Maps.
Determiners. In English, determiners constitute a small closed
word class. This group includes articles (such as a, an) and cer-
tain demonstrative words (such as this, that).
Diacritical marks are placed above or below (or sometimes
next to) letters in words to indicate particular pronunciations—
in regard to accent, stress, or tone.
Diagonal lines are unstable and attract the eye. They give the
impression of movement, creating visual stress. Artists may use
this implied motion when they wish to convey energy or action in
their works. Lines that reach out from one point in different di-
rections may be perceived as aggressive or violent. >Lines in vis-
ual language.
Diagrams is a group of schematic pictures that systematically
show the relationships between various factors. Relationships
between visual elements in a diagram mirror relationships be-
tween objects in the world. Diagrams depend on colour, line,

115
plane, point, texture, value and volume as well as text. It is far too
easy to make diagrams confusing, difficult to understand and
misleading. Diagrams need to be correct and simple.
Diagrams–kinds of. There are many kinds of diagrams: 1) Pic-
tograph, or isotype system chart. 2) Line diagram. 3) Bar charts.
4) Pictorial length chart. 5) Tri-linear chart. 6) Pictorial area
chart with comparison of areas. 7) Polygon chart. 8) Circle chart
with comparison of areas. 9) Pie charts, or circle graphs. 10) Par-
allelepipeds. 11) Spheres, comparison of volumes. 12) Surface
chart. 13) Segmented volumes. 14) Pictorial characters in space.
15) Metroglyph chart. 16) Bubble chart. 17) Kite chart. 18) Block
diagram. 19) Four-field diagram. 20) Quantity diagrams, totality
and subsets. 21) Tree diagram, organizational and hierarchical
structures. 22) Flow diagram, or flow chart. 23) Web diagram,
planning and production. 24) Circulation diagram. 25) Circuit
diagram. 26) Pictodiagram. 27) Transportation diagram.
Diagrams–literacy, or diagrammatic literacy is a matter of
getting people to make better decisions based on graphical infor-
mation. Reading diagrams involves perception, domain
knowledge, narrative, motivation and bias, as well as social con-
sensus. Experts and novices apply different mental strategies
when they read diagrams. The experts base their interpretations
on underlying principles and domain-based categories. Begin-
ners, however, rely more on visual patterns in the diagrams. So,
far there are no universal conventions for diagrams. >Diagrams.
Diaspora literacy is the ability to understand and/or interpret
the multi-layered meanings of stories, words and other folk say-
ings within any given community of the African diaspora. These
meanings go beyond literal or typical literary interpretation into
an area of folk understanding.
Dictionary graphics is a term for information graphics in dic-
tionaries and encyclopedias.

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Diderot, Denis (1713–1784) was a French art critic, editor, phi-
losopher, and writer. He was a prominent person during the En-
lightenment in France. In 1748 Denis Diderot and the mathema-
tician Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717–1783) started the almost
endless work with the general, gigantic, innovative and epoch-
making new French encyclopaedia. Both of them were important
contributors to >La Grande Encyclopédie. Diderot assumed the
editorial responsibility after ten years. Diderot was a scholar with
crucial importance for the development and presentation of com-
bined verbal and visual messages.
Didot, Firmin (c 1764–1836) was a French engraver, printer
and type founder. He designed the Didot typeface about 1800.
Firmin Didot revolutionized the book trade by the possibility to
print relatively cheap editions of books.
Didot system is a system for measuring size in typography. It
is used in most parts of Europe (except for Great Britain and
France). Here 1 Cicero = 12 points = 12 p. = .1780 inches = 4.511
mm. 1 p. = .3759 mm (67.6 pts/inches). >Size of type.
Die cut is a finishing process in print. Using a steel die, parts of
the substrate are cut away.
Differential threshold, or just noticeable difference, is the
least possible difference that can be detected between two similar
stimuli.
Differentiation. It is essential to be able to differentiate ele-
ments from one another.
Digital is a signal that only can be “on” or “off”. These signals
can be handled electronically.
Digital coding. Data are stored in digital form as sequences of
discrete values (based on 0 and 1). Most digital media are based
on translating analogue data into digital data and vice-versa. The
following example illustrates the difference between analogue

117
and digital storage of data. A single page of a book can hold about
2,500 characters (i.e., 50 lines containing 50 characters, includ-
ing spaces between words). Storing the same book page in digital
form would require 20,000 bits of information. This may seem
like a great deal but it is still almost negligible compared to the
storage and transmission of data in other media. One second of
television is equivalent to 250 pages with text.
Digital deception. Sometimes digital deception, or digital
photo manipulation, may enhance a message. Sometimes a pho-
tographer may use image manipulation methods in order to edit
her or his own pictures.
Digital documents may be coded in accordance with the
SGML standard, so that it is easy to use the information in differ-
ent ways and in different formats. Sometimes other standards
may be used (like HTML and XML). >External access.
Digital educational collaboration is a kind of E-learning.
Digital infographics are complex intersections between data
interfaces, and people.
Digital image manipulation. >Image manipulation.
Digital immigrants. People born before 1980, and the age of
the technology revolution, have to acquire familiarity with digital
systems as an adult. For some it is very complicated to learn to
interact with technology
Digital literacy is the ability to locate, organize, read, interpret,
understand and use images, sound and text in digital environ-
ments. A digitally literate person can evaluate and apply new
knowledge gained from a wide range of digital sources in order
to create and reproduce data and images in multiple formats
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118
Digital maps. Missiles, like cruising missiles, navigate by com-
paring radar-images, TV-images and satellite data with stored,
digital maps. Thus, the computer system of a missile works with
information representing images and iconic signs. Search is
likely to be relatively unregulated and the structure is probably
non-linear rather than linear. The computer systems are ad-
vanced and have to work very fast.
Digital natives. People born from 1980 onward grow up in the
digital age with easy and natural access to technology. They learn
to use digital systems in a natural way.
Digital photo manipulation. Sometimes digital photo ma-
nipulation, or digital deception, may enhance a message. Some-
times a photographer may use image manipulation methods in
order to edit her or his own pictures.
Digital political infographics are cultural artifacts used in
networked communities.
Digital techniques are employed in the recording as well as the
editing and distribution of TV-programs. With digital tech-
niques, a common world standard is possible. The problems
caused by the different TV-systems, NTSC, PAL and SECAM, can
disappear. This will facilitate international distribution of pro-
grams. However, there are several hundred million TV-receivers
in use in the world and the electronics industry was set up to
manufacture conventional TV-sets. It will take some time before
the new technique will be in common use.
Digital Video Interactive, DVI, is similar to CD-I and devel-
oped originally by the American company RCA and available
from Intel. Since one hour of digital storage of video information
occupies 65,000 megabytes, DVI operates with advanced com-
puterized image compression.

119
Digital visual literacy, DVL, is the ability to create and under-
stand visual information created with a computer.
Dimensions. Having a “one-dimensional” and a “two-dimen-
sional” representation at the same time, or even one or more
“one-dimensional,” “two-dimensional,” and “three-dimensional”
representations, at the same time, is possible, even common-
place. We may also add “access time” as another dimension. In
the future, media might also be able to represent smell and taste,
which would add still other dimensions.
Diminishing perspective. A view along a road with identical
lampposts or identical trees will produce the familiar conver-
gence of lines. The lampposts and trees appear to be successively
smaller. >Line-based positional perspectives.
DIMM is Dual In-line Memory Module.
DIN is a typeface, drawn for road signs in Germany. The letters
are printed in yellow and reversed out of black backgrounds.
Dingbats is a special PostScript typeface in desktop publishing
systems. >Ornaments
Diphthong is a special form of ligatures in which two vowels
are joined together in order to form a single character. Examples
are Æ (A+E) and Œ (O+E).
Direct advertising is any form of advertising that is issued di-
rectly to prospects through any means, except for traditional
mass media.
Direct mail is advertising where advertisers acts as publishers.
Direct marketing is sale of goods and services directly to the
consumers without any intermediaries. This term can sometimes
include door-to-door sales.

120
Directed experience. Movies as well as TV- and radio-pro-
grams are presented from the beginning all the way to the end.
In fact, movies used to conclude with the text “THE END.” The
directors and the producers are in complete control of the order
and of the way the information is presented to us. As viewers, we
are restricted to choose between watching and not watching the
program. We can associate freely and different people often
make different interpretations of the same program.
Direction. Studies of eye movements and fixations have shown
that various people look at the same picture in different ways. By
organizing the graphic elements, it is possible to direct the eye
movements within the picture. Lines, shape, scale, perspective,
position and orientation of objects are all essential parts in
providing direction in a picture. Using lines with arrowheads is
probably the easiest and most powerful way to show direction.
Directions for use are written instructions explaining what
someone has to do in order to use some device etc. This applies
especially to instruments, machinery and tools. Directions for
use are often in the form of printed sheets or booklets as well as
in digital media. Users often need the instructions just to “get
started.” Once a TV set and a VCR have been installed, using
these products seldom presents any problem. Incorporating di-
rections for use into technical systems is common. Necessary in-
formation can then be viewed on a monitor. Since information
cannot be accessed in the event of a power failure, we will still
need to have some information in graphic media in the future.
Discipline refers to academic studies that focus on a self-im-
posed limited field of study. A traditional academic discipline is
a branch of theoretical knowledge that is researched and taught
in higher education.
Discontinuity. >Emphasis in layout.

121
Discourse analysis is a sub-field in linguistics that focus on
the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed).
Discovery theory. >Perceptual learning.
Discrepancy. There is often a considerable discrepancy be-
tween the sender’s intended message and the message perceived
by the receiver, both as regards words and images. It is some-
times doubtful whether receivers perceive anything. Everything
usually works better when words, pictures and graphic design are
allowed to interact.
Disinformation is the opposite of information design.
Disk off-system is a device for data storage in computers. One
or more circular and flat plates are coated with magnetized ma-
terial.
Display type is any type larger than 14 point.
Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message may cause dis-
satisfaction with the content of the message. Therefore, the in-
formation designer has to consider the legibility of text printed
on paper, displayed and projected on screens, as well as legibility
of pictures and legibility of layout. >Legibility.
Distance education. In traditional distance education, much
work was put into developing teaching materials. This required
heavy investment and was based on the assumption that a large
number of people should learn the same subject matter at the
same time under the control of a teacher. Large companies with
employees at multiple geographic locations have developed their
own internal webs, Intranets. They use their webs as information
and learning tools and are moving from instructor-based learn-
ing to multiple learning formats. Many schools and universities
offer courses over the Internet.

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Distinctness. It is important that the listeners clearly under-
stand the words in any oral presentation. Distinctness in the spo-
ken message is comparable to readability in the written message.
Distribution processes. The sender’s distribution processes
are influenced by distribution principles and are performed with
distribution tools. Distribution principles include economy, effi-
ciency and timing. The processes include advertising, billing,
bookkeeping, distribution, marketing, selling and stock keeping.
The tools include databases, stores, warehouses, etc.
Dithering technique is used to add extra pixels to an image in
order to smooth it, or to reduce the number of colours or greys
by replacing them with average values. This technique smooths
the jagged effects of pixellation.
Divine proportion. >Golden mean.
Document literacy is 1) the ability to solve problems using in-
formation in documents, 2) graphic literacy combined with
prose literacy.
Documentalist, or informatic, is a person who collects and tab-
ulates scientific information. This information is often sought in
national as well as international databases.
Dogmatic design theory deals with how a model is trans-
ferred to a concrete object.
Doing the touching-up is the fourth sub-process in the actual
writing of a text. Check that the finished text corresponds to the
planned text in accordance with the requirements. Edit the text.
Check the style and grammar. >Message design processes, Writ-
ing and drawing processes.
Domain name is a series of alphanumeric strings, separated by
periods. Example: https://www.researchgate.net.

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Donatello (c 1386–1466) was the most significant sculptor in
the Italian Renaissance. He applied the principles of central per-
spective in his shallow relief sculptures. Donatello worked in
bronze, clay, marble and wood. His most famous work is the
bronze David, about 1440s. This sculpture is independent of any
architectural surroundings and the first known freestanding
nude statue since ancient times. Donatello had many followers
within the European art.
Double loop learning, higher level learning, strategic learn-
ing is a change process influenced by surrounding environments.
>Action theory.
Dot is a full stop (.) to mark the end of a complete sentence.
Dot gain is an aberration that may occur in printed images when
halftone dots grow in size, and cause bad results.
Dot map is a schematic picture. >Maps, Snow.
Dot matrix printers are impact printers. They produce dot
matrix characters by pressing thin needle points, “needles,” ar-
ranged in a matrix pattern, 5 x 7, 7 x 7, or 7 x 9, to a carbon paper
or a ribbon lying close to a paper. The needles form different
characters, letters, digits, or parts of a picture. Dot matrix print-
ers work with a resolution of 50-100 dots per inch. This is inferior
to the printout quality of laser printers.
Dots in mathematics. A point is a location, defined by the
crossing of two very thin lines. Any point has an exact position in
a specified context, an exact coordinate on a plane. However, the
point has no size, no shape, no colour, no value and no grain. A
point is often represented by a dot, which is the smallest graphic
element in visual language.
Dots in typography. A dot is a full stop (.) to mark the end of
a complete sentence.

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Dots in visual language. A dot is the smallest graphic element
in visual language. The dot is usually a meaningless, or non-sig-
nificant image element, such as one of many halftone dots, but it
could also be a syntagm, such as an eye in a cartoon-face. Or it
may even have a complete meaning, such as a ball in mid-air. It
all depends on the situation depicted. With respect to the tech-
nique and the different types of visuals, dots can vary in size,
shape, colour, value, grain, context, as well as position. Usually
single dots do not carry any meaning. It can also provide har-
mony or stress to a given composition. >Basic elements.
Double-loop learning has been called “higher level learning,”
and “strategic learning.” It is a change process influenced by sur-
rounding environments. Results are created by new procedures.
Double-loop-learning concentrates on why and how processes
change, as generative learning, or learning to expand possibili-
ties. It requests for a change of knowledge base or specific com-
petencies or routines.
DPI, dots per inch, measure the number of ink dots a printer can
deposit on a paper within an inch. For offset lithographic print-
ing, 300 dpi is standard.
Draft. >Production of draft.
Drawing is the act and skill of making a picture with a pencil or
a pen. A drawing is also a picture that is made using a pencil or a
pen.
Drawing process. >Writing process.
Drawing style. A drawing style that includes many different
kinds of patterns, shadings and lines and inconsistent use of
symbols may obstruct the reading of the pictures.
Drawings. Subjects express opinions about circumfluous
events on their drawings. They also tend to feel that their partic-
ular interpretations are the correct ones. Drawings may be

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created in many artistic styles. The purpose of schematic draw-
ings is basically to inform, not to decorate. Schematic drawings
must not be excessively imaginative or unnecessarily abstract.
Clarity is the most important factor. Important types of drawings
are: 1) Stylized drawings. 2) Sketches. 3) Diagrammatic render-
ings. 4) Informative drawings. 5) Analytical drawings. 6) Cross
sections. 7) Exploded drawings. 8) Cutaway drawings. 9) Pano-
ramas. 10) Silhouettes. 11) Cartoons. 12) Comic strip sequences.
Drop capital, or drop cap, is an enlarged and lowered initial
letter which is cut into the text block. >Initial letters.
Dropout is a halftone in which no dots fall on white areas.
Drum-scanner is a professional systems for integrated image
and text processing often contain a drum-scanner. The original,
a slide, or a print, is fixed on a rotating drum. A laser beam reads
the picture with a resolution of up to 300 lines per inch creating
up to 75 dots per inch for yellow, cyan, magenta and black, re-
spectively. The digital image information can then be processed
in different ways. It is possible to change the scale, crop the pic-
ture and manipulate the contents. It is, for example, possible to
move picture elements, make copies, put in text or symbols, etc.
Dry point etching. In dry point etching the artist works the
copper plate with a fine point tool. The line in dry point engrav-
ing is soft and fluffy. Graphic artists mainly use dry point etching
as a fine arts technique.
Dual channels. We have separate information processing
channels for verbal and visual materials.
Dual-coding, dual-coding memory model, dual-coding theory,
proposes a verbal system for processing and storing linguistic in-
formation and a separate non-verbal system for processing and
storing spatial information and mental imagery. Our memory for
pictures is superior to our memory for words. This is called the

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pictorial superiority effect. Results from several experiments
show that when the contents are the same in visual, audio and
print channels, learning is maximized. The content, the struc-
ture, the context and the format of a visual influence the viewer’s
ability to perceive its message.
Duotone is a two-colour halftone reproduction. It is made from
one-colour continuous tone artwork.
Dust cover, jacket, is the paper wrapper of a hardbound book.
DVI, Digital Video Interactive, is similar to CD-I and developed
originally by the American company RCA and available from In-
tel. Since one hour of digital storage of video information occu-
pies 65,000 megabytes, DVI operates with advanced computer-
ized image compression.
DVL, Digital Visual Literacy, is the ability to create and under-
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E
E series paper. In Sweden, the ISO system of A, B and C for-
mats is supplemented by adding D, E, F and G formats. E5 (155
× 220 mm) and G5 (169 × 239 mm) are popular for printing dis-
sertations.
E-book. An electronic book, e-book or ebook, is a book that is
published and made available in digital form. An e-book may
consist of text, images, or both. It is readable on the displays of
computers, and other electronic devices, such as laptops,
smartphones and tablets.
E-learning is the use of communication technologies and elec-
tronic media in education, learning and teaching. This concept
includes the use of all kinds of communication technologies and
electronic media that can deliver animation, audio, images, text
and video. E-learning can be instructor-led and also self-paced.
A physical or a virtual classroom may be used. The term E-learn-
ing is more or less synonymous with computer-aided instruction,
computer-assisted instruction, computer-based instruction,
computer-based training, digital educational collaboration, in-
ternet-based training, multimedia learning, online education,
technology-enhanced learning, virtual education, virtual learn-
ing environments and web-based training.
E-mail, electronic mail sent between computers. This can be
over a network, or with a modem over ordinary phone lines.
E-textbook. While a traditional printed textbook is used as a
standard work for the study of a particular subject, an electronic
textbook may be equipped with “special tools” that allow stu-
dents to access various resources on the Internet, highlight cer-
tain text segments, and take notes.
Ear, in typography, is an oval or round ending at the end of a
serif stroke on the lower case ‘g’ and ‘r’ in many serif typefaces.

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Early books. Before the invention of the printing press, almost
all books were copied by hand. The bookmaking process was long
and laborious. The first books used parchment (sheepskin) or
vellum (calfskin) rather than paper. The book covers were made
of wood and covered with leather. This made books expensive
and rare. During the later Middle Ages books were often chained
to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft from the libraries. When
the moveable type was introduced during the 15th century, it be-
came possible to produce books in larger quantities.
Early graphic design. Already 5,000 years ago the Egyptians
combined their writing system with illustrations in illustrated
manuscripts and wall decorations. In the fifth century, the
Greeks introduced the concept of symmetry. This was based on
their observations about the natural world. Later, Roman artists
developed symmetric arrangements of letters and graphic ele-
ments. For centuries monks produced hand-drawn manuscripts
in their monasteries. They paid careful attention to the selection
and placement of each graphic element and they tried to main-
tain a consistent style throughout every single work.
Early information design. >Albertus Pictor, Amenhotep II,
Basilica of San Francesco d’Assisi, Bayeux Tapestry, Books of
the dead, Gianlorenzo Bernini, Jelling, Rock art, Sennefer.
Early pictures. Already by the Middle Ages, a wide spectrum of
image types were used for teaching and training purposes. These
pictures ranged from realistic drawings to abstract diagrams.
Pictures were used for the identification of important medical
herbs, for instructions on how to construct a building, fight with
a sword, swim, and use a cannon. Some manuals and instructions
from the 15th century and onwards are preserved. A fencing
manual by Hans Thalhoffer (1443) includes visual instructions in
wrestling and unarmed combat. >Gregorius the Great.

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Early writing systems. Early writing systems were developed
in Sumer about 5,200 years ago, in Egypt about 5,200 years ago,
in China about 3,200 years ago and in Mesoamerica about 2,600
years ago. Early Egyptian hieroglyphics used pictoral elements to
convey messages. Simple images could stand for letters or words
in a written language. This was one of the earliest examples of
being able to “read” and to “compose.”
Echoic memory (hearing) is closely related to the sensory
memory. This memory precedes the integration of signals from
various sensory systems. >Sensory memory.
Ecoliteracy, ecological literacy, is the ability to understand the
natural systems that make life on earth possible.
Ecological literacy, ecoliteracy, is the ability to understand
the natural systems that make life on earth possible.
Economic literacy is knowledge and understanding of basic
economics. Economic literacy is a vital skill in the modern soci-
ety, just as vital as reading literacy. >Numeracy.
Economic right. >Copyright.
Economical typography. >Cost effective typography.
Edgar John Rubin (1886–1951) was a Danish psychologist
and phenomenologist. He is famous for his optical illusion “the
Rubin vase,” or “the Rubin face,” that is seen either as a white
vase, or as the profiles of two black heads. The interpretation
fluctuates between the two possibilities even though the image
on your retina remains constant. (However, this optical illusion
is much older, examples can be found in 18th century French
prints.) Rubin’s theories became influential within Gestalt psy-
chology, yet he really did not want to be included among the early
Gestalt psychologists. >Figure-ground perception.

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Editing of visuals. We may crop or expand the original picture.
Parts of the picture can be deleted, added, altered, moved, or
changed in shape or position. The picture can be enlarged or re-
duced. A colour can be changed, removed, or added. The pic-
ture’s expressiveness can be altered by the choice of reproduction
method.
Educational design is designing, developing and evaluating
educational interventions as solutions to complex real problems
relevant for educational practice and educational policy.
Educational entertainment is media programmes that has
been designed to educate a specific audience through its enter-
tainment value. Walt Disney used the term as early as 1954.
Educational infographics are infographics used in education.
Educational objectives. An information designer needs to de-
velop skills in writing comprehensible, clear and consistent texts,
in creating clear illustrations and in creating a clear, transparent
typography and layout that aids understanding and learning. The
main goal in information design should always be clarity of com-
munication.
Educational posters are used in schools and other educational
settings. In Sweden, the Golden Age for educational posters
lasted from 1920 to 1950. An individual school could have a col-
lection of several hundred posters. These posters illustrated ani-
mals, history, landscapes, plants, religion etc. There can be no
doubt that the educational posters had great significance for both
teachers and students. In many countries filmstrips, slides and
overhead transparencies replaced educational posters. Now
these media have been replaced by image databases on the Inter-
net. >Poster.
Educational psychology. While the content of a visual image
is “pictured” to oneself, the content of a verbal image is “spoken”

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to oneself. In “educational psychology” modality refer to inner,
mental activities and experiences. People may have auditory mo-
dality, kinaesthetic or tactile modality, visual modality, or a com-
bination of these modalities. >Auditory modality, Kinaesthetic
modality, Mixed modality, Modality, Visual modality.
Educational technology is concerned with making instruc-
tion more effective and more efficient. Definitions and descrip-
tions have changed over time.
Educational theory. The term “learning style” is used in ap-
proximately the same way as the term “modality” is used in “ed-
ucational psychology.” Auditory, kinaesthetic and visual learning
styles are said to comprise different systems, through which we
interpret our day-to-day experiences. Auditory learners learn by
hearing. Kinaesthetic learners learn by doing. Visual learners
learn by seeing.
Educational visualisation, or educational visualization, is
using images to explain topics that are difficult, or impossible, to
see. Atoms are far too small and planets are too far away. >Visu-
alisation.
Edutainment are television programmes, video games, and
other kinds of materials, that are intended to be both educational
and enjoyable.
Effect on learning. Pictures can have a positive, a neutral and
also a negative effect on learning.
Effective headings. Well-written headings help the readers to
quickly find the information they want in a document. Headings
show the readers how the text is structured. Never end a heading
with a full stop. However, a question is followed by a question
mark (?) and an exclamation is followed by an exclamation mark
(!).
Effective typography. >Typography.

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Effective visuals. Visuals for information should be attractive
but “unambiguous,” not too “artistic” and therefore ambiguous.
To increase interest in a material it is a good idea to use a blend
of visuals. The type must be determined in each case. It is often
easier to control the production of a drawing than the production
of a photograph. A drawing may be the only realistic alternative.
Effective visuals should create an experience. The reader must:
1) Discover the picture. 2) Pay attention to the picture. 3) Read
the picture in an active and selective way.
Effectiveness. The effectiveness of a visual depends on the me-
dium, on the type of information and also on the amount of time
learners are permitted to interact with the material. Also, lan-
guage and cultural differences may impact the effectiveness of
visuals. It is also known that stylized and “simple” pictures are
more effective than complex pictures. The same visuals are not
equally effective for learners in different grade levels and for
learners with different prior knowledge.
EFL is an abbreviation for English as a foreign language.
Egyptian is a slab-serif type category.
Electracy and mediacy include the ability to understand and
work with digital media. >Mediacy.
Electro-press is a method for printing. The system functions
like a copying machine but it has “magnetic ink” instead of a coal-
based powder. This gives a better print quality. A computer gives
impulses to a number of diodes charging the drum. The charged
ink is attracted to parts of the drum and it is possible to print
single pages or sheets.
Electronic media provide an increasingly important support-
ing role. Typical services and products include books with ma-
chine-readable sections, modular material, audio tapes and
discs, video tapes and discs, mixed media productions, personal

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computer software, authoring languages to enable teachers to
prepare their own material and on-line computer-based training.
Electronic publishing. Traditionally publishers and booksel-
lers have been working with books. Books are distinct products.
We can hold them in our hands. We can use them when we like
and as often as we like. Regardless of the content, fiction or non-
fiction, the book is still a product. Only a small part of what you
pay for a book is the cost of the actual content. Products are grad-
ually replaced by “content-services,” that is, services to give peo-
ple the entertainment, information and news they want to have
in specific situations.
Electronic revolution. At the end of the 1960s the “electronic
revolution” was announced. The book was said to disappear and
would very soon be replaced by new electronic media. During the
first years of the 1970s publishing houses throughout the world
were hit by severe crises. After more than 500 years the printed
word is still alive and will certainly be so for a long time but to-
gether with other carriers of information and partly in other for-
mats. We now have “on-demand-publishing” where only a
printer linked to a computer prints the information needed at a
specific occasion. Most of the information needed can be read on
the screen and might never be printed.
Elegant design must be reduced to its essential elements and
each element reduced to its essential form. >Graphic design ge-
nus.
Element connectedness principle. >Connectedness princi-
ple.
Elementary colours are black, white, yellow, red, blue and
green. >Natural Colour System.
Elements are all the parts of a finished design. Together they
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Ellipsis is a series of three dots ... indicating that a word or a
whole segment of a text is missing.
Em dash, em rule (—), is the square of the body of type. In 12
point type the em dash is 12 points wide. In desktop publishing,
we can create the em dash/em rule (—), the en dash/en rule (–),
as well as the hyphen (-). An em dash/em rule is used to indicate
a break in a sentence. There should be no space before or after an
em dash. >Dash.
Emblem is a symbolic picture with an accompanying text. Em-
blems developed in the sixteenth century and enjoyed an enor-
mous popularity for the next 200 years or more. Emblems influ-
enced celebrations and festivals, painting, poetry, rhetoric and
writing.
Emblem books are illustrated books printed in Europe during
the 16th and 17th centuries. They contain emblematic images
with explanatory texts. Many thousands were printed through-
out Europe and exercised a huge influence on literature and the
visual arts.
Emboss is a figure or a pattern that is stamped into a substrate,
e.g. paper, without any foil or ink. The design gives a raised im-
pression, and adds a tactile element.
Emergency remote teaching, ERT, is a temporary shift of in-
structional delivery to an alternate mode due to crisis circum-
stances. In many countries, schools were forced to stop their tra-
ditional face-to-face class-room-based teaching due to the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Emotional design articulates the influence of the feelings that
objects in our everyday world evoke in people.
Emotions. Visuals with an emotional content support and ex-
tend the attitudes that we already have. Pictures will usually not
change our attitudes, but they make us more convinced that we

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already hold the “right” views. Emotions and moods are readily
conveyed with onomatopoetic combinations of graphical sym-
bols. Visuals may express relationships between people. >Colour
and emotions.
Emphasis is used to attract or direct attention or dramatize cer-
tain points within a visual. A dark dot in a light field, and a jog in
a straight line are two good examples of emphasis. These con-
trasts attract attention. Emphasis may also be used to direct at-
tention, and to keep attention, or dramatize certain points within
information materials.
Emphasis in layout. Elements like headings, photos, drawings
and information graphics attract attention and are often the en-
try point into a page in a newspaper. Size and placement of such
elements influence how the reader will actually read. Many read-
ers may jump over too large pictures and never look at them at
all. The competition for our attention is usually very fierce in
commercial arts and in advertising. Thus, discontinuity is often
used intentionally to attract and even to hold attention of the
viewers.
Emphasis in pictures. Emphasis is used to attract or direct
attention or dramatize a certain point within a visual. Many dif-
ferent elements in a visual can cause emphasis. Such examples
are: Areas of colour, areas of shading, arrows, change in size, cir-
cles or ovals around objects, colour, colour against no colour,
complexity, detail against no detail, directionality, imbalance,
implied motion, isolation, letters in pictures, light against dark,
line drawings in photos, line intersections, lines, position or
placement of elements, reducing details, repetition, stars, tonal
contrast, variation out of context and words in pictures.
Emphasis in signs. Warning signs must have a high contrast
relative to their background. Informative words shall be used for
signals such as “Danger”; for descriptions of a hazard such as

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“Shallow water”; and for specific actions that should or should
not be performed, such as “No diving.”
Emphasis in text. We have several possibilities to emphasize
elements in typography. We can use boldface, colour, italics, key
words in red, light against dark, and small against large. In order,
not to confuse the readers, it is important to establish a con-
sistent system for how to signal emphasis. Boldface or italics
should normally not be used for continuous text, but for empha-
sis of parts of a text. The use of underlining and all capital letters
should be restricted to headings and titles if they are used at all.
Usually bold and italics are quite sufficient.
Emphasise. In order, not to confuse the readers, it is important
to establish a consistent system for how to signal emphasis. Use
bold and italics for emphasis sparingly; too many emphasised
words may reduce the emphasis.
Emphasise text. The most important elements in an infor-
mation material may be emphasized to enhance attention and
perception. Emphasis may be used to attract, direct and to keep
attention to parts of the content. It is possible to provide empha-
sis in information materials with the help of a number of specific
design elements. The major examples of stylistic variation of reg-
ular text are bold, italic, and bold italic. Headings are usually
set in bold and in black. Headings can also be set in colour.
In many documents some words are set in the italic style. How-
ever, bold and italic words are not common. We can set key
words in a different colour, for example blue, green or purple.
We can sometimes use light characters against a dark back-
ground, for example in some signs.
Empty signifier, floating signifier, is a signifier with a highly
variable, or non-existent signified.
En dash, en rule (–), is used between numerals (e.g., 33–45, and
also as a minus sign (e.g., –12°C), as in mathematics (6–2=4). In

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desktop publishing, we can create the en dash/en rule (–). The
en dash/en rule indicates some kind of differentiation in a text.
It may replace words like: and, through, and to. >Dash.
Encoding is the production of texts by encoders with references
to relevant codes.
Encoding–Decoding model. The sender/encoder constructs
“meaningful” texts. The receiver/decoder accept, negotiate or
oppose to the intended meaning in the received text.
Endnotes are placed at the end of an article, or a paper. Usually
a smaller type size or a different typeface is used.
Enhanced high low bars is the name of a kind of schematic
picture. >Bar chart.
Enrichment theory. >Perceptual learning.
Entertainment and leisure, representations close to reality
might be good choices. For instance, it could be exciting to “walk
around” among the actors in a holographic film in stereo and re-
alistic colour. For information and education, too much realism
in the representations would make it difficult or even impossible
for the viewer or learner to identify the essential learning cues.
Entertainment design, or mass design, is an umbrella term
for mass design areas, such as mass-communication, and jour-
nalism. The main objective for mass design is to provide news,
views, and entertainment.
Entry term, or headword, is he first word in the explanation of
a term in a glossary. >Glossary.
Environmental literacy is the capacity to perceive and inter-
pret the relative health of environmental systems and take ap-
propriate action to maintain, restore, or improve the health of
those systems. There are three proposed levels: 1) Nominal,

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indicating ability to recognize many of the basic terms used in
communicating about the environment and to provide rough
working definitions of their meanings. 2) Functional, indicating
a broader knowledge and understanding of the nature and inter-
actions between human social systems and other natural sys-
tems. 3) Operational, indicating progress beyond functional lit-
eracy in both the breadth and depth of understandings and skills.
Environments. >Computer based training environments.
Episcope. An episcope is a device capable of projecting opaque
documents, such as text and pictures on paper, or small objects.
Episodic memories are memories of specific things we have
done, seen, heard, felt, tasted and so on.
EPS, Encapsulated PostScript, is a standard graphics file format
based on vectors, or object-oriented information.
ERT, Emergency Remote Teaching, is a temporary shift of in-
structional delivery to an alternate mode due to crisis circum-
stances. In many countries, schools were forced to stop their tra-
ditional face-to-face class-room-based teaching due to the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Esoteric jargon and impenetrable jargon can be perceived as
incomprehensible by the uninitiated. Since readers who do not
know the code are left out, its use poses the risk of “one-way only”
communication and has no value outside of initiated circles. We
find it unsettling when experts speak down to us; it puts us into
a defensive frame of mind and may even cause us to become ob-
stinate. Interaction analysts describe this as a “You’re OK, I’m
not OK” reaction. However, what we should be striving for is a
“You’re OK, I’m OK” situation.
Etching. An image is scratched in a flat plate covered with a
layer of an acid-resistant coating, like wax. When the plate is
placed in an acid solution the lines are cut, or etched, into the

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metal. By varying the time for the etching process, it is possible
to decide blackness and thickness of the lines. An etched line has
blunt endings. Methods of etching has been known since 1523.
Graphic artists mainly use this method as a fine arts technique.
Ethics. As a rule the information designer must respect copy-
right as well as other laws and regulations that are related to de-
sign, production, distribution, storage and use of information
materials. This concerns the use of artwork, illustrations, logos,
lyrics, music, photographs, specific sounds, symbols, text and
trademarks. It is also very important to pay respect to different
ethical rules, media-specific ethical guidelines and honour all
business agreements.
Ethos is the way in which the senders present themselves. This
may be done directly by the senders telling something about
themselves, or indirectly by the way in which the senders act or
appear physically. Ethos may evoke feelings of trust in the
sender, as well as distrust. Ethos indicates whether the sender is
familiar or not and the relation the sender has to the receiver, for
instance, friendly or formal.
Event schemas organise our conception of the content and of
the sequences of events. >Long-term memory.
Events. Action, humour, drama, violence, time displacement,
parallel action, metaphoric descriptions (symbolic actions) and
change are all examples of events that may be the main content
in visuals. It is known that pictures showing events usually are
perceived more interesting and more effective instructional ma-
terials than static pictures. Obviously, an activity is best shown
in moving pictures.
Everyday graphics are used for information about the content
in packages, e.g., with food. Contrary to the producer of news
graphics, but in conformity with the producer of posters, the

140
producer of everyday graphics often has time enough to plan and
design the messages in an optimal way. Space is often very lim-
ited.
Everyday life. A well-designed information material makes
everyday life easier for people and it grants good credibility to the
senders or sources.
Exclamation mark (!) is a punctuation mark in written Eng-
lish. It is usually used after an exclamation or interjection to in-
dicate strong feelings or to show emphasis.
Execution of visuals. Informative pictures should always be
designed so they are easy to read for the intended audience. The
goal should be clarity of communication. Basic elements (dots,
lines, areas and volumes), size (picture, subject, depth), shape
(external and contour), colour (hue, value, grey scale, saturation
and visibility), contrast, texture, light (outer and inner orienta-
tion), emphasis, composition (organization, balance, centres of
interest and direction), perspective (depth, angle of view, levels),
technical quality, pace, speed changes (slow, fast), editing, zoom-
ing (in and out), panning, visual complexity and visual effects are
examples of pictorial factors and pictorial components.
Execution. >Image execution.
Execution perspective, or design perspective, includes text
design, image design, shape design, sound design, light design,
spatial design (expo and event), and time design (the ability to
deliver information when the user needs it).
Excelsior is a classical newspaper typeface.
Expanded time dimension. >Pictorial dimensions.
Expanded type has been regarded as positive light and provid-
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Experience. Using more than one sense can enhance our expe-
rience, perception and understanding of a message and make it
easier to form a conceptually complete model of a topic. A gen-
eral view can make it easier to understand detailed information.
Multiple perspectives are also important. Many media can only
convey limited “aspects” of the total information. Multimedia al-
lows us to use all our senses and also to view information from
different perspectives, which can improve understanding.
Experience-design includes parts of the areas architecture,
exhibit design, game design, interactive multimedia computing,
storytelling, theatre, visual design, visual literacy and website de-
sign.
Experience-dimension is based on the functions of human
perception and our possibilities to experience the contents of the
actual message. In many information systems, experience of in-
formation is somewhere between the terminal points “directed
and intended” and “free and associative.” Movies and TV-pro-
grams, video-programs, expert systems, hypertext systems, daily
papers, interactive video-programs, hypermedia-programs,
computer games, music, fiction and poetry can be used for illus-
trating the “Experience-dimension.” Moving up the scale the sys-
tems provide more free and associative.
Experiential learning. The process of active learning and real
work experience is sometimes called experiential learning.
Learning is facilitated when it primarily is based upon direct con-
frontation with practical, social, personal or research problems.
Here, the role of the teacher is to facilitate learning.
Experimental design embraces cross-disciplinary practice
and transforms information into experiences and strategies for
future social and urban environments.
Expert user review is a process in which a draft of a document
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Expertise. A source with a high degree of expertise may be de-
scribed with words like able, accurate, authoritative, experien-
ced, informed, intelligent, knowledgeable, skilful and trained.
The opposite words would describe a source with a low degree of
expertise.
Explanatory graphics depict the ways things were, are, or will
be, for example, the weather. These graphics range from simple
drawings to sometimes complex combinations of drawings,
maps, photographs, and video.
Explicit memory. >Declarative memory.
Exploded drawing, exploded view drawing, is a diagram, pic-
ture or technical drawing of an object. It shows the order of as-
sembly of various parts, or their relationships. The parts are sep-
arated or suspended in space. Exploded view drawings are used
in catalogues and manuals. >Drawings.
Exploded pie chart is a schematic picture. >Pie charts.
Exploded view drawing. >Exploded drawing.
Expo graphics are used at exhibitions and trade fairs. A subject
matter is presented using verbal and visual techniques and the
real objects. The graphical information may aid understanding of
how the real objects can be used.
Exponential curve is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Expressionistic style is a pictorial artistic style, an artist’s ren-
dition of the subject that leans heavily towards abstraction.
Extended refer to horizontally wide type designs.
Extended text. The extended text concept implies that texts can
consist of a variety of communicative resources that form a joint
entity. Examples are written words combined with various forms
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External access. The information designer is obviously not re-
sponsible for how the intended receivers store their information
materials in binders, shelves and archives or in computer based
digital systems. However, when possible, the information de-
signer should design for “easy external information access.”
Thus, information materials should fit the main systems for stor-
age. >Digital documents, Information access, Standard paper,
Technical documentation.
External context is the entire communications situation, i.e.,
senders and their intentions for the picture and receivers and
their circumstances (e.g., time available). It includes Close con-
text and Social context. >Context perspective.
External contour. The visual’s external contour should be
blurred and unclear so the visual fades in and out of the back-
ground and never clear enough to stand out against the back-
ground. A printed image should fade in and out from the (white)
page and a projected image should fade in and out from the
(dark) screen.
External representations are physical configurations such as
various information sets.
External shape. The picture area in drawing, painting and still
photography can have any shape and any orientation. Most pic-
tures, though, are cropped and published in square or rectangu-
lar formats. However, the visual’s external shape should actually
rather be “free-form,” round, or oval and not delineated by
straight lines. Perception of shape is influenced by contextual
variables.
External theory. External information design theories are
based on research in supporting sciences. These theories are
called Aesthetics theory for ID, Facilitating theory for ID, Com-
munication theory for ID, Providing theory for ID, Information
theory for ID, and Language theory for ID.

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External textual structuring refers to the techniques used to
structure text with linguistic, spatial and typographic cues. The
techniques include the use of blocked text, horizontal lines to di-
vide blocks, italicized text and bold text.
Eye movements. In normal reading the text within fovea vision
comprises an area of seven to ten letter spaces. Outside of the
fovea the number of sensory cells decline. Here the retina is less
sensitive. However, these sensory cells are important for our “pe-
ripheral vision.” Our eyes never remain still. They tremble at a
frequency of about 30–90 Hz. The eye alters its fixation point
constantly. It also makes constant small jumps. We constantly
“scan” the things we look at. The pattern for these eye move-
ments and fixations depends on what we wish to see, or are told
to >in a picture. There is a positive correlation between the num-
ber of fixations and intelligence and visual learning.
Subjects looked at this picture of Two flying House Martins (left),
in this version with a frame, and in another version without the
frame. The results are shown in the two following pictures,
where all fixations from all subjects are noted. Some parts of a
picture are never “seen.” Subjects are aware of the frame (left)
but there are no fixations on it.
Eye-level perspective, normal perspective, is a level perspec-
tive. Objects are usually viewed straight from the front and at the
same level as the viewer. This “normal picture angle” and the
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Eye sensitivity. Our maximum sensitivity is between green and
yellow. Our minimum sensitivity is between red and blue.
Here the NCS Colour Circle is combined with information on the
eye’s sensitivity. Our maximum sensitivity is between green and
yellow. Our minimum sensitivity is between red and blue.
Eye, in typography, is a name for the empty space in the letter
‘e’. Also >Counter.
Eyes in photographs, will influence our perception of the in-
dividuals. Individuals shown with closed eyes are viewed more
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F
F series paper. In Sweden, the ISO system of A, B and C for-
mats is supplemented by adding D, E, F and G formats.
Face is the printing surface of type; also, any particular style of
type.
Faceism ratio is the ratio of face to body in an image. This ratio
influences the way we perceive a person in an image. When the
face takes up most of the image we focus on the person’s intellec-
tual and personality attributes. When the body takes up most of
the image we focus on the person’s physical and sensual attrib-
utes.
Face-to-Face. Traditional schools offer courses, instruction
and programs with instructors present in the same place and
time
Faces. Messages including visuals are preferred by most sub-
jects and they attract attention. Generally speaking, humans, es-
pecially our faces, are the kind of content that will get attention
in images.
Facial expression is a variable that will influence our percep-
tion of individuals in photographs. Individuals smiling are
viewed as positive and individuals frowning are viewed as nega-
tive.
Facilitating attention. There are always far more stimuli than
we can ever notice. Most stimuli remain unknown, unseen, and
unheard of. One of the information designer’s first problems is to
catch the attention of the members of the audience. Then it is up
to the designer to hold or keep their attention. Any information
material must constantly redraw the attention in order to hold
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Facilitating attention to colour. In order, for colour to be
used as efficient cues and attract attention we can use a few ac-
centing bright and bold colours and use colour to clarify the
structure of a text.
Facilitating attention to layout. Layout and typography
should be transparent and not stick out and cause any specific
attention in information materials. However, sometimes, it may
be important to direct attention to specific parts within infor-
mation materials. We can put pictures as close to the relevant
text as possible and use arrows, bullets, icons, margin notes, rep-
etition, underlining, and/or white space to highlight the relevant
information.
Facilitating attention to pictures. Pictures may be used to
attract attention, gain attention, get attention, hold attention
and maintain attention to a given material or a given subject. The
receiver must >or rather “discover” each picture and actually
read the message in an active and selective way. Good captions
will direct attention within pictures.
Facilitating attention to symbols. The receiver must be able
to >or rather “discover” symbols. This is especially true for dif-
ferent kinds of warning signs. We can combine colour with shape
and position, make warning signs with adequate reflectance,
good lighting and high contrast to their background.
Facilitating attention to text. In order, to attract and hold at-
tention to texts in information materials we can make the struc-
ture of a text as clear as possible, set text bold and large enough,
use headings to make the subject matter readily apparent and in-
dicate the relative importance of different items in the document.
Facilitating interpretation. >Facilitating mental pro-
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Facilitating learning. Any graphical message should be legi-
ble, readable and also well worth reading for the intended audi-
ence. Any audial message should be audible, distinct and also
well worth listening to for the intended audience.
Facilitating memory. There is a close relationship between
guidelines aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines aimed at
facilitating perception, processing and memory.
Facilitating memory for pictures. In order, to facilitate
memory for pictures we should put pictures as close to the rele-
vant text as possible, co-ordinate design of learning materials
with a theory of meaningful learning.
Facilitating memory for text. In order, to facilitate memory
for text we should present only a limited number of information
elements, present text and illustrations in close connection, use
cuing to highlight ideas.
Facilitating mental processing. Design has the unique ca-
pacity to shape information. In general, one can state that infor-
mation should be as simple, clear, and unambiguous as possible.
There is no direct correspondence between groups of letters, par-
agraphs, reality, sentences, texts, and words. Simplicity in a mes-
sage will result in easier and more effective perception, pro-
cessing and memory of that message.
Facilitating perception. We organize and analyse infor-
mation that we have paid attention to. Colours, illustrations, im-
ages, lines, pictures, sounds, symbols, texts, and words should be
integrated in such a way that they can be interpreted as a mean-
ingful whole rather than a number of individual elements.
Facilitating perception of colour. Depending on age, cul-
ture, gender and profession, there are different subjective reac-
tions to colour. There are likes and dislikes of colour, based on
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with care. We should consider that many people are colour-blind,
not focus on specific colours as always best and not use more
than three or four text colours on the same page, screen, or slide.
Facilitating perception of layout. To aid perception we
should avoid too short and too long lines, make sure that distri-
bution of space reflects relationships and use colour, orientation,
pattern, shape, size, texture and value to show that objects belong
together.
Facilitating perception of pictures. In order, to improve the
reading value of the pictures we should provide a good contrast
between figure and ground in pictures, consider cultural differ-
ences and use photographs showing people.
Facilitating perception of text. In order, to improve the
reading value of the text we should avoid irrelevant information
and distracting jargon, provide text with a rich language for
pleasant reading and use a list of contents to create pre-under-
standing.
Facilitating processing of colour. In order, to facilitate the
processing of colour we should use colour coding in a consistent
way but limit the number of colour codes. We should also Find
out likes or dislikes of colour among the intended audience.
Facilitating processing of layout. In order, to facilitate the
processing of layout we should avoid inconsistent use of typogra-
phy, use illustrations that are relevant to the content in the text
and use captions to anchor interpretations of pictures.
Facilitating processing of pictures. In order, to facilitate the
processing of layout we should use pictures that are relevant to
the content of the text, use line drawings when study time is lim-
ited and use realistic versions of artwork when unlimited study
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Facilitating processing of text. In order, to facilitate the pro-
cessing of layout we should divide the text into sections, subsec-
tions and paragraphs to avoid too large masses of text, use a va-
riety of examples and non-examples and provide the time that is
necessary for the receivers to read, interpret and understand the
message in the text.
Facilitating theory for ID is an external theory with influ-
ences from cognitive disciplines.
Facilitating understanding. In order, to facilitate under-
standing we should adapt the message to human attention and
perception in order to facilitate interpretation and learning. We
should edit the message for better comprehensibility and easier
understanding.
Fact is known to be true, by experience and/or observation.
Facts is a term for a group of information materials in the cate-
gory Factual information. The objective of facts is for the re-
ceiver to comprehend, i.e. to succeed in understanding the mean-
ing of something and possibly, but not invariably, forming
her/his own opinion about it.
Facts–examples of ares: 1) Information on current events,
historical events, future events. 2) Information on geographic lo-
cation; where something is, the best route to get there. 3) Infor-
mation on goods and services, prices, dimensions, delivery times,
delivery terms, performance etc. 4) Information on organisa-
tions, their addresses, bank giro account number, managers,
complete names, legal status, postal giro account number, busi-
ness hours etc. 5) Information on times. What time does the bus,
ship, flight, train depart? What time does the show begin? How
much time do I have left on the parking meter? 6) Safety infor-
mation, e.g. evacuation from a ship, aircraft, hotel, public build-
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Factual content. “Realistic pictures” can provide reasonably
objective documentation of an object or a product.
Factual content statistics. Numeric data are often used to il-
lustrate situations, such as relationships between variables and
parts of a whole. Data can be presented in many formats. Graph-
ical formats include comparisons of numbers, lengths, areas, vol-
umes, positions and also comparisons of different combinations
of these variables.
Factual information is a term for a category of information
materials. We can use some of the following components in de-
veloping an information material: addresses, article numbers,
bank giro account numbers, bar codes, dates, declarations of
contents, delivery terms, descriptive texts, drawings, indices of
various kinds, informative graphics, informative texts, informa-
tive texts, ISBN numbers, ISSS numbers, lists of various kinds,
maps and plans, narrative texts, non-fiction texts, postal giro ac-
count numbers, price information, product numbers, prose, reg-
istration numbers, schematic pictures (diagrams and graphs),
serial numbers, subject indices, summaries, symbols, tables. Fac-
tual information is more comprehensive than brief messages.
False friend. A “false friend” is a word that looks almost the
same in two languages but has different meanings.
False perspective, imaginary perspective, was often used in
European architecture and pictorial art to create illusionistic ef-
fects. Some artists helped people to “fool the eye.” This is the op-
posite of information design and instruction design.
Familiarity. Common typefaces are easier to read than uncom-
mon typefaces. Serif typefaces are often considered to be easier
to read than sans serif typefaces, except for small letter sizes.
Common typeface families like Baskerville, Berling, Bookman,
Garamond, New Century Schoolbook, Palatino and Times New
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reports. Modern newspaper typefaces include Gulliver, Stone,
Swift and Utopia. These are all serif typefaces. Like Times New
Roman they have large x-heights and good legibility. Helvetica
typefaces may be the most widely used among the sans serif type-
faces in the world today. In printed materials Helvetica may be
used for headings, labels in pictures, captions and tables.
Family literacy is an educational method providing parents
and children with family-focused and long-term educational ser-
vices. A literate family tends to be a stronger family with children
more likely to be successful in school.
Fantasy images. Fantasy is an imagined, generally pleasant,
event or object. We create fantasy visual images by juxtaposing
previously acquired combinations in new ways. Using our imag-
ination, we can generate mental visual images of things we have
never seen nor experienced before. Fantasy fulfils a wish or sat-
isfies a desire whose ultimate origin is subconscious.
Farsightedness, hypermetropia is the opposite to Myopia.
Here the axial length of the eye is too short for the lens. Distant
objects are properly imaged on the retinal plane. Close objects,
however, are formed behind the retinal plane. The opposite case
is called Myopia.
Feature graphics is a general designation for information
graphics that describe more timeless subjects, such as popular
science. Here, the producer may have several weeks or even
months to create the copy and acquire the photographs.
Fenton. The British photographer Roger Fenton (1819–1869)
was one of the first war photographers. He documented the Cri-
mean war in 1855.
Ferdinand de Saussure, (1857–1913) was a Swiss linguist,
philosopher, and semiotician. His ideas laid a foundation for
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He used the term semiology in his study of meaning of signs. Ac-
cording to Saussure a sign is composed of two parts, the signifier
and the signified.
Ferro-electric Liquid Crystal Display. >FLCD.
Fibonacci numbers is a numerical series where each number
is the sum of the preceding two numbers in the sequence: 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89 and so forth. This is a close approxima-
tion of the golden quota (8/5 = 1.6).
Field of knowledge is the sum of knowledge gained from prac-
tice and theory. It may be researched and taught in higher edu-
cation. Fields of knowledge change constantly in response to
many different factors. A limited part within a field of knowledge
is an area of knowledge.
Field of study is traditionally an academic discipline, a branch
of theoretical knowledge that is researched and taught in higher
education. >Academic discipline.
Field study is what researchers do to create or approve facts in
real settings. Field studies crosscut disciplines, fields and subject
matters that have the power to mediate experiences in a concen-
trated format. Field studies are considered to be an instrument
for qualitative research that could fulfil a number of research
styles. A field study creates learning situations, about complex
instances through extensive descriptions and contextual anal-
yses. It could record a great deal of data from observations of long
duration that are presented in a straightforward and compressive
format. The reader could either get a recommendation of the in-
sights or get insights that could be transformed into similar situ-
ations.
Fields in information design refer to clearly delineated ac-
tivities, often addressing specific target groups, in which access
to a certain type of information is important. The following are

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examples of some important fields: administrative information,
consumer information, economic information, geographic infor-
mation, product information, public health and pharmaceutical
information, social information, technical information, tourist
information. Different kinds of information products and differ-
ent media can be used in each field.
Figurative representations include two groups: 1) Visuals,
and 2) Graphic symbols.
Figure stone. >Image stones.
Figure-ground perception is a fundamental aspect of field
organization. It is however, not always referred to as a Gestalt
law, rather as a figure-ground articulation. The Danish psy-
chologist/phenomenologist Edgar John Rubin presented his
work on figure-ground perception 1915/1921. This was before
Max Wertheimer presented the Gestalt laws.
Figure-ground principle, figure and ground principle, fig-
ure and background principle, theory of figure and ground. We
select some elements in a picture as the figure. The remaining
elements constitute the background. This is one of the simplest
perceptual organizations.
File formats are systems used for encoding and storing data.
Common file formats for storing images include JPG and TIFF.
Filigree is intricate ornamental work that is usually produced
using fine wires of gold and/or silver.
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) was an Italian architect and
engineer who figured out a practical method that made it possi-
ble to produce accurate representations of a scene from a precise
location and a definite point of view. Around 1420 Filippo Bru-
nelleschi made many public demonstrations of optical linear per-
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Western Europe. It became standard studio practice and opened
up for illustrative drawings.
Fill-in blanks. Fill-in blanks (_) can be used in assignments
and in lists of various kinds, for people to mark their choices.
Film media is two- or three-dimensional. Two-dimensional
film media include still pictures, and moving pictures.
Filters. Someone wishing to transmit a message to unknown re-
ceivers often have many alternatives. The sender selects the op-
tion he/she believes to be the most efficient. In mass communi-
cations, message reception can be affected in countless ways.
Texts and pictures are selected and edited. Different viewers per-
ceive the same text and/or image in different ways since there
always are great differences in perception.
Final design. The final design represents the outcomes of each
specific design process, such as products, services, processes and
systems. On a theoretical level the intention of the overall design
process might be the same regardless of the specific design area.
Finance and business markets are time critical. Such services
demand “real-time” communication. They may be available on
demand or include an alerting service. Typically, these services
will be concerned with financial matters such as stocks and
shares, commodity trading, etc. Non-time-critical services will
include a series of browsing and alerting services similar in pur-
pose to newsletter-type publications. Such media as videotex, tel-
etext, Internet, Intranet, electronic mail, audiotape and digital
discs may supply them. In-house publications such as manuals
will be increasingly presented in electronic form, with greater in-
teractivity and also quality of reproduction and presentation.
Financial capability. >Financial literacy.
Financial capability. >Financial literacy.

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Financial literacy, financial capability, is the ability to under-
stand finance. It refers to the set of skills and knowledge that al-
lows an individual to make informed and effective decisions
through their understanding of finances. >Numeracy.
Finding information. Computer-based information systems
have made it easier to find information, but there are also factors
that can make it harder to find exactly the information we are
interested in. One reason is that we associate words in different
ways and we give words different meanings depending on their
contexts. We may find a lot of superfluous information when
searching for documents in a bibliographic database. It is almost
impossible to know that we have found everything of interest to
us after a search in a hypermedia or multimedia system. The in-
formation we want may be located in many different nodes in the
web. It is often impossible to scan every information item in the
database. It is desirable to be able to execute search questions as
a complement to browsing and navigation. In addition, it is im-
portant that the producer of a multimedia information system
carefully plans which information to communicate and how to
communicate it.
Fine art is usually assumed to mean the visual arts, like archi-
tecture, painting and sculpture.
Firm rules. >Design motto.
First line indents are the distance between the beginning of
the first line in a paragraph and the left margin. They are often
used for the running text in books. First line indents improve leg-
ibility, as well as comprehension of printed materials. Indenting
of every sentence will, however, slow down reading speed. >In-
dents.
Fisheye perspective, or five-point perspective, has four van-
ishing points placed in a circle and one in the centre. This is the
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Five-point perspective, or fisheye perspective has four van-
ishing points placed in a circle and one in the centre. This is the
curvilinear equivalent of a one-point perspective.
Fixation. >Eye movements.
Fixed interfaces. Many products have “fixed interfaces” in e.g.
instruments and instrument panels. Simple characters, symbols,
or words are impressed or printed on the product. They can be
printed on labels or signs. Some messages from a fixed interface
are brief messages, whereas others comprise instructions requir-
ing action in several steps. Fixed interfaces are gradually being
superseded by graphic interfaces in many products.
Fixed rounding. All figures are converted to tens, hundreds,
thousands, or millions.
Flaps are extensions of e.g., the dust jacket on a book. The flaps
are folded back into the publication to add additional support
and rigidity. Often flaps contain notes about the author, and
about the book.
Flatbed scanners. Professional flatbed scanners or laser scan-
ners are large scanners, with high resolution, working with col-
our or black-and-white.
Flattened type arfe considdered to have heaviness, inertia, self-
satisfaction and solidity.
FLCD, Ferro-electric Liquid Crystal Display, is a flat screen with
liquid crystals. The ferro-electric crystals work tens of thousands
times faster than the normal LCD. They give better contrast and
use less energy. >LCD.
Flexography. In flexography rubber or plastic plates on cylin-
ders are used. Low costs and solvent inks to speed ink drying are
making inroads into book printing, magazines and even newspa-
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printing for textiles. It is also a method for production of packag-
ing materials, labels and wallpaper.
Flicker threshold. Movie film usually uses 24 pictures and
PAL-television 25 images per second. This is just below the so
called “flicker threshold” which lies at about 27-28 images per
second. At higher picture frequency, the eye can no longer keep
up. NTSC-television uses 30 images per second and thus gives a
more stable television-image than PAL-television.
Floor plans and layouts are schematic pictures. >Plans.
Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a British nurse and a
statistician. She was the founder of modern nursing. During the
Crimean War she tended to wounded soldiers. Florence Nightin-
gale was a pioneer in the visual presentation of information and
statistical graphics. She developed and made extensive use of po-
lar area diagrams, a special form of pie chart, in her reports on
medical care in the Crimean War. This type of diagram is also
known as the Nightingale Rose Graph. Florence Nightingale is
famous for her Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army
in the East, 1858. She understood that Civil servants and Mem-
bers of Parliament were unlikely to understand traditional statis-
tical reports.
Flow chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams
Flow diagram is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Flow map is a schematic picture. >Maps.
Flow visualisation, or flow visualization, is the art of making
flow patterns in air and water visible. The flow processes are
shown in computer models. >Visualisation.
Flushed left text, or unjustified text, has exact spacing between
letters and between the words. It keeps the visual rhythm con-
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poor readers. Results from reading experiments of justified and
unjustified texts indicated a significant increase in reading time
for the groups that read justified texts. There were, however, no
differences in comprehension. Whether a text is justified or un-
justified causes no significant difference in search time and com-
prehension of the information content for advanced readers. Un-
til recently most publishers regarded the use of anything other
than justified text as unprofessional. Today, however, unjustified
text is commonly used for running text in books, magazines, re-
ports and in some newspapers.
Flushed right texts can be used for captions that are posi-
tioned to the left of the pictures and for tables of contents. This
is, however, only possible when the line length is short. Regard-
less of justification system the ends of sentences should be deter-
mined by syntax rather than by an idea of a set width of line.
Focal point area of a design is the area toward which the
viewer’s eye is primarily drawn.
Focus groups. Members of the group of intended users may
form one or more focus groups. The focus groups should be asked
to discuss and review the information material at the various
steps in the production process. Focus group sessions may be
helpful in answering questions of how and why people behave as
they do and how they understand the subject matter in an infor-
mation material.
Fog screen. A fog screen is a technology that allows projection
of images on a screen in the air. This projection technology cre-
ates an illusion that images are floating in midair. A suspended
device produces a thin wall of mist, a “dry” fog, which is blown
down between two curtains, or layers, of air streams. The fog is
produced from ordinary water and consists of tiny water parti-
cles, a few microns in diameter. Two video projectors can be used
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walk through the screen with the images. Fog screen technology
can be used for a large number of applications.
Foil is print-finishing material that is stamped onto a substrate
using a heated die.
Folder consists of a single sheet, usually printed on both sides.
It may be folded two or more times and used as a piece in adver-
tising.
Folding is a print finishing process. Pages can be folded in many
different combinations.
Font, font of type, is one set of type of one specific size, and of
one specific variation of a typeface. The concept font is often
misunderstood. One font can’t include bold, italic, as well as reg-
ular characters. But any typeface can include a large number of
fonts. A regular typewriter can deliver one font, but a regular
desk top computer may be able to provide many hundreds of
fonts. However, in computer manuals, the word font is some-
times used to mean typeface, which is confusing for many read-
ers.
Font of type. >Font.
Footer, bottom margin, is the space below the text-face at the
bottom of the page. Like headers, footers may carry page num-
bers.
Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page. Usually a
smaller type size or a different typeface is used. A horizontal line
can be used to separate the footnotes from the running text.
When there are two or more columns on a page footnotes should
be placed at the end of the paper.
Forced perspective is a line perspective. It is a form of optical
illusion. Forced perspective is used in architecture, film, photog-
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used to make an object appear to be larger or smaller, to be closer
or farther away than it actually is. Producers use scaled objects
and manipulate the correlation between them, the camera or
viewer and the vantage point.
Forgetting. Most people forget things. At first forgetting is
rapid. Then it levels off. The process may increase by interference
from other memories. The amount of forgetting increases with
the amount of interfering material and with its similarity to the
material being remembered. People tend to remember what they
regard as most important; they typically operate by attempting
to reconstruct the incident using their existing knowledge, with
the result that they may recall what would have been expected
instead of what actually occurred.
Forgotten illustrations. Illustrations in textbooks are often
“forgotten” by students as well as teachers; therefore it is im-
portant for editors and information designers to clearly instruct
the learners to make good use of the pictures.
Form and function. >Function can take any form.
Form follows function. >Function can take any form.
Formal balance has total symmetry and it is felt to be static
and harmonious. It may, however, also be boring. Composition
can be used to direct the viewers in a document. >Informal bal-
ance.
Format. >Image format.
Format index is used to compare formats of pages, pictures,
sheets of paper, and text-faces. A format index is calculated as
the height/width x 100. Regardless of the size of the individual
artefacts all wide formats get indexes below 100. All square for-
mats get index 100. All vertical formats get indexes over 100.
Foundation. >Information design foundation.

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Four-colour Black is a way to print black and white pictures
using all four of the CMYK process colours. This method results
in deeper and richer black and white images.
Four-colour process is a printing process that provides full-
colour images by using cyan, magenta, and yellow, and added
with black for better density.
Four-field diagram is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Four-field matrices is a matrix. >Matrices.
Four-point perspective, or infinite-point perspective, uses
curving perspective lines to approximate the image on the curved
retina in the bottom of the human eye. It is the curvilinear variant
of a two-point perspective. A four-point perspective image be-
comes a panorama that can go to a 360-degree view and beyond.
Fovea is the region of the retina that gives us sharpness of vision.
>Eye movements.
Fox Talbot. The British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot
(1800–1877) made a photomechanical reproduction in the
1840s. His new technique led to the photo glyphic engraving
process, which in turn led to photogravure. As a photographer,
he contributed to the development of photography as an artistic
medium.
Fragments. We can easily comprehend fragments of individual
events from around the world because television is a suitable
choice for supplying fragments out of context, often without any
real value. Television in the U.S. has made entertainment the
natural form for all presentations of reality.
Framing is a variable that will influence our perception of indi-
viduals in photographs. The larger a person’s face appears in a
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A close-up headshot of a person is more positive than a photo
taken from a distance.
Francesco Griffo (1450–1518) was an Italian punch cutter who
worked for the printer and publisher. >Aldus Pius Manutius.
François-Auguste-René Rodin. >Auguste Rodin.
Free and associative experience. The only true, free and as-
sociative experience is caused by reality itself. All representations
of reality introduce some kind of restriction on our experience.
However, associative multimedia systems have the potential for
creating a relatively free and associative experience. Computer
games are an example of a medium with very free and associative
experience. The structure of a computer game can vary between
linear and non-linear. Navigation is often relatively unregulated
and images are common in graphic adventure games. Fiction, po-
etry and music, all have a very high potential for free and associ-
ative experience since our imagination is not restricted by exist-
ing visual images.
French fold is a complicated and expensive way to produce a
four-page uncut section, e. g. in an ‘art-book’. Here, a vertical fold
is immediately followed by a horizontal fold.
Frequency index is the percentage of textbook pages with pic-
tures. In textbooks for the junior level this index may be 90–
100%. In textbooks for the intermediate level the index may be
50–70% and 30–60% in textbooks for the junior high level.
Frequency polygon is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Fresco, meaning fresh in Italian, is a technique for mural paint-
ings in which water-borne colour pigments are applied to a damp
lime-plaster surface. Michelangelo used fresco painting when he
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Frieze is a decorated, or even sculptured, horizontal element in
architecture, at the top of a building.
Frog perspective, or Worm’s-eye view, of an object means that
it is viewed from below. >Line-based positional perspectives.
From writers to readers. A great many people in different oc-
cupational categories are required for transmitting a message
from writers to readers: people such as text and picture editors,
graphic designers, typesetters, repro technicians, printers, book-
binders, stockroom staff, salespersons, order takers, bookstore
employees, librarians, buyers and administrators. The different
steps involved in publishing are time-consuming and jointly rep-
resent a major expense. About ten percent of the price of a book,
not including tax, usually goes to the author. Electronic publish-
ing could change this situation to some extent. It would reduce
the distance between writers and readers. New opportunities for
a dialogue could then develop in some instances.
Frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain are specialized
for planning and execution of complex activities.
Frozen moment in time. A still picture is a “frozen moment
in time.” It does not show what happened before or what will
happen after this specific moment.
Frutiger’s grid is a typeface numbering system developed by
Adrian Frutiger. The system is used to identify the width and
weight of a typeface family.
FTF is often short for “Face-To-Face” (in person), and also for
many other terms.
Full paragraph indents are the distance between the para-
graph and the left margin. Long quotations should be distinctly
separated from the rest of the text. Quotations are often in-
dented, sometimes also on the right side. Full paragraph indents
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Full stop (.) can mark the end of a complete sentence. If the
whole sentence is in parentheses, the full stop should come be-
fore the closing bracket. If only the last part of the sentence is in
parentheses, the full stop should be outside the last bracket.
Full-tone picture. Dots, lines and areas of solid paint build up
all line-art, or “full-tone pictures.” Business graphics, line draw-
ings, maps and schematic illustrations all belong to this category.
Function can take any form. This phrase is an adaptation of
the famous: “form follows function” which can be traced back to
the American sculptor Horatio Greenough, who had used it in
Form and Function, written in 1851. >Leon Battista Alberti.
Functional literacy measures how effective reading skills are.
It comprises three parts: 1) Prose literacy refers to the ability to
read linear text. 2) Document literacy is the ability to solve prob-
lems using information in documents. 3) Quantitative literacy is
the ability to understand simple arithmetic, such as percentages.
As a part of environmental literacy functional literacy is the abil-
ity to understand nature and interactions between human social
systems and other natural systems.
Functional principles is a term for one of the four groups of
message design principles. It includes six principles: >Defining
the problem, Providing structure, Providing clarity, Providing
simplicity, Providing emphasis and Providing unity. Guidelines
that are based on these principles will assist the information de-
signer to design information and learning materials that are well
suited for the intended receivers.
Functional properties predominate in symbols. They are also
more important than suggestive properties in informative and
educational pictures since their task is to convey certain infor-
mation in the most effective manner possible. The objective for a
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and arouse the viewer’s interest and involvement (e.g., regarding
conditions in other countries and cultures, or in past times).
Functions of visuals. Generally speaking it is not possible to
rank the different types of visuals. Often the type of visual that
should be used must be determined in each individual case with
a view to various demands on the picture and the prevailing
budget framework. From a theoretical point of view, a visual can
possess many different functions and effects or combinations of
functions and effects.
Futharks, runic alphabets, are early carved characters, runes,
that were used in the Germanic languages before the adoption of
the Latin alphabet, with its letters.
Futura is a common sans serif typeface.
Future media might also be capable of representing smell,
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G
G series paper. In Sweden, the ISO system of A, B and C for-
mats is supplemented by adding D, E, F and G formats. G5 (169
× 239 mm) and E5 (155 × 220 mm) are popular for printing dis-
sertations.
Game design is the process of designing digital games, mainly
for use in computers. This requires artistic and technical compe-
tence as well as writing skills.
Gamification of learning is the application of game design el-
ements to learning activities.
Gamut is the spectrum of colours that monitors, printing pro-
cesses, scanners, and software applications can reproduce. A
gamut diagram defines the range of colours that are at the de-
signer’s disposal.
Garamond, Claude >Claude Garamond.
Gate fold. >Throw out.
Gender refers to cultural and social constructions of femininity
and masculinity.
Gender roles. Old traditions may be hard to change. In the
1970s many researchers showed that media provided clear mes-
sages about specific gender roles. This is in fact often still the
case. Content in many basal readers still show traditional gender
roles regardless of the major changes that have appeared in pub-
lic opinion.
Genera. >Design science.
General audience. >Receiver groups.
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General writing strategy. >Writing process.
Generative learning model, the learner generates relations:
1) between the text and the learner’s knowledge and memories
and experiences, and 2) between the units of the text, such as
words, sentences and paragraphs. Learners will more easily re-
call images and concepts that they themselves generate as op-
posed to images and concepts generated by the instructor or gen-
erated by the learning material.
Generic concept system shows different types of hierarchical
concepts. >Conceptual model.
Geneva is a common sans serif typeface.
Gentleman’s perspective is a Level perspective. It is higher
than the eye-level perspective, but it is lower than the military
perspective.
Geoffroy Tory (c 1480–1533) was a French humanist. He may
be seen as one of the first graphic designers. Tory was among the
first persons in the world to design books and book pages by ed-
iting text and illustrations based on their visual expressions. He
designed and published his own first version of a Book of Hours
and he broke with all traditions. Tory became a key figure in
printing and publishing during the Renaissance.
Geoglyphs are intentional humanmade renderings of natural-
istic/identifiable or abstract/unidentified forms. They frequently
include large-scale designs.
Geometrical perspective is related to the placement of ob-
jects within a picture. Objects close to the viewer are shown in
the lower part of the picture. Objects further away may be placed
on a vertical line, as steps on a ladder. This is sometimes called
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Georgia is a serif typeface specifically designed for clarity, by
the type designer Matthew Carter. It is similar to Times New Ro-
man, but larger at the same point size. It has a large x-height and
open and wide characters. Thus, Georgia has good legibility on
computer screens, even at small sizes. The Georgia typeface is
very common for running text in documents at the Internet.
Gestalt is a group of visual elements with properties that cannot
be derived from simple addition of its parts.
Gestalt laws. >Gestalt principles.
Gestalt principles, Gestalt laws, are the basic for syntax in vis-
ual languages. We perceive combinations of groups of elements.
Each Gestalt principle is supposed to function, as long as all other
things are constant.
Gestalt psychology. Early in the 20th century the three psy-
chologists Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–
1941) and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) collaborated on the
founding of a new holistic attitude toward psychology called Ge-
stalt psychology or Gestalt theory. The essential thesis in Gestalt
psychology is that in perception the whole is other than the sum
of its parts. Visual perception cannot be understood simply by
analysing the scene into its elements. Instead, what we interpret
depends on the relations of these elements to one another. The
brain works fast and in a holistic way and we “>the big picture.”
Gestalt theory is based on the belief that the whole is other
than the sum of its parts. >Gestalt psychology.
Gianlorenzo Bernini. >Bernini.
GIF, Graphic Interchange Format, is a file format used for
transferring small graphics files between computer systems via
the internet.
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Gill is a common sans serif typeface.
Giotto di Bondone (1266/1267–1337) was an Italian painter,
and an early information designer, who worked more than 700
years ago. Giotto and his team of about 40 collaborators worked
with an extensive series of fresco paintings in the Scrovegni
Chapel in Padua (1303–1305). For the first time since ancient
times, painted figures appeared as living, natural people. Giotto
was very much influenced by >Roger Bacon.
Glossary. A glossary contains explanations of all terms (includ-
ing abbreviations and acronyms) that are to be defined in accord-
ance with guidelines for the selection of terms. Explanations of
terms are short and distinct and usually without. The first word
in an entry is an entry term or a headword. In this entry, the
entry term is “Glossary.”
Glossy is a reproduction proof of type.
Goal is 1) A measurable end result (the big picture) having one
or more objectives (specific results) to be achieved within a spe-
cific timeframe. It is easier to measure objectives than goals. 2)
In information design and in message design the main goal is
clarity of communication. The message must be accurately de-
veloped and transmitted by the sender and then correctly inter-
preted and understood by the receiver.
Goal of credibility. A message that is not believed cannot per-
suade. A crude presentation may not be believed. Careful presen-
tation may be required to overcome prejudices held by decoders.
Golden mean, or golden section, is a mathematical method
from ancient Greece of dividing space. The proportions of the
golden mean are 1:1.618. The sides in the golden rectangle are
3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc.
Golden ratio. For centuries, the proportions according to the
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as an important “rule” in architecture, art, design and typogra-
phy. The golden ratio is an irrational number of a line divided
into two segments. The ratio of the whole segment (a+b) to the
larger segment (b) is the same as the ratio of the larger segment
to the shorter segment (b/a): (a+b)/b = b/a.
Golden rectangle has sides of approximately the proportions
3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34. Being multiplied by 1.62 enlarges any
such rectangle and being multiplied by 0.62 reduces it.
These are golden rectangles. An interesting result of the golden
rectangle’s proportions (left) is that if we draw a square (yel-
low) inside the rectangle using the short side of the rectangle as
the side of the square, the remaining area (blue) will also be a
golden rectangle. This process can be repeated indefinitely.
Golden section, or Golden mean, is a mathematical method
from ancient Greece of dividing space. The proportions of the
golden mean are 1:1.618. The ratio is about 8:13. Shapes defined
by the golden ratio have long been considered aesthetically pleas-
ing in Western cultures.
Good advice, a term for a group information materials in the
category Instructions. Good advice provides a simple explana-
tion of how to perform practical tasks. Newspapers, magazines
and some TV programs offer good advice. They give us e.g. tips
on how to arrange flowers, how to diet, how to build furniture
and how to use makeup according to the latest fashion trends.
Good continuity. >Continuity.
Good design is simple, bold and direct. Significant design ele-
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wherever possible. Good design provides rational, functional
aesthetics, as well as effective and efficient layouts for all media.
Good documentation implies very good comprehensibility
and low cost, as well as ready accessibility when it is needed and
only then in fact. Poor comprehensibility diminishes the re-
ceiver’s confidence in the sender of the documentation and
heightens the risk of unsound decisions. Many good suggestions
may be rejected because the people who determine their practical
merit simply do not understand what the suggestions call for.
Good figures in the sense of clarity, simplicity, regularity and
stability, are closed and exhibit a continuous contour. A given
contour can belong to only one of the two areas it encloses and
shapes. The contour shapes are perceived as a figure. Reversible
figures lack sufficient cues as to which side of a contour is figure
and which is the background. This is often used to create illu-
sions.
Good form principle, also known as the principle of good
form, law of good Gestalt and the law of Prägnanz. There is a
need for the mind to have a general understanding of a situation.
According to the principle of good form we have a tendency to
perceptually group elements together if they form a pattern that
is orderly, regular and simple. This principle demonstrates that
people eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity.
We see the left pattern as one circle partially overlapping an-
other circle. But there are many possibilities.
Good information material has a distinct structure; it is rel-
evant, legible and readable by the intended target group. Good

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information materials meet stringent demands on good econom-
ics, good contents and good linguistic and technical quality. Dif-
ferent information materials may have multiple functions and
more than one objective all at the same time. Good information
materials make everyday life simpler for receivers who need the
specific information and provide senders with a good economic
return and good credibility.
Good information quality can be defined as the degree of
congruity between the sender’s and the receiver’s subjective per-
ceptions of the information, as well as of the reality that the in-
formation represents. By investing resources in improving the
quality of information, we can achieve better product and project
quality, while, at the same time making large cost savings.
Good legibility. A message has good legibility if it is easy to
read and if the reader can easily >and distinguish all different
parts of the message. Good legibility is economically advanta-
geous. Poor legibility may be a costly business for all parts in-
volved. >Legibility, Legibility of pictures, Legibility of text.
Good picture. >Good visual.
Good picture quality can be defined as the degree of coinci-
dence between the sender’s and receiver’s subjective perception
of the picture and the reality (external or internal) represented
by the picture. According to this definition, the concept “picture
quality” is related to the entire communications process.
Good readability. A message has good readability when it is
easy to understand. Good readability is probably always econom-
ically advantageous, whereas poor readability may be a costly
business for all parts involved. >Readability, Readability of pic-
tures, Readability of print media, Readability of text.
Good visual. A “good” visual has a high level of picture quality.
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174
readable and be displayed in an optimum context in an appropri-
ate format. The visual should convey information without ambi-
guity. It should be stylish and attractive and is often, but not nec-
essarily, also aesthetically pleasing. A schematic drawing has
good legibility if it is easy to read, from the viewpoint that the
reader should easily be able to >and distinguish all the different
parts of the schematic picture.
Gradient 1 is a ‘colour fill’ that increases from one chromatic
colour to another colour.
Gradient 2 is a ‘colour fill’ that increases in intensity from white
through the different tonal gradations to a solid colour.
Graffiti, from the Italian graffito, a ‘scratching or scribble’ is
unauthorised drawings or writings on public surfaces.
Grapheme is the smallest meaningful contrastive unit in a writ-
ing system. One example is (~), which is tilde.
Graphs are numerical arrays in pictorial form. They consist of
curves, line graphs, polygons, scales and a variety of special-pur-
pose graphs.
Grain is a grittiness effect in photographs caused by the large
grain size of fast-speed films reacting to light.
Grammar. In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules
governing the composition of clauses, phrases, sentences, and
words in any given natural language. The term grammar also re-
fers to the study of such rules. It includes morphology, phonol-
ogy, and syntax. These studies are often complemented by pho-
netics, pragmatics, and semantics.
Grapheme. A grapheme is the smallest semantically distin-
guishing unit in a written language. It is analogous to the pho-
neme in a spoken language. A grapheme may or it may not carry
any meaning by itself, and it may or it may not correspond to a

175
single phoneme. There are six families of graphemes: 1) Colour,
2) Form, 3) Grain, 4) Orientation, 5) Tallness, and 6) Value.
Graphic design may be described as the art and craft of bring-
ing a functional, aesthetic, and organized structure to different
kinds of texts and illustrations. The main objective is to provide
messages that are legible for the intended audience. Graphic de-
sign is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process.
Graphic design genus, group in message design. Often
graphic design is thought of with regard only to the print me-
dium, like books, magazines, newsletters, packages, signs and
many other products. But it is also used in several other media.
Graphic design objectives are to provide functional, aes-
thetic, and organised structure to all kinds of information sets. In
the writing of graphic design objectives, it may be an advantage
to use verbs like find, identify, read, and recognise.
Graphic design processes. Many authors have suggested var-
ious design processes. The following steps may be used in a
graphic design process: 1) analysis and synopsis, 2) production
of draft, 3) production of script and 4) production of original and
master. Each step includes a review activity.
Graphic designers of today have even more freedom than the
monks during the Middle Ages. Now, it is possible to combine
words and pictures at will, in effective and efficient layouts,
adopted for all media. Graphic designers work in “persuasion de-
sign,” as well as in “instruction design,” and in “information de-
sign.” Graphic design is a natural part of these design areas.
Graphic designers are responsible for typography and layout in
information and learning sets. The graphic designers may also
produce the final master for printing.
Graphic elements. In computerized image processing graphic
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mathematically as points and vectors, or in the form of pixels.
>Basic elements, Dots in visual language.
Graphic literacy is defined as 1) A component of functional lit-
eracy and 2) The use of visual representations including, but not
limited to, graphs, models, pictures and other visual symbols.
Graphic markers. Arrows, boldface type, headings and white
space are all examples of external textual structure. Arrows can
be used for cueing when information is located in places other
than in the normal directional flow.
Graphic messages. Any graphic message should be legible,
readable and well worth reading for the intended audience.
Photo manipulation and stylistic embellishment can be used to
create dishonest figures and tables. Both designers and readers
must be mindful of possibilities for honesty and dishonesty in
graphic messages.
Graphic symbols. In some cases we may >these symbols as
visual terms. They may be used to identify and illustrate posi-
tion, illustrate size relationships, navigate in databases, provide
a holistic perspective, recognize information and represent an or-
ganization, a service, or a product. Graphic symbols may supply
information and supply instructions. Graphic symbols often
make use of bright colours to intensify their meaning. Common
hues are pure yellow, red, blue, green, white and black, or com-
binations of these. Graphic symbols may be interpreted in many
ways. Sometimes only a few will understand the meaning of a
symbol. Thus, the sender will always have to supply explanations
for the symbols used in any specific situation. >Symbols.
Graphic user interface, GUI, is a communication system.
GUIs differ from fixed interfaces by tailoring information to dif-
ferent situations and only displaying information important for
the moment. Graphic interfaces can supply instructions on when,

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where and how the user should enter data in different computer
systems and certain equipment. >Fixed interfaces, Interface.
Graphicacy is the ability to generate and interpret information
in graphic information such as charts, diagrams, graphs, maps,
plans, photographs and symbols. Graphics are far more readily
available and widely used than ever before. There are no univer-
sal conventions for graphics.
Graphical literacy is the ability to generate and interpret in-
formation in graphic information such as charts, maps, graphic
and other pictorial presentations. Graphics are far more readily
available and widely used than ever before. There are no univer-
sal conventions for graphics.
Graphical media include almanacs, catalogues, children’s
books, dictionaries, educational materials, encyclopaedias,
forms, graphic symbols, handbooks, indexes, maintenance infor-
mation, manuals, maps, non-fiction books, plans, product de-
scriptions, reference books, reports, textbooks, and more.
Graphically complex texts. Readers often react in a positive
way. Texts with good typography will be noticed. It is more likely
that graphically complex texts will be read than “plain” texts. It
also takes less time to read a graphically complex text than a
“plain” text.
Graphically literate. A graphically literate person is comfort-
able with symbols and graphical expressions.
Graphics. The word “graphics” can be used for completely dif-
ferent concepts, here often the same as “information graphics” a
purposeful integration of text, pictures and graphic design into a
clearly delineated and structured area, i.e., a functioning whole.
Graphics editors work on schematic pictures that are deliv-
ered by experts and writers. They produce finished schematic
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completely new pictures, to convey the intentions of the subject
matter experts. There may also be a need for illustrators, fine art
artists and photographers, video producers, film-makers and
several others to produce the visual images that are needed.
Graphics standard manual is a corporate identity plan.
Graphs are numerical arrays in pictorial form. They consist of
curves, line graphs, polygons, scales and special-purpose graphs.
Gravure was first developed in 1875. The printing surface is di-
vided, by means of a screen, into a series of cells etched below the
plate surface. The surface may be treated in various ways to pro-
duce cells of varying size and depth. Sheet-fed and web-fed
presses may be used in gravure. Gravure printing gives good pic-
ture quality, but text is fluffy and ragged. Web-fed presses have
the plate wrapped around a cylinder and they can operate at high
speeds. They are called cylindrical, or rotary, presses. The pro-
cess is called rotogravure and is extensively used for printing of
weekly publications, catalogues and brochures in large runs.
Greenough. Around 1850 the American sculptor Horatio
Greenough (1805–1852) wrote, “form follows function.” The
American architect Louis Sullivan (1856–1924) made this phrase
famous in 1896.
Gregorius the Great (540–604) was the pope at the beginning
of the 7th century. He stated: “What writing is to the reader, pic-
tures are to those who cannot read.” Gregorius the Great pre-
sented his insights and views in a new and simple manner.
Greyscale is shades of grey between white–black in an image.
The perception of size is very much influenced by contextual var-
iables. There can be no large without small, and no small without
large.

179
These six circles all have the same size, but we may perceive
them as different because of the variation in grey levels.
Grid is a geometric, graphic structure used in graphic design to
organize the placement of individual elements within a design.
Grid layout is an arrangement of horizontal and vertical lines
that produce a network of squares and/or rectangles providing
an underlying structure to all different elements in a page layout.
Griffo. >Manutius.
Gripper edge is the leading edge of paper as it is fed into a
printing press. The press usually needs an unprinted margin of
about 1 cm (3/8”).
Gropius. >Bauhaus.
Grotesque typefaces began to be developed in the early nine-
teenth century.
Grouping. By grouping headings, paragraphs, illustrations and
captions, the designer aids communication.
Grouping principle, also known as the law of grouping. Most
figures are defined by a boundary. But, the presence of a bound-
ary is not required for the perception of form or shape. When
small elements are arranged in groups, we tend to perceive them
as larger forms. Small dots can form a triangle, a circle, a square,
a rectangle etcetera This is similar to “closure.” The principles of
common region, connectedness, proximity, similarity, symmetry
all work together to evoke grouping. >Perception “laws.”

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Groups of smaller elements may be perceived as larger figures.
Here small dots form a triangle, a circle, and a square.
Groups of information materials. Differences between in-
formation materials are considerable within each group. There
are usually clear and distinct differences between the seven
groups. The seven groups are: 1) Advertising and propaganda. 2)
Informative entertainment. 3) Brief messages. 4) Administrative
documentation. 5) Factual information. 6) Instructions. 7)
Teaching aids. However, some information materials simultane-
ously contain more than one kind of information message. Pack-
aging may contain e.g. both factual information and one or more
instructions. Packaging etc. could well be assigned to a category
with “combined objectives.’
GSM is an abbreviation for grams per square metre.
GUI. >Graphical user interfaces.
Guidance is a term for a group of information materials in the
category Instructions. Guidance provides assistance and uses de-
tailed written instructions to explain how to behave in a general,
professional and appropriate manner e.g. in solving a problem or
performing certain tasks. A handbook provides broad, summa-
rised information on subjects, often practical in nature. It may
deal with e.g. the art of angling, riding, painting, growing flowers,
collecting stamps, bird watching in the field, drawing etc. Guid-
ance in brochures and handbooks may be more than superficial.
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Guide maps show visitors how to get around in a building, an
exhibition hall, or in a museum etc.
Guidelines are normative and aim to streamline design pro-
cesses and practical work. Any organization may issue guide-
lines. By definition it should not be mandatory to follow a guide-
line. It is, however, mandatory to follow guidelines in many or-
ganizations.
Guillemets, (« ») are a form of quotation mark. They are also
called French quotation marks. > Quotation marks.
Gutenberg Bible. The 42-line Gutenberg Bible is printed in the
black-letter type styles known as Textualis and Schwabacher.
Here straight vertical strokes are combined with horizontal lines.
The complete Gutenberg Bible has a total of 1,272 pages. Most
copies were divided and bound in two volumes. Heavier copies
on vellum were sometimes bound in three or four volumes. The
Gutenberg Bible had a huge effect on the history of the printed
book. The development of the new printing technology resulted
in a dynamic and easier dissemination of the printed word.
Gutenberg, Johann >Johann Gutenberg.
Gutter is the margins at the binding edges of two facing pages.
Thick books need to have wide inner margins.
Gutter inner is the section of a page that are caught in the cen-
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H
H-height, cap height, or height, is the size of capital letters in a
typeface, expressed as a percentage of the point size. >x-height.
Hairline. A hairline is the finest line in metal type. Hairlines are
often used to divide columns.
Hairline serifs are thin and tiny without brackets. >Serif.
Halftone is a reproduction of continuous tone art, such as a
photograph. See Halftone picture.
Halftone picture. To be able to reproduce the fine nuances of
a photograph or fine art the original must be divided into small
picture elements. A reproduction camera is used for photograph-
ical separation (analogue technology). Here raster-screens are
used to transfer the original image into a raster-image. It is also
possible to use a scanner (digital technology) to create the raster-
image. A picture needs a large number of pixels. In fact, when the
resolution is only 100 lines per inch one A4-page has more than
5.8 million pixels.
Halftone screens make it possible to print photographs. The
first colour photographs were reproduced in 1881. Advances in
photoengraving and halftone techniques allowed the regular use
of photographs in print media by World War I. Because of the
development of the modern computer the methods for present-
ing photographs are now changing radically. Halftone screens
can be simulated with computer programs that sidestep the en-
tire photoengraving process.
Hand-held scanner. A hand-held scanner is moved slowly
over an image on paper at an even pace. The hand-scanner reads
a ten-centimetre-wide strip at a time. The resolution is usually
400 dots per inch and 16 grey levels. A graphic input tablet allows

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you to digitize an image by tracing the lines on a drawing with a
hand-held device like a mouse.
Handcrafted visuals such as a diorama, drawing, painting and
sculpture takes a long time to make, is highly personal, exists
only in individual, unique copies and only reaches a narrow pub-
lic. Pictures that are made by children often display considerable
spontaneity and reveal a great deal about their development, ma-
turity and personality. In all handcrafted pictures the relation-
ship of information presented to reality is totally controlled by
the artist. Most photographic pictures, though, are often records
of an event or object that actually existed. >Picture circle.
Hanging indents, or Out dentation, is the reverse of indenta-
tion. It is often used in lists with bullets and in lists with num-
bers. It may also be used in bibliographies and reference lists, for
the lines following the initial line in a reference. >Indents.
Hard copy is a printed copy of an image that is produced on a
computer screen.
Hardware are all physical components of technical systems,
e.g. computers and video systems. This includes all electronic,
magnetic, and mechanical parts.
Harmonious page. >Golden ratio.
Harmony in design can be said to be a pleasing arrangement
and combination of elements to form a consistent and orderly
whole. There is harmony in information material when all design
elements fit well together. Harmony is one of the aesthetic prin-
ciples in information design.
Harmony in typography will be achieved when there is good
relationship between the individual elements in the design and
the “wholeness.” A balanced typography gives an impression of
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184
Harry Beck (1902–1974) was an English engineering draughts-
man. He designed the simplified and not to scale topological map
of the Underground tube system in London (1931). The new map
was based on an existing map of the River Thames. Harry Beck
considered the needs of the individual passengers to be able to
easily plan their journeys, how to get from one station to another
and where to change trains. He therefore prioritized function,
simplicity and usability over geographical accuracy. All subway
lines were represented in different colours with horizontal, verti-
cal, or diagonal lines. The stations were evenly distributed. Dia-
monds indicated interchange stations. The map was immediately
very popular.
HCI. >Human computer interaction.
HDTV. >High definition television.
Head position is a variable that will influence our perception
of individuals in photographs. Individuals looking straight at a
camera look more in control than those individuals looking up or
to the side. Individuals look least in control if they are looking
down.
Head Up Display, HUD, is a special type of helmet used in ad-
vanced flight simulators and in Virtual Reality systems. Com-
puter generated images are projected by fibre optics onto the
curved visor in front of the pilot’s face. In the simulator the pilot
gets a flying experience that is suggested to be true to life. In sim-
pler simulator systems computer-graphics are projected onto
several screens, replacing the windows, or located just outside
the cockpit of the boat, car, or aircraft.
Header, running head, or top margin, is the space above the
text-face at the top of a page. Headers provide information that
will help the reader navigate in a document. Like footers, headers
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185
Heading, or headline, attract the attention of the readers, en-
hance and show the hierarchic structure, make the subject mat-
ter readily apparent and indicate the relative importance of
items. Well-written headings help the readers to find the infor-
mation they want.
Heading hierarchy. Headings on different hierarchic levels
will provide the readers with reference points and help them or-
ganize information cognitively for better comprehension, reten-
tion and recall.
Heading placement. Headings shall be placed above and close
to the following text. This distance shall be smaller than the dis-
tance to the previous paragraph.
Heading size. According to the “Rule of X’s,” the height of the
uppercase X of a smaller typeface should be the same as the
height of the lower-case x of a larger typeface in a hierarchy.
Numbering and lettering systems can be combined with typo-
graphic cueing of headings. Headings set in different type ver-
sions aid comprehension of the material. In order, to increase the
contrast it is a good idea to use larger as well as bolder type when
headings are printed in colour.
Heading style. Never end a heading with a full stop. However,
a question is followed by a question mark (?) and an exclamation
is followed by an exclamation mark (!).
Heading typography. We can use a special typeface for head-
ings, for example a sans serif typeface like Helvetica or Verdana.
Headline. >Heading.
Headword, or entry term, is he first word in the explanation of
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186
Health literacy is an individual’s ability to obtain, read, under-
stand and use healthcare information to make decisions and fol-
low instructions for treatment.
Hearing. Sound waves are transmitted from the eardrum via
the small middle ear bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) to the
inner ear. The movements of the third bone against the mem-
brane in the oval window create changes in pressure in a fluid
within the cochlea, the inner ear. This fluid causes a basilar mem-
brane to flex back and forth. The auditory cells are located on this
membrane. These cells cause the neurones of the auditory nerve
to send signals to the brain for processing. Different frequency
sounds are perceived when different parts of the basilar mem-
brane vibrate in response to these frequencies.
Height, cap height, or H-height, is the size of capital letters in a
typeface, expressed as a percentage of the point size. >x-height.
Height of character. >Size of type.
Helmholtz. >Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz.
Helvetica was developed from the Bauhaus tradition, inspired
by Futura. It is the ultimate design of the Bauhaus–Swiss–Inter-
national schools. Nowadays we see texts in Helvetica everywhere
around the world, on billboards and posters, in books, magazines
and newspapers, as well as in numerous publications of various
kinds. Helvetica typefaces are very useful for captions, headings,
single words in pictures, tables and for titles of various kinds.
Helvetica is often used in business graphics, for over-head trans-
parencies and reader slides. But Helvetica may be hard to read in
running text. In running text, it is difficult to tell the difference
between uppercase I and lowercase l (and also the number 1).
Henri-Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec-Monfa.
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187
Heraldry is the classification, history, profession, and study of
armorial bearings and the tracing of genealogies.
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1821–1894)
was a German physician and physicist. Professor von Helmholtz
made significant contributions in several scientific fields. In
physiology and psychology, he is known for his studies of the eye,
his theories of vision, ideas on the visual perception of space, col-
our vision research. He is also known for his studies on the sen-
sation of tone, perception of sound, and empiricism in the phys-
iology of perception. Professor von Helmholtz formalized the tri-
chromatic colour vision system proposed by Thomas Young.
Hex value/hex triplet. In web design colours are defiend with
a six-digit hexadecimal number or triplet. Colours can be
specified in the format #RRGGBB, where RR, GG and BB are the
hexadecimal values for red, green and blue values of the colour.
The values varies from zero to maximum 255 for each
component.
Hi-Vision The television-image is built up by 1,125 lines in Hi-
Vision, by 525 lines in the NTSC system and 625 in PAL. Each
line in Hi-Vision has 1,000 pixels. To manage the high definition
television-image’s closer line construction, the bandwidth for
each channel on the transmission side has to be increased to
about 30 MHz. For conventional television, a bandwidth of 6
MHz is sufficient. A capacity of 30 MB per second is needed to
handle moving high definition television-images in a computer
system. >High definition television.
Hierarchy. Using graphic design is a logical way to show the
relative importance of verbal and visual elements in a document.
Hierarchy principle is based on the mind’s tendency to pro-
cess and remember “chunks” of information that in turn are ar-
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High credibility. A high credibility message has a good struc-
ture, convincing arguments, proper references and relevant ex-
amples. High credibility sources exert a more persuasive influ-
ence on the receivers than low credibility sources. Receivers be-
lieve in a message of high credibility.
High definition television. The traditional PAL, NTSC and
SECAM television systems are all analogue. Analogue waves can-
not be compressed to carry more data. In order, to increase the
quality of the image it is necessary to use digital data. These for-
mats are called high definition television, HDTV. The aspect ratio
of high definition television is 16:9. This ratio is similar to some
current wide screen movies. There are a number of different for-
mats for high definition television. >Hi-Vision.
High-low bar is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
High-low close bar is a schematic picture. >Bar chart
High-quality information is correct, credible, relevant and
easy for the intended audience to access, interpret, understand
and use.
Higher level learning. >Double-loop learning.
Hippocampus in the brain is an important structure in
memory and spatial behaviour.
Hiragana. >Japanese.
Histogram is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
HLS, Hue, Lightness, Saturation, is a colour model.
Horizon. Don’t centre a horizon. Place the horizon in the upper
or lower third of the picture.
Horizontal balance is the “visual balancing” of the left and the
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189
Horizontal bar chart is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
Horizontal lines are restful and relaxing. They create a strong
sense of equilibrium in any composition. Horizontal lines that
are parallel to the borders of the picture give the impression of
calm and stability. A horizontal line can serve, e.g., as a horizon,
a street, or a sea. Horizontal lines are perceived as being shorter
than equally long vertical lines. >Lines in visual language.
A line (A) seems to be long when we compare it with a shorter
line (B), but it seems short when we compare it with a longer
line (C). Perception is relative.
Hot type, hot lead typesetting, hot metal type, hot metal type-
setting, mechanical typesetting, metal type, all refers to 19th-
century technologies for typesetting of text. Hot melted type
metal is injected into line moulds. The characters are used for
printing ink onto paper. This process afforded fast creation of
large quantities of type. It was especially used by the newspaper
industry.
HTML, Hyper Text Mark-up Language, is a “page description
language” used to format documents on the Web.
HUD. >Head Up Display.
Hue is the basic component of colour corresponding to different
wavelengths. Most people are familiar with hue through our la-
belling of colours such as yellow, orange, red, violet, blue, and
green. In colour description systems hues are usually placed in a
band around a centre, in a colour-circle. Hue is expressed as a
value between 0 and 360 on the colour wheel. All of the colours
in the rainbow are hues in the visible spectrum of light. Changing
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190
Hue Lightness Saturation System (HLS) is a colour descrip-
tion system. The hues are arranged as circles on the outside of a
double cone resembling the NCS Colour Solid. Hue specifications
start with blue at 0˚ and then follow the spectral order around
the circle. Lightness and saturation are defined as percentages
from 0 to 100. The HLS system is easy to use for colours on the
surface of the model. However, colours inside the model are dif-
ficult to define. As in the Munsell- and NCS- systems, brightness
creates problems.
Hue Value Saturation System (HVS) is a colour description
system that is rather similar to the NCS-system but utilizes an-
other coding. Value is defined as the relative lightness. White has
full value and black has no value at all.
Human communication. A general principle of human com-
munication is that the likelihood of successful communication
increases when a concrete reference is present. In the absence of
the actual thing, the next best reference is a visual representation
of the thing. Often a visual is a more pertinent reference for
meaning than the spoken or written word. Visuals are iconic and
they normally resemble the thing they represent.
Human Computer Interaction (HCI) emerged in the early
1980s. It comprises research on design of computer systems that
support people.
Human vision. >Vision.
Humanist is a group of sans-serif typefaces. These typefaces
are inspired by hand lettering rather than geometric forms. They
are the most calligraphic of all sans-serif typefaces,
Humour is often used in cartoons to point out a special situa-
tion, an occurrence, or an event. Humour and visual puns may
attract attention to the content. However, humour should be
used with great care. Misuse of humour and “funny people” may

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ruin the intended message. This is sometimes referred to as the
“vampire effect.”
Hybrid image. 1) An image created in a computer, combining
bit-map layers with object oriented layers. 2) Depending on the
viewing distance a hybrid image is perceived in different ways.
Hybrid images combine the low-spatial frequencies of one pic-
ture with the high spatial frequencies of another picture.
Hybrid learning integrates models of distance learning and
traditional learning. It emerged as a new teaching method for
distance learning in the late 1990s. Teachers adopted a more stu-
dent-centred learning model rather than a teacher-centred learn-
ing model. It is also called blended learning and mixed learning.
Hybrid reality, or mixed reality, is an environment where the
real and a virtual world merge. The user may interact with both
digital and real objects in real time.
Hybrid systems. In contrast to film and television, video-sys-
tems makes it possible to freely scan forward and backwards,
study pictures frame by frame, repeat interesting segments of a
videotape or videodisc, or pass uninteresting parts. Here naviga-
tion is rather unregulated, totally linear and based on visual
browsing of images.
Hyperlink is a Web link to other documents that are “embed-
ded” within original documents. A click on a link may take users
to other documents or other Web sites.
Hypermedia, “multimedia hypertext,” may include graphics,
sound, text and video. The links are usually indicated with “an-
chors,” special areas in a text or on a display. Clicking the mouse
on an anchor causes the link to be followed to the anchor at the
other end. After a while it is quite easy to get totally lost among
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192
structure. Many readers may find the hypertext and hypermedia
disorienting and difficult to navigate through.
Hypermetropia, farsightedness is the opposite to Myopia.
Here the axial length of the eye is too short for the lens. Distant
objects are properly imaged on the retinal plane. Close objects,
however, are formed behind the retinal plane. The opposite case
is called Myopia.
Hyperrealism is a genre of painting and sculpture resembling
a high-resolution photograph.
Hyperreality is an artistic style that blends reality and repre-
sentation so well that it may be hard to distinguish between fan-
tasy and reality.
Hypertext is text, not constrained to be linear, containing links
to other texts within a document or between documents. Quite
often hypertext documents and hypertext structures also include
pictures.
Hypertext literacy is a literacy made up of new and technolog-
ically altered kinds of access. Anyone can publish a website.
Hypertext systems. The interest in hypertext systems, other
than the WWW, has decreased during the last years. Software de-
signers are trying to create systems that combine the unique ca-
pabilities of computers and the human capabilities of under-
standing complex information structures. It seems to be a good
idea to use a structure that is already familiar to the readers. The
structure of a library, the departments, the bookcases, the book-
shelves, the books on the shelves, the chapters in the books and
the sections in the chapters may be recommended in many cases.
For large hypertext or hypermedia structures one or more in-
dexes may be the best way to access information.
Hyphen (-) clarifies your meaning when using two or more
words to form a compound adjective. Using hyphens is a way of

193
making expressions with three or more nouns in a row more pre-
cise. Use hyphens after certain prefixes: not normally after Latin
and Greek prefixes, but often after English. >Dash.
Hyphenation. Lines can be broken according to different prin-
ciples. According to one principle, lines can be broken only be-
tween words. According to another principle, lines can be broken
also within words. This can be done phonetically or according to
etymology. In mechanical word breaks, lines are broken at the
most convenient point, regardless of meaning. It is known that
poor readers have difficulty reading hyphenated text.
Hypotheses is a proposition accepted as highly probable in the
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194
I
IA. >Information architecture and Information assurance.
IBT, Internet-based training, is a kind of E-learning. >E-learn-
ing.
Icon is a term in semiotics An icon has a direct relationship with
a described object, such as a realistic drawing or a photograph.
Iconclass. The Inconclass system was developed in Holland. It
has a systematic catalogue on theological subjects. The system is
often used for classifying artistic pictures. Each picture can be
assigned a classification comprising a few index words/codes.
The method is based on a description of the picture’s main sub-
ject. Picture details and minor subjects cannot be indexed.
Iconeme is said to be a group of graphemes contextually en-
riched to a unit of iconic significance.
Iconic is a mode in which the signifier is perceived as imitating
or resembling the signified.
Iconic memory (vision) is closely related to the sensory
memory. This memory precedes the integration of signals from
various sensory systems.
Iconologia. >Cesare Ripa.
Icons are graphic devices displayed as parts of user interfaces
displayed on screens in order to help the user navigate computer-
based systems. These graphic devices are typically non-alpha-
betic and non-numerical.
ID. Today, the abbreviation ID has at least five different, but re-
lated meanings. In some contexts, ID means information design.
In other contexts, ID means instruction design, instructional de-
sign, interaction design, or interactive design. These different

195
areas are related, but they are different regarding several im-
portant aspects. It may sometimes actually be rather easy to mis-
interpret the use of the abbreviation ID.
ID SIG is a group for information design in the Society for tech-
nical communication (STC).
Idealistic right. >Copyright.
Ideation is the capacity to develop new concepts and/or new
ideas. The goal with ideation is to generate a large number of new
concepts and/or new ideas, that potentially will inspire better
concepts and/or ideas. Then a design team can focus on the best,
most innovative and practical ideas.
Ideo-pleasure is the pleasure we may experience with aesthet-
ics and values in art, books, movies, music and theatre.
Ideogram is a graphic symbol representing an idea or a concept.
Idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning is not discernible
from the definitions of the individual words of which the expres-
sion is made up.
IIID, International Institute for Information Design, sponsored
by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and
Technology, was organized to “…develop research and practice in
optimizing information and information systems for knowledge
transfer in everyday life, business, education and science.” IIID
defines information design as “…the defining, planning and
shaping of the contents of a message and the environments it is
presented in with the intention of achieving particular objectives
in relation to the needs of users.”
Illuminated manuscript is a handwritten text adorned with
decorations.

196
Illusion. One stimulus can be perceived in different ways on dif-
ferent occasions. There are many examples of “transformation
pictures” and of “impossible pictures.” When the brain analyses
new data, it automatically adds or subtracts information in an ef-
fort to obtain a “sensible” interpretation of that data. Horizontal
lines are often perceived as being shorter than equally long ver-
tical lines. Open and light forms are perceived as being larger
than closed and darker forms of the same shape in the same size.
Illustrated manuscripts. The Egyptians were the first culture
to produce illustrated manuscripts and wall decorations that
combined their writing system with illustrations. >Books of the
dead.
Illustration is a specialized area of art that uses images to make
an applied, visual presentation of a subject.
IM. >Information management.
Image association. Realistic photographs can generate a great
variety of associations in audiences. Visual experience is subject
to individual interpretation. Different assignments to a picture
will influence the meaning in the mind of the viewer.
Image content. Variables related to image content are the de-
gree of realism, the amount of detail, objects, time, place, space,
events such as “action”, humour, drama, violence, etc., time dis-
placement, parallel action, metaphoric descriptions (symbolic
actions), the relevance and credibility of the contents, compari-
sons and statistics, motion, sounds such as speech, music, sound
effects and emotions. Some of these variables apply to moving
pictures in films or TV. Some apply to stills in printed media like
books, newspapers, etc. Others apply to both stills and moving
pictures. The contents of pictures can evoke highly positive or
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197
Image context. A picture has an internal and an external con-
text. Factors inside a medium is internal or inner context. In
books, internal context is the interplay between text and illustra-
tions, the interplay between illustrations and layout. Movies and
TV programs have sound with speech, music and sound effects
plus visual and audio metaphors. Some computer programs con-
tain advanced animation with interaction between text, images
and even sound. The external context is the entire communica-
tions situation, i.e., senders and their intentions for the picture
and receivers and their circumstances (e.g., time available).
Image databases are logically coherent collections of digitally
stored images with some inherent meaning. A computer-based
image retrieval system is needed for searching and retrieving the
digitally stored images. Image databases have many implications
for society and are used in a wide variety of applications such as:
anatomy, astronomy, automated biology, botany, computer
aided design, criminal identification systems, cultural heritage,
geographical information systems, geology, house furnishing de-
sign, industrial systems, manufacturing systems, medical image
management systems, mineralogy and multimedia libraries.
Image design is development/execution of visual messages. It
is a powerful form of communication because visual messages
stimulate both intellectual and emotional responses–they make
us think as well as feel. Generally speaking it is not possible to
rank the different types of visuals. Often the type of visual that
should be used must be determined in each case with a view to
demands on the picture and the prevailing budget framework.
Image element. >Dots in visual language.
Image execution. Variables related to graphic execution, form,
or art style, might consist of image factors and image compo-
nents. They are composed of non-significant image elements,
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198
Examples of image factors and image components are image
type, whether images are drawings, paintings, photos, computer-
generated visuals, etc., brightness, light, shape (external shape,
external contour), size (image, subject, depth), colour (hue,
value, saturation), contrast, emphasis, composition (organiza-
tion, centres of interest, balance), perspective (depth, depth-of-
field, image angle, image height), technical quality, symbols,
signs and code signals in the image, pace, speed change (slow,
fast), editing, zooms in and out, panning, visual complexity, and
effects.
Image format. The choice of format is of major importance to
our perception of image contents. Our perception of a picture
(such as a photograph) changes when we view it as a paper print,
transparency projected on a white screen, as a computer image,
etc. If you watch a film on TV, cable TV, or VCR at home alone,
your perception of the film is very different from your response
when you watch the same film on a wide screen with hi-fi sound
in a cinema full of people. In analogical technical systems, letters
and numerals are represented by defined “type” (a, b, c, ...). Pic-
tures consist of lines and halftone dots. In digital systems, image
elements are mathematically defined either as intersections of
coordinates and vectors providing direction or as “pixels”, i.e.,
small rectangular image components.
Image framing. A frame or a box around an image, or some-
times around an illustration and text, may have different func-
tions. Image framing can be functional and/or attentional. A
frame will separate the image from the surrounding context and
draw special attention to information within the frame. In a
newspaper, framing is a way of helping the readers to combine
the corresponding text and pictures on the page.
Image functions–communication. According to research-
ers in the areas of instructional message design, visual literacy
and visual communication the most common opinions on

199
functions of visuals concern attention. Researchers mention at-
tract, gain, get, hold and maintain attention. Other common ex-
planatory verbs are: facilitate, provide, persuade, create (an in-
terest in), illustrate, clarify, motivate, present and reinforce in-
formation (to someone).
Image functions–information design. In information de-
sign the most common purposes of pictures are to: visualize,
clarify, inform, attract attention, facilitate reading, explain and
convey information. The type of visual to be used in the produc-
tion of materials for information and learning must often be de-
termined in each case with a view to specific demands on the vis-
ual and also to the prevailing budget framework.
Image functions–learning. The most common purposes of
pictures in the school environment are to: show, explain, visual-
ize, illustrate, clarify, inform, summarize, convey, mediate, elu-
cidate, present and give (perceptions), instruct, describe and en-
tertain. There seem to be different “fashions” in teaching practice
that differ from culture to culture and can change over time
within different cultures. Fashion in the use of educational media
is partly related to the technology that is available in that specific
culture at that time.
Image manipulation implies an improper control of people’s
perception of a given reality through the use of pictures. The eth-
ical rules for the press, radio and television clearly warn against
manipulation of picture content through misleading captions,
odd montage, or suspicious trimming. Photo manipulation and
stylistic embellishment can be used to create dishonest figures
and tables. Presenting inauthentic pictures as though they were
real documentary material is forbidden. The party purchasing
the right to use pictures is responsible for their proper use. De-
spite these rules, clear violations occur all too often. In produc-
tion of news the editors should ask themselves if every photo
meets the ethical standards of responsible journalism.

200
Image manipulation–additions. The relation between
width and height of the image can be changed by the addition of
space. To achieve emphasis, it is common to add information
such as shadows, contrasts, colours, signs and symbols.
Image manipulation–changes and deletions. To focus the
reader’s attention on the main content in a picture, individual
picture elements can be changed so as to improve contrast, acu-
ity, sharpness, grey scale, or colour scale. Surrounding parts can
be made paler, darker, or out of focus. The visual’s external con-
tour can be blurred and unclear so the picture fades in/out of the
background. Individual picture elements, as well as groups of
picture elements, can be moved or turned around within an im-
age for the sake of better balance and harmony.
Image manipulation–changing projection. The projection
plane can be altered through image modification or shrinkage.
This distorts size relationships within the picture and affects our
perception of image contents.
Image manipulation–converting photos. It is far too com-
mon that artists transform photographs to artwork for use in
newspapers and books. To transform a photo into a drawing is
not only unethical, it is also often an infringement of copyright.
Image manipulation–digital deception, digital photo ma-
nipulation, may enhance a message. A photographer may use im-
age manipulation in order to edit her or his own pictures.
Image manipulation–compression and expansion. An
image can be compressed, i.e., squashed from the sides or from
the top and bottom. It can also be vertically and/or horizontally
expanded or stretched. This will of course change the size rela-
tionships within the image.
Image manipulation–regulations. Modern computerized
graphical systems have a lot of built-in possibilities for

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manipulating images. Usually we need permission from the cop-
yright owner, and–from an ethical point of view–also from any
person in the picture. Artistic works are protected for the origi-
nator’s entire life plus an additional 70 years. Thus, many works
are protected for more than 120-130 years. It seems that photo
manipulation has become a common practice for many graphic
designers working in advertising and entertainment. However,
in news, information design and instruction design, readers and
viewers expect pictures and images to represent the truth in a
correct way.
Image morphology–artistic work. An artist producing a
picture on a canvas or on a paper may use crayons, lead, India
ink, paint and other materials. Combinations of dots, lines and
areas gradually produce the image. The actual picture is built up
from materials and pigments, which, according to intentions, can
be completely separated or gradually mixed.
Image morphology–inner images. Inner images are e.g.,
memories and thoughts. Like virtual images inner images lack a
physical format.
Image morphology–technical systems. In technical sys-
tems, the whole motif may be captured at once with a traditional
camera, or it may be scanned line by line with a TV-camera. Ex-
cept for the printing of line drawings, all other physical pictures
have to be divided into small elements, picture elements, or pix-
els, in the technical process of duplication, e.g., in the printing of
books or in the broadcasting of television. The image has vertical
(y) and horizontal (x) resolution and it has also “depth resolu-
tion” (z). An individual pixel may vary with respect to shape, size,
position, value, grain, colour and grey scale.
Image morphology–virtual images. Virtual images are cre-
ated by lenses, mirrors, and other optical systems. They can be
seen but not “captured” like images that are projected on a

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classical screen of any sort. Like inner images virtual images lack
a physical format. They are located at a point from which diver-
gent light beams seem to start before they have passed the optical
system. Mirror images can be photographed, but then they be-
come “photographs” and they are not “mirror images” anymore.
Image pairs. In many situations, it is a good idea to use pairs of
visuals in which one is true-to-life, such as a photograph and the
other represents an analytical representation, such as a simple
line drawing. The analytical visual makes it easier for us to un-
derstand the content and the realistic visual enables us to believe
in the content. So, the two visuals should be closely linked in a
carefully thought-out relationship.
Image placements. There are many ways to place pictures on
a page. Pages with more columns have more places for pictures.
Pictures need to be placed where they best serve the presenta-
tion. Too many pictures will confuse the layout and reduce the
chances of the reader getting involved in the text. Too few pic-
tures appear to increase the size of the body text. A picture may
expand beyond the width of the column and cover the margins
and sometimes the whole page. “Bleed” (covering the entire page,
with no margins) may be used constructively and creative to ex-
pand the impact of important attention-getting images.
Image recognition. Image recognition technology has made it
possible for robots to identify objects and to detect errors, such
as misplaced parts. Robots have regulated search and operate in
linear patterns.
Image retrieval systems. Retrieval systems for first-genera-
tion image databases included alphanumeric strings, full scripts
and keywords. >Indexing systems.
Image sequences. Sometimes it is necessary to divide a mes-
sage content into a series of pictures. Time scales and charts pro-
vide a reference in time and space. A sequence of pictures can be

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used to explain a development over time, hold a chapter together,
or enhance the depth dimension in a printed material.
Image stones. An image stone, picture stone or figure stone, is
a raised ornate slab of stone, usually limestone. All image stones
have carved and painted visual stories. However, a few image
stones also have runic inscriptions. More than 400 image stones
are known. Motifs often tell stories from the Nordic mythology.
There are image stones from AD 400 until the 12th century.
Image variables can be subdivided into four main categories:
1) Content, 2) Execution, 3) Context and 4) Format.
Imaginary perspective, or false perspective, was often used
in European architecture and pictorial art for the purpose of cre-
ating illusionistic effects. Some artists helped people to “fool the
eye.” This is the opposite of information design and instruction
design.
Imagined lines. An important factor to consider in information
design is: 1 + 1 = 3, or sometimes even more. Two bold and heavy
lines that run closely parallel to each other can easily be inter-
preted as three lines, two lines in colour, with a white line be-
tween them.
These two lines may be seen as three lines; in this case we see
two blue lines and one white line between the two blue lines.
IMAX is a wide-film system giving a large picture area. The film-
frames are put “lengthwise” on a 70-mm film and not “crosswise”
as on normal 35-mm film. IMAX is projected onto a large flat
screen. The audience sits high up in a slanting auditorium, with
a shorter distance to the screen.
Imbalance creates an uncomfortable feeling in the reader and
should often be avoided. However, imbalance can be used to

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dramatize a design and attract attention within a picture or
within an information material. Irregular, unexpected and unsta-
ble design will attract attention. Several artists use a visual strat-
egy, such as combinations of dark and bright, large and small,
round and square, to sharpen meaning. As soon as instability is
introduced in a design the result is a provocative visual expres-
sion. The eye will struggle in order to analyse the relationships
and the balance within the picture. >Informal balance.
Immediate memory. >Sensory memory.
Implicit memory. >Procedural memory.
Improve application. It is important to use new knowledge.
We will remember relevant and meaningful information if we
have use for it. The usefulness of conclusions made by other peo-
ple is limited. We must gain confirmation through our own expe-
riences. The information must be internalised.
Improve attention. The learning process starts with attention,
such as curiosity, excitement, expectation, or fear. In pedagogy,
this is called motivation. Pay attention to important information
and think about why this information is important. Avoid mental
overload. Minimise distractions and establish your priorities.
Improve listening skills. We can improve our listening skills.
We need to concentrate and be active rather than passive listen-
ers. >Listening skills.
Improve long-term memory. Work mentally with new infor-
mation. Review and reflect. Learn and store information in a
meaningful and organised way. Relate new information to what
you already know. Place realistic expectations on yourself. Re-
ward yourself. Use learning techniques.
Improve perception. Human perception is only sensitive to
changes in stimulation. You actually perceive less than all you
>and hear and much of the information is never used. At the

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same time, you perceive more than you >and hear. You believe
that you >and hear things that are not there. Your brain fills in
missing information. An accurate identification can be made
from correct perception of just a few parts. Break large tasks into
smaller ones. Summarise information. Make sure that you un-
derstand the problem. Read pictures and captions carefully.
Improve prerequisites for learning. For learning to occur
you must be mentally prepared to learn. You must be interested
and curious. You must be willing to learn. Get an enthusiastic
mentor. Work together with other learners. Use relevant and
meaningful material from different sources. Use all your senses.
Improve processing. Information is converted into experi-
ences and insights that are converted into knowledge. We need
to understand the function of both our short-term memory and
our long-term memory. There are special learning techniques.
Improve reading skills. There is no doubt that we learn a
great deal from reading. Be an active and not a passive, reader.
Increase your vocabulary. Learn the relevant terminology. Look
for usable information. Preview the chapter at hand to get an idea
of its topics and sections. Read the chapter outlines, the section
headings and the summary. Find answers to the questions: How?
What? When? Where? Who? and Why? while you read the text.
Improve short-term memory. Organise information into
larger units. Rehearse information. Put essential information in
long-term memory as soon as possible. Make notes.
Inch sign ". Inch is a unit of length in the imperial and United
States customary systems of measurement. Since July 1959 an
inch is 25.4 mm. A foot ' comprises 12 inches. The length “three
feet two inches” can be written as 3' 2" (96,52 cm).
Indent, (verb) to start a line of text away from the column mar-
gin and (noun) the actual space away from the margin. >First

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line indents, Full paragraph indents, Hanging indents, Nested
indents and Negative indents.
Indentation. In order, to emphasize the beginning of para-
graphs in running text the first lines may be indented and start
with empty spaces. >Indent.
Index is a term in Semiotics. It is a sign with a relationship to
the object it represents, without actually showing the object. One
example is a footprint of an animal.
Index of frequency is the number of pages with any visuals in
percent of all the pages in a document (except title pages and dif-
ferent indexes).
Index of readability (LIX) is an index showing how it is to read
a text. (>Readability.) LIX is calculated this way: 1) Count the
number of words in the text. 2) Count the number of words with
more than six letters. 3) Count the number of sentences. 4) Di-
vide the number of long words by the total number of words and
multiply the product by 100. This yields the average word length
(WL). 5) Divide the number of words by the number of sentences.
This yields the average sentence length (SL). 6) WL + SL = LIX.
(LIX 20–30 = simple text, suitable for children’s books; 30–35 =
literature; 35–45 = moderately difficult text, weekly magazines;
45–50 = popular science subjects; 50–55 = difficult text, trade
literature; 55+ = extremely difficult text.)
Index of utilization is the degree of use of media or pictures in
teaching. When teachers never utilize a specific medium, the in-
dex is 0. When teachers utilize a medium every lesson the index
is 100; 50 means every week; 25 every month; 12.5 means once
during the semester. Teachers usually use the blackboard and
textbooks in their teaching. During every day lectures, use of
other media is rare. Several media are never used at all or are
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Indexed colour is an image mode of a maximum of 256 col-
ours. This reduce file sizes of RGB-images for use in Web pages.
Indexes are lists with page numbers to various parts of the con-
tent in a document. Like the reference list, the index might be
bulky. To aid overview and easy access, an index is often ar-
ranged in two or three columns. The index text is set in smaller
type on shorter lines than the running text. As with the reference
list, an indented text may be used.
Indexical is a mode in which the signifier is causally, or physi-
cally, directly connected to the signified.
India paper, Bible paper, is a lightweight, opaque, strong, and
thin paper that helps reduce the weight of a publication.
Industrial design is the use of applied art and applied science
in the design of systems for mass production of industrial prod-
ucts. Industrial design can overlap with engineering design.
Industrial robots. >Visual structures.
Inertia. The eye has inertia. This inertia enables us to perceive
motion. When we look at a person who is walking or running, the
eye records a series of stills that ultimately blend into one an-
other and form a moving image. This inertia also enables us to
>motion in the stills that comprise a movie film or a TV image.
Infinite-point perspective, or four-point perspective, uses
curving perspective lines to approximate the image on the curved
retina in the bottom of the human eye. It is the curvilinear variant
of a two-point perspective. A four-point perspective image be-
comes a panorama that can go to a 360-degree view and beyond.
Infinity symbol ∞ is a mathematical symbol representing the
concept of infinity. The infinity sign is a common typographic el-
ement of graphic design, and it is used in several corporate logos.

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Infodidactics is an umbrella term for the methods used for
teaching various aspects of information design. The huge spread
among the different disciplines makes information design an in-
teresting, but also a complex area of research and teaching.
Infographer is another term for information designer.
Infographics, or information graphics, are visualisations of
complex data. A skilled designer may combine drawings, graphs,
headings, images, photos, tables, and text segments on an often
very restricted area. Modern infographics contain digital images
and text that communicate information in a way that is easy to
disseminate. Digital infographics can be easily shared through
social media platforms, and reach large audiences for transfer of
information.
Infography is the practical component of information design.
It is the actual, practical work with design and execution of struc-
tured combinations of words, pictures and graphic design.
Therefore, a designer of messages needs to have good skills in
writing comprehensible, clear and consistent texts, in creating
clear illustrations and in creating a clear, transparent typography
and layout that will aid attention, perception, interpretation, un-
derstanding and learning for the intended receiver. The task of
designing complete information materials may be overwhelming
for one single individual. For that reason, a team of people, with
skills in different areas, are often working close together.
Infology is the theoretical component of information design. It
is the science of verbal and visual presentation and interpretation
of messages. On the basis of man’s prerequisites, infology en-
compasses studies of the way a combined verbal and visual rep-
resentation should be designed and produced in order to achieve
optimum communication between a sender and a group of re-
ceivers. Infology models contain both theoretical (descriptive) el-
ements as well as normative (prescriptive) elements. Producers

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of information and learning materials can facilitate communica-
tion and the learning processes of the receivers. Any graphic mes-
sage should be legible, readable and well worth reading for the
intended audience and any audio message should be audible, dis-
tinct and well worth listening to. >
This model shows how infodidactics
(teaching), embraces infology (theory),
and infography (practice). View this
as a cross section through a sphere.
Infology theory is the internal theory, based on research
within the new academic discipline Information Design.
Infomercials should never be confused with infographics. An
infomercial is an advertising film which promotes a product in
an informative and supposedly objective style. It may be a televi-
sion commercial, typically about five minutes, or even longer.
The main objective for infomercials are to create as many “im-
pulse purchases” as possible. When the intended target viewers
happen to view this kind of presentation, they will immediately
haste to use the advertised toll-free telephone number, or web-
site, and buy the presented product without any critical thinking.
Infomercials may describe, demonstrate, and display various
products and their “outstanding features”. There may be very fa-
vourable testimonials from some (well payed?) happy customers.
Obviously, infomercials, should never be confused with items
produced according to information design standards.
Inform. The verb inform means to supply or convey infor-
mation, or to provide knowledge of something. It is a unidirec-
tional process, e.g., from one person to another. In my view, to
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Informal balance contributes to a feeling of dynamism. It may
attract attention to a specific picture, to a part of a text or to the
entire information material. However, imbalance and incon-
sistent use of colours, graphics, or typography, have been found
to reduce learning. >Formal balance, Imbalance.
Informatic, or documentalist, is a person who collects and tab-
ulates scientific information. This information is often sought in
national as well as international databases.
Informatio. >Information.
Information. The term information is derived from the Latin
noun informatio, which means a conception or an idea. There are
several definitions and descriptions of information. In infor-
mation design: “Information is the result of processing, manipu-
lating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of
the person receiving it.”
Information access. Intended receivers must have easy access
to information when they need it. Information are often stored in
“information systems”. First, we need to find a good source and
then we have to find the interesting content. Information stored
in a computer system may be accessed in several different ways.
Ease of use and man-machine interaction are of vital importance.
Systems need need to be as user friendly as possible by providing
user support systems, standard function keys, and for example a
possibility of full text search. Information and instructions
should always be clear, consistent, concise and simple. It seems
to be very important that the user has full control of the system,
i.e., with respect to reading rate and letter size.
Information aesthetics deal with aesthetic aspects of infor-
mation sets. Art is valued for its originality and its expressive-
ness. Here focus is on individual artefacts crafted through the
manual and aesthetic virtuosity of the individual artist. Design,
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211
a particular user and a particular task. While a painter or a sculp-
tor can choose any imaginable shape, a designer is limited by the
function of the thing being designed. Aesthetically pleasing visu-
als may not be of great instructional value. However, it is possible
that aesthetically pleasing information sets will be noticed and
used better than a material without aesthetic qualities.
Information age, age of information. Throughout the 1980s,
major changes occurred in the way our society produced, stored,
processed and accessed information. Modern information tech-
nology has an increasing impact on all aspects of our lives. We
produce more information than ever before. Quite frequently,
people find that their basic knowledge is inadequate. However,
the tools of the information age have put vast volumes of infor-
mation at our fingertips. In the future, we will focus even more
on the information content, the actual message, rather than on
the traditional information materials as such.
Information architecture, IA, involves the design of systems
for organization and navigation of data to help people find and
manage information in complex systems. This emerging disci-
pline is focused on combining principles of architecture and de-
sign. Information architecture includes databases, internet, in-
tranets, library systems, online communities and websites. Infor-
mation architecture is the intersection of the information con-
tent, the context of use and the intended users. The information
architect needs to break information down into chunks.
Information as merchandise. Information is merchandise,
however quite different from other kinds of commodities. When
transferred from seller to buyer it remains available to both. Un-
like the sale of a material product, information transfer does not
give the buyer the right of exclusive use.
Information assurance, IA, deals with the “trust” aspects of
information. It is not possible to assure with a lack of trust. IA

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applies to all aspects of safeguarding or protecting information
or data, in whatever form and is not confined to computer sys-
tems, or to information in an electronic or machine-readable
form. IA is closely related to information security. >Chief Infor-
mation Officer.
Information box. Information materials can be structured in
a three-dimensional model, i.e. an information box, for each sub-
ject field. This box describes the relationship between objectives
(x), media (y) and target groups (z). A number of such boxes can
be devised. Each box covers hundreds of conceivable types of in-
formation materials, all with a specific subject content.
Information carrier is the material that carries the infor-
mation, such as electromagnetic waves, film, magnetic tape, pa-
per and plastic.
Information comics are comics specially designed and pro-
duced to communicate scholarly knowledge for selected groups
of learners. Information comics use emotive elements in order to
motivate the reader, and to arouse interest in a given text.
Information competence. An information literate person has
information competence and accesses, evaluates and uses infor-
mation in a qualified way. >Information literate person.
Information cone. The amount of available information is
growing every day. Research and development produce more in-
formation content than ever before. This growth can be described
with a cone, the information cone, growing over time. In a new
area, it is easy to have an overall view of all available information.
When the amount of information grows the need for new ways of
navigating and browsing increases. >

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This is the information cone. Information within different areas
is increasing rapidly. The information cone is growing. Some
information is correct and very important to us (green circles),
some is correct but not at all interesting (black), and some in-
formation is wrong or even disinformation (red).
Information concepts include copyright, information access,
information assurance, information competence, information
disciplines, information ethics, information layout, information
quality and information structure.
Information content. In the future, we will focus more on the
information content, the actual message, rather than on the tra-
ditional information materials as such. We need access to the in-
formation required for maintenance of a machine, not neces-
sarily for a printed document with this information. Many tradi-
tional printed documents will be replaced by on-line services.
This is a paradigm shift.
Information costs. Good legibility and good readability are
probably always economically advantageous, whereas poor legi-
bility and poor readability may be a costly business for all parts
involved. If readers do not understand the text, or if they inter-
pret it incorrectly, it becomes very expensive.
Information design comprises analysis, planning, presenta-
tion and understanding of a message, its content, language and
form. The main objective is to provide information needed by the
receivers in order to perform specific tasks. Information design
is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process.

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Information design applications.
New applications develop within
Information Design itself (ID).
Applications (A1) also develop
between ID and existing disciplines
and professions. In addition, new
applications (A2) also develop within
other disciplines and professions.
Information design areas. Information design includes areas
like communication design, graphical user interfaces, infor-
mation ergonomics, informative layout, scientific illustration,
technical communication, technical illustration, technical writ-
ing, visual interface design. Here the main intentions are to pro-
vide information materials needed by the receiver in order to per-
form a specific task. The interpreter/s may develop new skills,
understanding and experience. Information design does not pri-
marily include areas like advertising, entertainment, fine arts,
news or propaganda.
Information design assumptions. 1) The designer must
have a clear idea of what the user need to understand. 2) The
“best” information set is effective, efficient and appealing. 3)
Many different media may be used for distribution of a specific
information content. 4) Users must be active rather than passive.
5) Evaluation should include the information set as well as the
performance of the user. 6) Users should be evaluated in terms
of how they achieve the goals. 7) There should be a congruence
among goals, reading and assessment. Along with user’s charac-
teristics and context, information goals should be the driving
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Information design contributions.
Information Design (centre)
receives contributions from six
groups of established disciplines
and professions. The received
contributions may be facts,
influences, methods, practices,
principles, processes, strategies,
theoretical approaches, and tools.
Information Design discipline. Information Design is a new
academic discipline, but information design is not a new area of
knowledge. It is based on cooperation between people with quite
different backgrounds and different experiences. >Information
design genus.
Information design foundation. As an area of knowledge in-
formation design rests on a foundation, which can be expressed
in four basic statements: 1) ID is multi-disciplinary. 2) ID is
multi-dimensional. 3) Theory and practice co-operate in ID. 4)
There are no firm rules in ID.
Information design genus. In order to satisfy the infor-
mation needs of the intended receivers’ information design com-
prises analysis, planning, presentation and understanding of a
message–its content, language and form. Regardless of the se-
lected medium, a well-designed information material, with its
message, will satisfy aesthetic, economic, ergonomic, as well as
subject matter requirements. Information design is complemen-
tary to information technology in the same way as architecture,
or architectural design, is complementary to building technol-
ogy. At present the genus information design includes three dis-
ciplines. They are named Communication design, Information
design and Presentation design. In the future it is quite possible
that some universities will introduce very similar design subject
matters and use other names.

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Information design guidelines aim to streamline processes
according to a set routine. Guidelines may be issued by and used
by any organization to make actions more predictable and of
higher quality. However, by definition, following a guideline is
never mandatory.
Information design model. See Message design model.
Information design objectives. The main objective is to pro-
vide information materials needed by the interpreter in order to
perform specific tasks. The individual information interpreters
might be seen as “doers.” They may develop new skills, under-
standing and experience.
Information design perspectives. In my view the six most
prominent perspectives are: 1) areas of knowledge, 2) areas of
design, 3) types of content, 4) types of representation, 5) parts of
communication and 6) message contexts.
Information design principles are universal. Like mathe-
matics information design principles are not tied to the unique
features of a particular language, nor are they tied to a particular
culture. Information design is a worldwide consideration. Infor-
mation design is multi-dimensional.
Information design research has a pragmatic perspective on
knowledge. Each research problem needs its specific research
method. Research includes analysis of the problem, planning,
study of literature, collection of data, analysis of data, interpre-
tation and discussion and publishing of the final report.
Information design roots. Information design has its origin
and roots in 1) graphic design, 2) education and teaching and 3)
architecture and engineering, or rather construction and produc-
tion. Here people have recognised the need for clear, distinct and
trustworthy presentation and interpretation of verbal and visual
messages.

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Information design rule. The only information design rule is:
“Respect copyright and other laws and regulations related to in-
formation.”
Information design students need to work with realistic and
true problems, and problem-oriented learning.
Information design theories frequently refer to descriptive
theory and propositions. Their main functions are to guide the
information designers in how to actually design, present and pro-
duce information sets. We may >information design as a “theo-
retical practice” or a “practical theory.” It is a complex area of
research and study.
Information designer, or infographer, is a person with good
skills in writing clear, comprehensible and consistent texts; in
creating clear illustrations and in creating a clear, transparent ty-
pography and layout that will aid attention, perception, interpre-
tation, understanding and learning for the intended receiver. The
information designer must respect copyright as well as other
laws and regulations related to design, production, distribution
and use of information sets.
Information disciplines include disciplines and research ar-
eas such as information architecture, information economics, in-
formation ethics, information literacy, information manage-
ment, information quality, information retrieval, information
science, information systems and many more.
Information driven societies. Access to information and the
ability to learn are the basic assumptions of information driven
societies. A person that can learn faster and more than his adver-
saries are assumed to succeed. Learning drives the development
of technology, behaviour, organization and business.
Information economics comprises research on the business
development of information industries. There are a lot of infor-

218
mation jobs in all kinds of work places and an increasing number
of employees are working with information. Other areas of re-
search are the impact of information and communication, the ap-
plication of information technology in the work place, the history
and geography of information labour and capital, the regulation
and provision of information infrastructure and the use of com-
puters and networks.
Information elements. Information content is divided in
small units, information elements. These are linked to objects
and can be managed in computer systems (information manage-
ment systems, IMS). An information element may be a para-
graph of text, a table, or a picture. Sometimes these elements are
called information modules. >Reusable design.
Information ergonomics comprises research and develop-
ment of the ergonomic design of man-machine systems. The de-
sign of an information system must be based on studies of the
user’s aims, knowledge, experience and way of working. Tasks
making particularly heavy information demands occur in work at
computer terminals, work at complex information panels and in
signal systems (e.g., for the monitoring of industrial processes
and tools). Information ergonomics include lighting, design of
instrument panels, video display units, characters, symbols, sig-
nals, etc.
Information ethics. As a rule the information designer must
respect copyright as well as other laws and regulations that are
related to design, production, distribution, storage and use of in-
formation materials. This concerns the use of artwork, illustra-
tions, logos, lyrics, music, photographs, specific sounds, sym-
bols, text and trademarks. It is also very important to respect dif-
ferent ethical rules, media-specific ethical guidelines and honour
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Information experience design is transforming information
into experiences through the pathways of experimental design,
moving image design, and sound design.
Information graphics, or infographics, are visualisations of
complex data.
Information interaction design is the intersection of three
different disciplines: 1) Information design, 2) Interaction de-
sign, and 3) Sensorial design.
Information interpreters. It is always up to individuals to ac-
tively conceive or misconceive the information content, to use or
not use it, to use or misuse it. It is not possible to know much
about the people who search for and may use the information on
the Internet and the WWW. >Receiver groups.
Information layout differs from a decoration layout. In an in-
formation layout cognitive aspects are allowed to dominate.
Here, the understanding of the content is very important for
learning. When illustrations in textbooks are not relevant to the
prose contents, they do not facilitate the text. On the contrary,
illustrations can actually have a negative effect on reading com-
prehension and prose learning. In information and learning ma-
terials illustrations should never be used only for decoration. To-
day many visuals are too complicated and would communicate
better if designers valued simplicity over decoration.
Information literacy has been defined as the ability to access,
evaluate and use information from a variety of sources. There
are, however, many definitions of information literacy. An infor-
mation-literate person must be able to recognize when infor-
mation is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use
effectively the needed information.
Information literate person is one who: 1) Recognizes that
accurate and complete information is the basis for intelligent

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decision-making. 2) Recognizes the need for information. 3) For-
mulates questions based on information needs. 4) Identifies po-
tential sources of information. 5) Develops successful search
strategies. 6) Accesses sources of information including com-
puter-based and other technologies. 7) Is a competent reader,
evaluates information and determines accuracy and relevance. 8)
Recognizes point of view and opinion versus factual knowledge.
9) Rejects inaccurate and misleading information. 10) Organizes
information for practical application. 11) Integrates new infor-
mation into an existing body of knowledge. 12) Uses information
in critical thinking and problem solving.
Information management, IM, comprises research and de-
velopment of management of information in organizations. In-
formation is divided in small units, sometimes called infor-
mation elements. These elements are linked to objects and can
be managed in computer systems, information management sys-
tems (IMS). An information element may be a few paragraphs of
text, a table, or a picture. Sometimes these elements are called
information modules.
Information materials providing the wrong information may
actually give a negative result, and the receiver may end up less
competent than before. Inconsistencies in information materials
confuse the receivers.
Information material groups. There are seven distinct
groups of information materials: 1) Advertising and propaganda.
2) Informative entertainment. 3) Brief messages (Simple instruc-
tions, Prohibitions, Information, Warnings). 4) Administrative
documentation (Working materials, Administrative messages,
Business documents). 5) Factual information (Facts, Descrip-
tions, Reports). 6) Instructions (Operating instructions, Produc-
tion and maintenance documentation, Good advice, Interfaces,
Recipes, Guidance) and 7) Teaching aids.

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Information messages can be divided in different categories,
such as numerical, verbal and visual. There are several systems
for classification of message content, which is evident in a library.
Information navigation. It is possible to distinguish between
different categories of variables, or “dimensions,” related to nav-
igation, browsing and search for information in multimedia sys-
tems, as well as in other information systems. Navigation is a goal
driven search for some specific information. Navigation is a com-
bination of visual, “human” browsing and computer based
search. Browsing is a rather ad hoc, random way for a visual, “hu-
man,” search for information.
Information navigation diagrams show how different me-
dia are related. Every representation can be categorized by as-
signing a value for each of four dimensions: 1) Type of search
(restricted—flexible). 2) Experience and perception (directed––
associative). 3) Structure and organization (linear—non-linear).
4) Type of signs and code-system (abstract characters—images).
The diagram can be used to analyse information systems and
predict characteristics of new systems. In an ideal information
system, it is easy to browse, navigate and search for information.
The four dimensions: 1) Type of search, 2) Experience, 3) Struc-
ture, and 4) Type of sign, form axes with a common centre. The
terminal points are noted in the illustration (red).

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Here are four examples of information navigation diagrams:
1) A bibliographic database, 2) An interactive videodisc, 3) A
hypermedia system, and 4) A traditional newspaper.
Information needs. In order to satisfy the information needs
of the intended receiver’s message design comprises analysis,
planning, presentation and understanding of messages–their
content, language and form. Regardless of the selected medium,
a well-designed information set will satisfy aesthetic, economic,
ergonomic, as well as subject matter requirements.
Information perspectives. We may view information from
various perspectives with respect to how we create, present, pro-
duce, distribute, search, sort, index, store, receive, process, value,
respond to, make use of and renew information. Often several
groups of people with different skills are needed for these activi-
ties. Each person has a set of individual experiences and values
that will influence their views of information
Information processing is a discipline comprising the pro-
cessing of information so as to yield new or more useful infor-
mation. Researchers use mathematical and numerical analysis
plus methods and techniques for administrative data processing.
The discipline also comprises the study of information searches
in databases, information systems, computer-aided translation,
computer aided education, computer aided problem solving,
computer aided design, etc. The term information processing is
often used as a synonym for data processing, i.e., the execution
of a systematic series of operations on data. The term is also
sometimes used for studies of the way people process infor-
mation mentally.

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Information product refers to a physical representation of a
specific message. The primary purpose is to convey this message
to a specific target group. Examples of primary information
products are posters, brochures, instruction booklets, instruc-
tion programs on video and manuals. Examples of secondary in-
formation products are daily newspapers with informative
graphics, magazines with recipes, instructions and packaging
with declarations of contents, descriptions and instructions. The
primary purpose here is always something other than conveying
information. Conveying information is a secondary purpose.
Information provider. We can regard the sender as an “infor-
mation provider.” >Information interpreters.
An information provider makes one or more information sets
available for people who need the information, information in-
terpreters. Here the focus is on the information set.
Information quality. When a document is to be read and un-
derstood by several people, there is reason to expend effort on
achieving information of good quality. When this is achieved, we
can discern the information’s aesthetic, informative, pedagogical
and technical qualities and sometimes even its entertainment
value. Good information quality can be defined as the degree of
congruity between the sender’s and the receiver’s subjective per-
ceptions of the information, as well as of the reality that the in-
formation represents. By investing resources in improving the
quality of information, we can achieve better product and project

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quality, while, at the same time making large cost savings.
>Quality, Information costs.
Information retrieval (IR) comprises actions, methods and
procedures for tracing of data and information stored in comput-
ers, libraries, etc. in order to provide information on a given sub-
ject. Information retrieval is also a part of information science
but is sometimes considered a research area of its own.
Information rights. Access to information is vital to the devel-
opment of students’ potentials. The Association for Teacher-Li-
brarianship in Canada believes that all students should have the
right to: Access a wide range of print, non-print and electronic
learning resources at an appropriate level; Explore materials ex-
pressing a variety of opinions and perspectives; and Freely
choose reading, viewing and listening materials for recreational
and study purposes.
Information science, IS, Library and information science,
LIS, is an interdisciplinary area of research. It comprises the
study of information in general, information management, infor-
mation needs, information policy, information seeking, infor-
mation structure, information technology, information theory,
information users, intellectual property, meta-information and
visual information.
Information sector. The labour market’s traditional subdivi-
sions have changed strikingly in recent decades. The number of
people employed in the information sector has risen from less
than 5% of all the gainfully employed people in the U.S. in 1860
to more than 50% in 1980.
Information security is about risk management. In order to
achieve risk management, all elements such as aims, attributes,
characteristics, principles, qualities etc. should be taken under
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Information set. In information design the final designs may
be called information materials or information sets. >Infor-
mation material.
Information society is dominated by the resource information
instead of the traditional resources energy, raw materials, labour
and capital. Our thinking power is supported by computer sys-
tems and modern telecommunications techniques.
Information structure. Readers have difficulty understand-
ing the organisation and structure of text when there are three
levels, or even or fewer levels. Usually four levels are too much.
However, in scientific and technical documentation more levels
may often be required.
Information systems, IS, comprise studies on development,
use and evaluation of computer-based information systems in
various kinds of organisations. The social contexts where these
systems are used are important areas of research. Introduction
of new information systems usually cause changes in the tradi-
tional work processes as well as reorganisation of the adminis-
trative routines and organisations.
Information technology, IT, comprises research and devel-
opment of the technical systems used for making production, dis-
tribution, storage and other information handling more efficient.
This includes computer technology and electronics. The term in-
formation society is sometimes used in information technology.
Information theory comprises quantitative measurement of
transmitted information and comparison of communications
systems, especially in telecommunications. The contents lack in-
herent interest. Information theory is based on a mathematical
theory presented in the 1940s by the American mathematician
Claude E. Shannon. It subsequently came to be known as the
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226
Information theory for ID is an external theory with influ-
ences from information disciplines.
Information value refers to the placement of the elements,
verbal and visual, in specific positions of the page.
Information visualisation, or information visualization,
includes the actual process (verb) of creating and designing a
graphical representation, and the finished graphical represen-
tation (noun) that clearly conveys complicated data or ideas.
Informational literacy is the ability to obtain information
from the media and to judge its accuracy concept.
Informative drawings is a schematic picture with figures and
objects.
Innumeracy refers to a lack of ability to reason with numbers.
Informative entertainment is a term for a category of infor-
mation materials.
Informative layout. In contrast to traditional “artistic layout”
an informative layout has a practical purpose, rather than. Text,
pictures and graphic design work together to form a message that
is easy for the reader to receive and understand.
Informative text. The term “text’ when used in descriptions of
the seven groups of information materials refers to words, pic-
tures and shapes. So, the concept “informative texts’ refers to the
sum of 1) informative words, 2) informative pictures and 3) in-
formative graphical shapes.
Infotainment, informative entertainment, refers to materials
designed to entertain. Such material should enable the reader to
relax, obtain recreation, pleasure and enjoyment for the moment
without making any major demands on her/his mental activity
to achieve a deeper understanding.

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Initial letters. Sometimes initial letters are larger than the run-
ning text. Initial letters may also be lowered as “drop caps” or
raised as “raised initial letters.” Because of the possibility to cre-
ate fancy initial letters in desktop systems, this medieval practice
is becoming common again. Fancy initial letters are not likely to
help readers.
Ink wells, ink traps, are small cuts/pockets in some letters.
These cuts are intended to be filled with ink during the printing
process, in order to maintain the definitions of some characters.
Ink-jet printers. An ink-jet printer is an impact printer where
the characters are formed by an ink jet on normal office paper.
The ink-jet printer does not work with raster-dots but varies the
number of ink drops within a given area. Few drops give light
colours. Many drops give darker colours. The system is thus cre-
ating the same kind of effect as the systems working with halftone
pictures. Many ink-jet printers work with pictures printed out
with a resolution of 200-250 dots per inch.
Inner context is an internal context. In a book it is the relation-
ship between various text elements, pictures and layout. We may
also discuss the relationships between the image elements within
a single picture. When we view a film or a television program our
attention is either on the image or on the sound. We may not be
able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time. >Context per-
spective.
Inner images are e.g., dreams, memories and thoughts. Like
virtual images inner images lack a physical format.
Inner orientation functions. As well as light can articulate
space, texture and time; it can also articulate inner orientation
functions. In motion picture and TV production, light, especially
combined with music and sound effects, can evoke a great variety
of specific feelings and emotions within us. Minor position
changes of principal light sources may have drastic effects on our

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perception of mood and atmosphere. For example, a face lighted
from below may appear brutal, dramatic, ghostly, mysterious
and unusual.
Inner reality. Visuals used for information and in instructional
message design are usually representations of our external real-
ity. However, fine arts are sometimes representations of our in-
ner reality, such as thoughts and dreams.
Innumeracy or numerical illiteracy refers to a lack of ability to
reason with numbers.
Instruction is a deliberate arrangement of experience(s) to help
a learner achieve a desirable change in performance.
Instruction design is an umbrella term for a number of areas
dealing with instruction, such as instructional message design.
The main objective is to provide courses, lessons and materials
intended for learning. Instruction design is a process (verb) as
well as a result (noun) of that process.
Instruction design genus. At present the genus instruction
design includes three disciplines: Instructional design, Instruc-
tional message design and Instructional technology. In the fu-
ture it is quite possible that some universities will introduce very
similar design subject matters and use other names.
Instruction design objectives. The main objective is to pro-
vide courses and learning materials needed by the interpreter in
order to modify behaviour with respect to learning. The individ-
ual information interpreters might be seen as “learners.” They
may develop new understanding, experience, comprehension,
knowledge, insight, and finally wisdom.
Instruction graphics are used for instructions, e.g., in instruc-
tional manuals. Instruction graphics may deal with how to use,
e.g., a machine or how to prepare, e.g., a meal step by step.

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Instructional design may be seen as an outgrowth from in-
structional technology. Models of instructional design have de-
scriptive, prescriptive, and/or explanatory elements in varying
degrees. Instructional design theories provide principles for the
design of instruction.
Instructional illustrations have good readability when the
subject matter is familiar to the audience; the subject matter is
depicted in a realistic manner; it lacks excessive image detail that
may distract from the main message; and the pictorial conven-
tions are familiar to the audience.
Instructional message design refers to the process of manip-
ulating, or planning for the manipulation of, a pattern of signs
and symbols that may provide the conditions for learning.
Instructional pictures are primarily informative. They show
the appearance of an object, the cause-effect relations within nat-
ural phenomena, or the functioning of a technical device. The op-
posite is decorative pictures.
Instructional team is a group of people working together to
solve an instructional problem. The instructional team, with an
instructional technologist (designer), a subject matter expert
and a producer working together. This idea was conceived during
World War II.
Instructional technologist, or instructional designer, is a
person working with Instructional technology. World War II had
created an enormous instructional problem. Thousands of mili-
tary personnel had to be trained rapidly to perform thousands of
specific tasks, critical to their own survival and the war effort.
Agencies within the armed services produced a large number of
instructional media, like instructor’s manuals, filmstrips, slides,
audio recordings and also motion pictures. During the process of
creating military training films the new role of the instructional
technologist emerged. This specific role emerged as distinct from

230
that of the subject matter expert and the technical expert in
filmmaking. The need for a professional who could contribute ex-
pertise in education to the knowledge of the subject matter expert
and the technical expertise of producers was clear to the military
staff. Thus, the basic instructional team, with designer, subject
matter expert and producer working together, was conceived.
Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of pro-
cesses and resources for learning.
Instructional typography is the art and science of using indi-
vidual letters, words and passages of text to convey an instruc-
tional message.
Instructions is a term for a category of information materials
that includes the six groups: 1) Operating instructions, 2) Pro-
duction and maintenance documentation, 3) Good advice, 4) In-
terfaces, 5) Recipes and 6) Guidance.
Instructions for use. Users of all kinds of appliances often ex-
pect to be able to use the specific appliances without first reading
any instructions for use. When people fail and realize that they
need instructions they expect to be able to follow a clear text with
pictures, a well-developed index, as well as a trouble-shooting
guide. This is, however, usually not the case. Manuals may be
hard to understand and they do not always meet even modest
quality expectations. Modern computer systems often have user
interfaces based on symbols intended to function in various
countries, in various cultures and subcultures. These symbols
may, however, actually not function at all for the intended users.
Instructive elements. Apart from arrows, lines and pointing
hands most instructive elements were introduced after World
War II. Some instructive elements are “statements” comparable
with individual words or even sentences.

231
Instrumental judgments. >Design judgments.
Intaglio. In intaglio, or gravure, the image areas are below the
surface in “ditches” and ink is removed from the non-printing ar-
eas by the scraping action of a metal blade. There are several gra-
vure printing technologies.
Intellectual unity is an idea-generated, and word-dominated
method of unifying a publication.
Intelligence has been defined in many different ways. We have
at least seven different types of intelligence. Linguistic intelli-
gence and logical-mathematical intelligence are very highly val-
ued in traditional education. Other kinds are kinaesthetic intelli-
gence or physical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence or social
intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence or introspective intelli-
gence, musical intelligence and spatial or visual intelligence.
Intended audience, intended receivers, of a message are those
who are expected to understand and make use of provided infor-
mation. They are sometimes referred to as audiences, demo-
graphic groups, information interpreters, target groups, target
populations and users. In extreme instances, some intended
groups of receivers only consist of one or two individuals. Other
groups, like a “general audience,” may encompass millions of
people.
Intended messages. An intended message may consist of spe-
cific ideas, thoughts, data, information, or some subject matter
facts. An originator has got an “intended message.” An infor-
mation designer assists him or her. During this process, the de-
signer creates a “perceived message” and a number of sketches.
After some discussion, they agree on a “preliminary message.”
The original includes a “designed message.” After production
“mediated messages” will be distributed. Each person looking at
the final design will create an “interpreted message.”

232
An originator has got an “intended message.” He or she creates
a “preliminary message” and then a “designed message.” Each
person looking at the final design will create her or his individ-
ual “interpreted message.”
Intensity is brightness or saturation of a colour. The intensity is
decreased by the addition of grey, or a complement. >Saturation.
Interaction design, ID or IxD, is the practice of designing in-
teractive digital environments, products, services and systems.
The main focus is on satisfying the desires and needs of the in-
tended users. Behaviour studies and new designs improve the
possibilities for easy interaction.
Interactive design is the meaningful arrangement of anima-
tion, graphics, illustration, photos, sound, text, three-dimen-
sional (3D) imagery, video, virtual reality, and other media in an
interactive document. It explains how to communicate effectively
through interactivity.”
Interactive infographics contain animated elements.
Interactive video programmes, multi-media presentations
and i-PODs make it possible to combine sound and moving pic-
tures in various ways. Thus, these media can arouse considerable
activity, enjoyment and commitment in the user. Because an in-
teractive video programme and a multi-media presentation can

233
stimulate the user to perform at a high cognitive level, it has the
potential to function well, both as a conveyor of information and
as a teaching aid.
Interdisciplinarity involves the combining of two or more ac-
ademic disciplines into one activity.
Interdisciplinary. People are integrating knowledge and
methods from different disciplines, using a real synthesis of ap-
proaches.
Interest. Scale, contrast and colour may add visual interest to a
design.
Interest/Perception. Interesting material arouses our emo-
tions to a greater extent than material we regard as boring. The
degree of interest can be described with a rating between “no in-
terest at all” and “maximum interest.” The interest factor is one
way to define the viewer’s relationship to picture contents. When
interest is zero, our emotional response is negative or, possibly,
indifferent. Emotional response increases as the interest factor
increases and becomes increasingly positive. Different people
perceive the interest factor in different ways. The Interest/Per-
ception model may be hard to use in practical work.
Interface. An interface is the visible piece of a system that a user
sees, hears or touches. Modern systems for information technol-
ogy often have user interfaces based on symbols and images.
These systems are intended to function in various countries, in
various cultures and subcultures. We now belong to a society ex-
periencing technological advances that promote the importance
of the visual medium for message transmission and knowledge
representation. This is a paradigm shift offering both opportuni-
ties and challenges.
Interface design. Whenever possible an interface should com-
pensate for human physical and cognitive limitations. It should

234
be “transparent.” The interface itself should not overload the user
with complexity. It should be consistent. The physical compo-
nents of the interface should be ergonomically designed, taking
into account the comfort and health of the user as well as her or
his needs. Non-command interaction styles such as direct ma-
nipulation and menus are preferable to command languages, alt-
hough the expert user should be given “type ahead” capability to
quickly move through layers of menus. The interface should han-
dle errors by providing simple and concise error messages that
assist the user in recovery and future avoidance.
Interior design is the design of effective settings for human ac-
tivities in interior space. The work includes conceptual develop-
ment, project management and execution of the design.
Interline distance is the vertical distance between the base-
lines in a text. We often need some extra space between the lines.
In Times an 11-point text may be set on a 13-point line. This is
written as 11/13 and read as “eleven on thirteen.” As the line
length increases, the need for more leading and larger type in-
creases. For maximum legibility of the running text in a book a
line with 12-point type needs an interline distance of at least 2
points (Times) and 3–4 points (Georgia). Generally speaking,
one can use the type size plus 15–30 % to determine this ratio.
However, texts on overhead transparencies, in Power Point and
on wall charts need more space between the lines.
Interline spacing is the same as Interline distance.
Internal access. In order to provide access to relevant facts and
information contents within a specific information material the
information designer should: Create appropriate indexes and
other search systems. Provide a clear contrast between figure and
ground. Provide a supporting context for important information
contents. In printed books, reports, et cetera it is a good idea to
have a list of contents and one or more indexes, like a list of

235
illustrations, a list of artists, a list of photographers, a list of ref-
erences and a subject matter index with references to page num-
bers may be very useful. These indexes are easy to compile using
modern word processing programs. >Information access.
Internal context. In books, internal context is the interplay be-
tween text and illustrations, the interplay between illustrations
and layout. Movies and TV programs have sound with speech,
music and sound effects plus visual and audio metaphors.
Internal representations are mental images, mental propo-
sitions, mental schemas, mental connections and networks.
Internal textual structuring refers to the techniques used to
organize, sequence and provide an internal framework so readers
understand the prose content. These techniques may include ver-
bal cueing, topic sentences, transitions, and summaries.
Internalized message. When a message is internalized the re-
ceiver has got new emotions, new experiences, new feelings and
new knowledge. Often individuals will interpret the same repre-
sentation in different ways. Here age and gender, cultural, eco-
nomic, historical, political, religious and social factors may be
important. The internalized message will influence the interpre-
tation and understanding of future and related messages.
International Institute for Information Design. >IIID.
International Reading Association, IRA. In recognition of
the unique psychology and neurology of adolescence, distinct
from the literacy development of younger readers or adult’s IRA
has outlined guiding principles of literacy development.
International Visual Literacy Association. >IVLA.
Internet is an electronic network that spans the entire globe.
Internet-based training, IBT. >E-learning.

236
Interpersonal intelligence, or social intelligence, is the abil-
ity to relate to others. This is the kind of ability that seems natural
with salesmen, motivators and negotiators. Intrapersonal intelli-
gence or introspective intelligence is the ability of insight, to
know oneself–the kind of ability that gives some people great in-
tuition. This is the kind of ability that lets you tap into the tre-
mendous bank of information stored in your subconscious mind.
Interplay of visuals. In many situations, it is a good idea to use
more than one visual to be able to convey information. We can
use image pairs or sequences of images.
Interpolation is a computer process that adds or deletes ap-
proximate pixel data when an image is resized.
Interpretand. In semiotics an interpretand, or interpretant
sign, is the meaning of the sign that is decoded or interpreted by
the viewer.
Interpretation of art. >Philosophy of art.
Interpreted message. >Intended message.
Interpreting image content. We know that visuals are per-
ceived much more rapidly and readily than text. Visual messages
stimulate both emotional and intellectual responses. Sometimes
image-enhancements intended to improve the interpretation of
image content get in the way of the actual message. It is easier to
learn left to right sequences than the other way around.
Intertextuality is the links in content and form binding a text
to other texts.
Intradisciplinary. People are working alone or together with
colleagues within a single discipline.
Intratextuality is the links in content and form binding parts
of a specific text to other parts within the same text.

237
Introductions to chapters in a book or to articles in a magazine
or a newspaper are very often set in different type than the fol-
lowing running text. Sometimes the introduction is set with
larger type size, sometimes in italic or bold typefaces.
Iohannes Amos Comenius. >Comenius.
Ionic is a classical newspaper typeface.
IRA. >International Reading Association
Irrelevant relationship. Here the pieces of information pre-
sented in various channels are completely independent of one
another. In television programmes, for example, the picture
sometimes deals with one aspect, the text with another and the
sound with a third. This makes it very hard for viewers to make
the most out of the programme. Conflicts readily arise between a
concrete visual event and abstract verbal information. When this
ever happens, the concrete and readily accessible information as-
sumes priority over the abstract information. >Modality.
IS. >Information science and Information systems.
ISD. >Instructional design.
ISO paper sizes are based on a single aspect ratio of the square
root of two, approximately 1:1.4142. The base for the system is
the A0 paper. An A0 (A zero) paper has an area of 1 m2, with the
sides 841 and 1189 millimetres (33.1 in × 46.8 in). The A-series
can be traced back to a French law from 1798.
Isopleth is a schematic picture. >Maps.
Isotype, International System of Typographic Picture Educa-
tion, is a system of pictorial depictions of data that were designed
to be an alternative to written script. Otto Neurath introduced
Isotype in 1936.

238
Isotype system chart is a kind of diagram where each icon rep-
resents a given quantity. >Diagrams.
IT. >Information technology.
It depends. Maybe the situation for information design can be
expressed as: “it depends.” In each specific case an information
designer must be able to analyse and understand the information
problem and find one or more practical design solutions.
Italic, italics, italic print, italic type, italic typefaces are mem-
bers of a family of type in which letters slant to the right. Italics
are specifically designed and drawn around an axis with an angle
between 7 and 20 degrees. They complement the normal vertical
design. Italics is read more slowly than regular type. Many read-
ers dislike italics. >Emphasis in text, Manutius, Oblique type-
faces.
IVLA. The International Visual Literacy Association, IVLA, was
established as a non-profit association incorporated in the State
of New York in 1968 to provide a multi-disciplinary forum for the
exploration, presentation and discussion of all aspects of visual
communication and their various applications through visual im-
ages, visual literacy and literacy in general. IVLA serves as the
organizational base and communications bond for professionals
from various disciplines that are interested in visual literacy.
Other concerns are to encourage the funding of creative visual
literacy projects, programs and research and to promote and
evaluate projects intended to increase the use of visuals in edu-
cation and communications in general.
IxD. >Interaction design.

239
J
Jacket, or dust cover, is the paper wrapper of a hardbound book.
Japanese is a complicated language, probably unrelated to any
other tongue. Many inflections share the same explicit signifi-
cance but differ in implicit meaning. Japanese script is said to
comprise about 48,000 different characters, kanji, designating
different words. Each character can be written in three different
ways and has two or more meanings, sometimes as many as 15–
20. Combining kanji characters can create a large number of new
words and concepts. In elementary school, children learn the 996
most important kanji characters. About 1,850 kanji characters
are used in the basic set employed in daily newspapers. A few
thousand more are used on special occasions. Few people in Ja-
pan are able to read and write more than 10,000 kanji characters.
In addition to kanji, Japanese has kana, a 48-character syllabic
language. These characters are used in two versions, katakana
and hiragana. Kana writing is used for various inflective ele-
ments and for the phonetic writing of, e.g., borrowed words.
Jelling. The large Jelling stone is a three-sided pyramid and 243
cm high boulder of granite. The weight is ten tons. This rune
stone is often called “The certificate of baptism for Denmark.” It
is an artefact showing the transition from Old Norse religion to
Christianity. It is possible that the work started 965 and was com-
pleted by 986. King Harold wanted to honour his parents. Side A
has a text about himself and his parents. The text continues on
the other sides. Side B has a large four-footed animal and animal
ornamentation. Side C has a picture of the tied up, but winning
Christ. King Harold used text, images and graphic form to medi-
ate three messages about power and religion to the subjects in
Denmark: 1) I, King Harold, honour my father Gorm and my
mother Thyra. 2) I, King Harold, won and now govern the whole
of Denmark and Norway. 3) I, King Harold, turned the Danes to

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Christianity. I am the friend of God. The Danes are now loyal sub-
jects to me and to God.
Jenson, Nicolas. > Nicolas Jenson.
Jim dashes are short cut-off rules that separate unrelated items
above and below a line.
Johann Gutenberg (1399–1468) developed a revolutionary
technology for printing books with movable type. He published
the Gutenberg Bible in Germany (1452–1454) with illuminated
decorations. This was a new important technology for words.
Johann Stephan van Calcar (1499–1546 or 1550) drew the
final illustrations for the revolutionary book De humani corporis
fabrica libri septem (On the Fabric of the Human Body in Seven
Volumes) by Andreas Vesalius. He draw them on the basis of
Vesalius’ own drawings.
Johannes Oporinus (1507–1568) worked together with An-
dreas Vesalius in Basel with the advanced and skilled graphic
presentation of the human anatomy in the book De humani cor-
poris fabrica libri septem (On the Fabric of the Human Body in
Seven Volumes). Johannes Oporinus printed the Fabrica in 1543
in a deluxe folio format.
John Logie Baird (1888–1946) was a Scottish engineer and in-
ventor. About 1925 Baird produced some of the first successful
television images. He was the first inventor to use Nipkow’s disc
successfully. On 26 January 1926, Baird made a demonstration
for members of the Royal Institution and a reporter from The
Times. It was the world’s first publicly demonstrated television
system and the world’s first fully electronic colour television
tube. On 3 July 1928, Baird made a demonstration of the world’s
first colour transmission. He is known as “father of television.”
Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) was a British scientist. He was
a pioneer in diagram design. In 1765, Joseph Priestley published

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A Chart of Biography, a large sheet (about 60x90 cm) with a
chart showing the “timelines” for individuals who were im-
portant during the interval 1200 BC to 1800 AD. This diagram
and a booklet supplemented his oral lectures in history and gen-
eral policy. The material consisted of two thousand names.
Priestley argued that the diagrams would help students to >con-
nections between different people and different events.
JPEG, Joint Photographic Experts Group, is a data compression
file format. It discards parts of the data and creates small com-
pressed files.
Jules Chéret (1836–1932) was a multi-talented French artist,
decorator, lithographer, and painter. He developed the litho-
graphic multi-colour technology and printed up to 10,000 post-
ers per hour at a very low cost. From 1866 Jules Chéret created
artistic posters advertising a wide range of everyday products. He
developed a pleasurable style by connecting the text to the pic-
ture in a new way. Jules Chéret concentrated every message in a
big, central picture, in order to accomplish maximal effect and
visual impact. He became a major advertising force and he is of-
ten called both “the father of modern advertising” and also “the
father of the poster.” Jules Chéret produced about 1,200 posters.
Jumbotron. At Tsukuba Expo ‘85 in Japan, Sony had built the
world’s largest video screen, 25x40 m, i.e., 1,000 m2. The image
was very bright and more than 50,000 people could see it at the
same time. The jumbotron image is built up by 150,000 pixels
called Trini-lite, which are 80 x 45 mm. Every pixel consists of
one blue, one red and one green part. The jumbotron image is
more than two million times larger than, for example, a wrist-
television.
Just noticeable difference, or differential threshold, is the
least possible difference that can be detected between two similar
stimuli.

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Justification is equal spacing of words and lines according to a
given measure.
Justified text. Authors argue that justified text is aesthetically
pleasing and that it is easier for people to read lines of the same
length than reading lines with markedly varying right-hand ends.
Readers may even feel that ragged right-hand lines in “flushed
left text” make an ugly and repulsive text column. If justified text
is set in lines too short, there will be “rivers of space” between
words, or characters spaced out to fill the lines. Results from
reading experiments of justified and unjustified texts indicated a
significant increase in reading time for the groups that read jus-
tified texts. There were, however, no differences in comprehen-
sion. Whether a text is justified or unjustified causes no signifi-
cant difference in search time and comprehension of the infor-
mation content for advanced readers. >Unjustified text.
Justify is to align lines of type, all equal in length, so both edges
of the column are straight.
Juxtaposition is the deliberate placements of images to create
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K
Kaizen is the most important concept in Japanese management
and the key to competitive success. Kaizen means ongoing im-
provement involving everyone–top management, managers and
workers. It is a process-oriented way of thinking versus the inno-
vation- and results-oriented thinking in the West.
Kana. >Japanese.
Kanji. >Japanese.
Keep it simple! Leave out needless words and needless pic-
tures and picture elements. This does not mean that all your sen-
tences have to be short, or that you have to avoid all details.
Kern (verb) manually adjusting the space between characters to
achieve better legibility; (noun) the amount of space added or
subtracted in the process. >Kerning.
Kerning is used to individually correct the distances between
characters. When a capital A and a capital T, V, or Y are set with-
out kerning, there is too much space between the letters. The A,
V and Y have slanted shapes and the T has empty space at the
bottom. Kerning can create a better optical spacing between the
letters. Kerning is important for headings in books, handouts,
pamphlets, reports and other printed documents and also for
projected texts. It isn’t worthwhile kerning any type under 18
points. >Kern, Letterspacing, Space between letters.
Keylining is drawing outlines on a finished pasteup to indicate
the exact positions for art that will be stripped in by the printer.
Kinaesthetic intelligence, or physical intelligence, is the abil-
ity to use one’s hands or body. A person in this category has ex-
ceptional control of his or her body, control of objects, good tim-
ing, trained responses and good reflexes. He or she learns best by

244
moving around and participating and remembers what was done
rather than what was said or observed. Kinaesthetic intelligence
is highly developed in dancers, actors, athletes and sporting
achievers, inventors, mimics, surgeons, karate teachers, racing
car drivers, outdoor workers and mechanically gifted people.
Kinaesthetic modality. Children with kinaesthetic or tactile
modality, or both, rely very much on their movements and mus-
cular involvement. They learn by doing and remember what was
done rather than seen or heard. Imagery is not important, nor
pictures. Kinaesthetically oriented children prefer sculptures
that they can touch. When communicating, these children use
many bodily expressions. They respond to music by physical
movements. >Modality.
Kinaesthetic projection is a sensory experience stimulated by
bodily movements and projected onto the images we view.
Kite chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Knowledge. There are numerous competing and complex the-
ories of knowledge. For our purpose knowledge refers to having
data, facts, information, skills, and understanding of a subject,
acquired through education, experience, learning, practical
work, and training.
Knowledge visualisation, or knowledge visualization, is of-
ten defined as using visual representations, such as diagrams,
images and sketches etcetera, to transfer knowledge. However,
in my mind we can only transfer data and information. Each in-
dividual has to build knowledge internally.
Kurt Koffka (1886–1941) was a German psychologist and pro-
fessor. He was one of the three founders of >Gestalt psychology.
Köhler >Wolfgang Köhler.

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L
La Grande Encyclopédie. The greatest early enterprise in vis-
ual information and message design is the French encyclopaedia
La Grande Encyclopédie. The first volume appeared in 1751 un-
der the co-editorship of Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and Jean
d’Alembert (1717–1783). The Encyclopédie was a progressive
work with seventeen volumes of text, supplemented by eleven
volumes of illustrations. The Encyclopédie included 71,818 text
articles with a total of 20 million words printed on 18,000 pages
of text. Illustrations were designed and printed from 2,885 cop-
per engravings. The illustrations are aesthetic and detailed, with
overviews, crafts images and analytical catalogue images. The
general attitude was liberal, tolerant and above all, rational.
Language. Any system used for communication between people
could be regarded as a language. There are spoken, written and
visual languages. Prose is often open to multiple interpretations.
Language activities. Speaking and writing are language-re-
lated activities performed by the sender. These activities are in-
fluenced by the sender’s earlier observations and by the termi-
nology and the language he or she uses. Besides being active, the
sender is in charge of encoding the message, that is, its produc-
tion and distribution. Listening and reading are language-re-
lated activities performed by the receiver. As is the case with the
sender, the receiver’s activities are influenced by his or her earlier
observations, as well as by the terminology and the language he
or she uses. Besides being relatively passive, the receiver is in
charge of accepting and decoding the message.
Language classification. There are many approaches to lan-
guage and language classification systems. (There are probably
5,200 living verbal languages, certainly no less than 4,500 and
possibly as many as 6,000.) While linguistic scientists distin-
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246
distinguish between verbal and pictorial language. From a design
point of view, written, printed, or displayed texts or verbal
graphic language are important components of visible language.
Visual languages attempt equivalence with reality. They are
iconic and normally resemble the things they represent.
Language dimensions. Spoken and written languages are lin-
ear. Visual language is two-, three-, or four-dimensional.
Language disciplines include disciplines and research areas
such as drama, lexicology, linguistics, literacy, rhetoric, semiot-
ics, terminology, visual literacy, writing and many more.
Language theory for ID is an external theory with influences
from language disciplines.
Lardent, Victor. >Stanley Morison.
Laser printers. A laser printer is an electrostatic device in
which a laser beam is scanned across the surface of an electrically
charged selenium coated drum. Laser printers often have had a
resolution of 300 or 400 dots per inch. For these printers, it is
hard to reproduce more than a few grey levels. When printing
many grey levels the dots get far too large and the resolution too
poor as they are built up by available “dots”. However 1,200 dots
per inch horizontally and 600 dots per inch vertically are enough
for good reproduction of half-tone pictures. Many laser printers
have one toner that mainly consists of black coal powder. There
are also toners in blue, brown, green, yellow, magenta, cyan and
red.
Law of closure. >Closure principle.
Law of common fate. >Common fate principle.
Law of continuity. >Continuity principle.

247
Law of convexity, or convexity principle, states that convex
patterns will be perceived as figures.
Law of good continuation. >Continuity principle.
Law of good Gestalt. >Good form principle.
Law of grouping. >Grouping principle.
Law of past experience. >Past experience principle.
Law of Prägnanz. >Good form principle.
Law of proximity. >Proximity principle.
Law of similarity. >Similarity principle.
Law of symmetry. >Symmetry principle.
Law suits. In the USA, there is an increasing incidence of law
suits being brought against manufacturers. These law suits claim
damages as a result of accidents occurring, or products breaking
because of poor quality in the language of instruction manuals.
The courts are demanding that technical manuals, brochures, in-
formation sheets and labels be written in comprehensible lan-
guage and that descriptions and instructions be readable and leg-
ible. Everywhere, plaintiffs’ counsels are searching frenetically
for sections of text and parts of pictures that might be interpreted
in conflicting ways. If a manufacturer’s technical documentation
is difficult to understand, he can lose a lawsuit and then have to
pay large sums of money.
Laws of nature. >Bacon, Roger.
Layout is the organisation of the verbal and visual elements in a
graphic design. A finished layout is the result of the work in the
graphic design process. The purpose of this work is to find a suit-
able presentation for the content with respect to the receiver, the
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248
Within a given area–such as a page in a book, a poster, or a label–
the graphic designer may arrange and distribute text, pictures
(drawings and photographs) and the background (margins,
space, patterns and designs without any significant picture ele-
ments). Layout provides a large number of possibilities to make
the structure in a document clear. The graphical form should
help the reader to benefit from the contents of a document.
LCD, Liquid Crystal Display, use liquid crystals. The LCD con-
tains a liquid whose molecules lie parallel when an electronic cur-
rent passes. Between polarizing filters the crystals then look
dark. The technique is common in, for example, wrist watches.
Here every element in the digits is connected so that it can be
turned on and off. In larger screens, there is a net of crossing
semi-conductors behind the crystal layer. A dark dot appears in
every crossing when the current is turned on. A picture is built
up quite slowly. >FLCD.
LD. >Light designer.
Le Prince. The French inventor Louis Le Prince (1841 – 1890?)
created the oldest surviving film in England in 1888. His film
lasted two seconds and showed walking people.
Le Rond d’Alambert. >La Grande Encyclopédie.
Leading is a hot-metal printing term. It refers to the strips of
lead that people inserted between text measures in order to space
them accurately. Today leading is specified in points. Now, lead-
ing refers to the space between the lines of type in a text block,
which is possible to achieve in desktop publishing systems.
Learner control. Learners should be able to control the pace
and/or the direction of the instruction in systems for multimedia
learning.

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Learner-centred instruction. It may be time to focus on
learner-centred instruction rather than materials- or teacher-
centred instruction.
Learning is complex. A large number of learning theories pro-
vide broad views of learning. I view learning and learning theo-
ries from a process perspective rather than from a traditional
outcome perspective. Learning models may be grouped in six
main categories from a process-perspective. These categories are
1) Perceptual motor-skill learning, 2) Associative learning, 3)
Learning from analysis and problem solving, 4) Social learning,
5) Learning from representations and 6) Combined learning.
Learning from listening. We can listen in different ways, such
as skim listening, surveying listening, search listening and study
listening. Most people listen only intermittently and select only
things of personal interest. When we study and want to learn, we
must take an active part in the content of the material.
Learning from multimedia. We only know little about the
optimal combination of audio, speech, screen texts and illustra-
tions in multimedia used for education. Some studies demon-
strate that spoken commentary is better than visual text seen on
the screens. Learners learn better when the instructional mate-
rial does not require them to split their attention between multi-
ple sources of mutually referring information.
Learning from pictures. >Learning from visuals.
Learning from reading text is affected in the same way as
comprehension. We learn to sequence information and to think
in linear, sequential ways. Perception of text means a sequential,
slow processing to compose and comprehend the contents (“left
brain activity”). Retrieval from verbal memory is a serial integra-
tion and sequential processing of auditory-motor perception sys-
tems. >PQRST.

250
Learning from visuals. The effectiveness of a visual depends
on the medium, on the type of information and also on the
amount of time that learners are permitted to interact with the
material. All types of visuals are not equally effective. Line draw-
ings are most effective in formats where the learner’s study time
is limited. More realistic versions of artwork, however, may be
more effective in formats where unlimited study time is allowed.
The use of visuals does not always automatically improve the
achievements of the learners. For some objectives text is enough.
Learning goal is a general statement for a topic.
Learning Helix. Attention makes us receptive to specific data
and information in our environment (external context). We se-
lect and perceive information that we process into knowledge
with reference to our earlier experiences and memories (internal
context). We apply and test for confirmation. Hereby, knowledge
is internalized and influences new attention. Different learning
processes are active at the same time. Information is processed
into knowledge with continuous parallel and spontaneous learn-
ing. This is the “Learning Helix.”
Learning object is a self-contained learning resource with a
single learning objective.
Learning objectives are specific expected outcomes for learn-
ing. Learning objectives are often derived from subject content
and direct the selection of instructional activities and resources
and specify the way to test student learning. Learning objectives
may increase the attainment of factual information but do little
to help students process higher-level skills.
Learning problem. The problem in learning new information
is not getting information into memory; it is making sure that it
will be found later when it is needed.

251
Learning processes. Learning models may be grouped in six
main categories: 1) Perceptual motor-skill learning. 2) Associa-
tive learning. 3) Learning from analysis and problem solving. 4)
Social learning. 5) Learning from representations. 6) Combined
learning. There are probably no distinct borders between learn-
ing processes. They work in parallel while information is pro-
cessed into knowledge. Learning is parallel and spontaneous. At-
tention, perception, processing and application are basic func-
tions. Eye movements and fixations can be guided by captions or
spoken commentary. We are normally forced to make a continu-
ous selection from the information that constantly bombards us.
Learning styles are affective, cognitive and physiological traits
that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with and respond to the learning environment.
Learning theories. There are more than fifty models and the-
ories of learning and learning processes, each useful in its own
context. There is no theory of learning that is widely accepted.
Ledger. The most commonly used paper sizes in North America
are called Ledger, Legal, Letter and Tabloid. A Ledger size paper
is 432 x 279 mm (17 × 11 in).
Legal. The most commonly used paper sizes in North America
are called Ledger, Legal, Letter and Tabloid. A Legal-size paper
is 215.9 x 355.6 mm (81⁄2 × 14 in).
Legend. It is possible to interpret most pictures in several dif-
ferent ways until they are “anchored” to one interpretation by a
legend, or caption. >Caption content, Caption form, Caption
heading, Caption placement, Caption typography.
Legibility is how easy it is to read a message. It is determined
by the technical design of the text and the pictures, that is, their
clarity. A message has good legibility if it is easy to read, from
the viewpoint that the reader should easily be able to and

252
distinguish all different parts. Legibility can be measured rather
objectively, and its quality is assessable whether we understand
the content of the message or not.
Legibility of colour on screens. The background colour of a
computer screen should be “fairly light” or “fairly dark,” depend-
ing on the content. The text displayed on a screen should have an
opposite (“fairly dark” or “fairly light”) colour. The most legible
colour combination is black text on a white or yellow back-
ground.
Legibility of colour printed on paper. Colour is regularly
used in printed materials, not only in illustrations, but also in the
text itself. The most legible combinations of print colours are
black or dark brown text on a light-yellow background. Black
type on a white background gives the highest and most comfort-
able contrast for sustained reading. Other combinations may at-
tract more attention but are less legible and, thus, require larger
type. The legibility will always be affected when there is insuffi-
cient contrast between the type and the background.
Legibility of graphs. Friendly graphs run from left to right (in
western societies). Colours are easy to distinguish. Cross-hatch-
ing is avoided. Data are explained. Type is clear and precise.
Words are spelled out. Unfriendly graphs are hard to under-
stand. Abbreviations abound. Coding is obscure. Design is insen-
sitive to colour-deficient viewers. Graphics are cryptic and repel-
lent. Type is clotted and in all capitals in sans serif. Words run in
many directions.
Legibility of layout. An “informative layout” must have good
legibility. Here text, pictures and graphic design work together to
form a message that is easy for the reader to receive and under-
stand. Informative layout has a practical purpose in contrast to
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253
artistic graphic designer, but which has no relation to the content
of the message.
Legibility of maps. All maps need good legibility. Colour, den-
sity, directions, form, granularity, greyness, place, position, size,
texture are the most important variables. A variable can be a dot,
a line, or an area. Discriminatory responses to map symbols de-
pend on contrast in colour, dimension, and form. The problem
of discrimination is generally more critical in monochrome
maps, in which only contrasts in form and dimensions are possi-
ble for lines and small symbols.
Legibility of pictures must be good in all kinds of information
and learning materials. Pictures shall be be appropriate for the
intended audience. They shall be bold and large enough to see.
Pictures shall only contain essential information, with a good
contrast between figure and ground. Graphics can help readers
>and comprehend complex patterns. A picture can be rated ac-
cording to legibility and reading value.
Here is a simple schematic picture with very poor legibility
(left). The second illustration (right) carries the same content.
However, in this illustration it is easy to read the message.
Legibility of printed text refers to how easy it is to read
printed texts in books, magazines, and other documents. These
properties include colour of the printing ink and paper, distance
between letters, distance between words, headings in the margin,
headings, inter-line distance, layout, letter size, line length, num-
ber of letters per line, paper quality, subdivision into paragraphs,
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254
by environmental conditions such as lighting and temperature,
layout, quality of material and production, noise level et cetera,
and typography.
Legibility of projected texts. Many presentations consist
mainly, sometimes only, of “projected words”. They are called
reader slides, or word visuals. Lettering must guarantee good
legibility. The minimum size of letters in overhead transparen-
cies is six millimetres (Helvetica 18 points). Use no more than six
lines of six words with a good contrast between foreground and
background. Maintain a good contrast between foreground and
background. Good colour combinations are yellow–black and
white–blue. White–yellow, red–green and red–blue are all very
bad colour combinations. Restrict fancy typefaces to opening
slides. Use normal running text with lower-case letters.
Legibility of red and green. Unfortunately, red and green are
often used as discriminating colours in symbols and in warning
signs. Since many colour-blind people perceive red and green as
grey, colour can only be used to code the information redun-
dantly. Combine colour with position or shape, or with both,
which is often seen in traffic signs.
Legibility of symbols. Various symbols can aid communica-
tion. A clear and stable figure to ground articulation is essential.
The figure (“foreground”) should be organised as one unit with
close boundaries, appropriate line thickness and other graphic
means that help the visual system to organise the figure as one
unit. Criteria for individual symbols or sets of symbols depend on
their application.
Legibility of tables. Numerical data can be presented in graphs
and in tables. A table must have good legibility. The type size in
tables should be between 8 and 12 points. Readers prefer verti-
cally oriented tables. It is easy to compare “side by side.” Hori-
zontally oriented tables are harder to use and more difficult to

255
understand. Tables may show the maximum of amount of infor-
mation in the minimum amount of space. However, tables are
not always the best way to communicate numerical data.
Legibility of text on screens. Compared with traditional
graphic presentations, a presentation of information on visual
displays such as television sets and computer terminals is very
limited. Still, the design may vary with respect to spatial organi-
zation like colours, columns, directive cues, headings, justifica-
tion, lines, scrolling text, spacing, twinkling characters, and
words. Colours presented on colour displays are ranked in the
same order as surface colours in traditional print media. The best
combination is black text on a white or yellow background. It is
also important to use typefaces specially designed for screen dis-
play, such as Trebuchet and Verdana.
Legibility of text on wall charts. Wall charts, mounted pho-
tographs, some posters, picture collages and wall maps may be
excellent information and teaching aids. Posters and wall charts
shall be read from some distance. Text need to be bold and large
enough, often ten times larger than in a book. Text should be set
in lover-case letters because all-capital printing has been shown
to markedly reduce the speed of reading. Since the texts on post-
ers and wall charts should be short it may be a good idea to use a
sans serif typeface like Arial or Helvetica. If so the running text
will need some extra space between the lines.
Legibility of traffic signs. Black text on a yellow background
is superior as compared to white on black, white on grey and
black on white.
Legibility of warning signs. Black text on a yellow back-
ground is superior as compared to white on black, white on grey
and black on white. It is important to use large, legible bold-faced
alphanumeric characters. Complex warning messages need a

256
combination of pictographs and words. Warnings must have
high contrast relative to the background.
Legibility/Reading value rectangle are used to rate legibil-
ity and reading value. 1) Rate readability for the intended reader.
2) Rate interest and value. 3) Rate legibility. 4) Rate if the picture
is distinct, or indistinct with a view to its execution. Here, an in-
formative picture with positive reading value and legibility is
“very good.” A picture is “good” if it is readable, but difficult to
read. The picture is “bad” if it has limited reading value and is
easy to read. A picture is “very bad” if it has poor reading value
and is also difficult to read. Initial experiments suggest that a
preview test of this kind could prove to be very useful.
Lenticular is a printing technique that gives an image some
depth or some motion when the viewing angle of it changes.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) was a multi-talented Ital-
ian scholar. He is seen as a model of the “Renaissance universal
man.” Alberti was a Renaissance scholar with crucial importance
for the development of combined verbal and visual messages.
Leon Battista Alberti published his pioneering treatise Della Pit-
tura (On Painting), 1435. He described Filippo Brunelleschi’s
mathematical model of the central perspective. He concluded
that beauty and harmony of a building is more important than
the actual purpose with the building and the resulting demands
of suitable materials for the building.
Letter 1. The properties of letters, characters, are limited. A let-
ter has a given position in an alphabet. It has a name. It is repre-
sented by one or more sounds and is used in a specific context.
In English, we use 26 letters in two versions. In a plain, running
text most letters are in lover-case: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r
s t u v w x y z, but all letters also appear in upper-case: A B C D E
F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. We use punctuation
marks like these: , . : ; ! ? ” ( ) / & % + - = –> < * and numerals

257
like these: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0. This small number of individual
characters can be combined in almost infinite numbers of mean-
ingful permutations.
Letter 2. The most commonly used paper sizes in North Amer-
ica are called Ledger, Legal, Letter and Tabloid. A letter size pa-
per is 215.9 × 279.4 mm (81⁄2 × 11 in). Letter size is also known as
American Quarto.
Letter size. We should avoid unusual typefaces, as well as type-
faces that are too small or too large. Typeface and size must be
adapted partly to the medium and partly to the choice of tech-
nical production. We read words in a text as “pictures,” not letter
by letter. In a book it might be sufficient to set the type between
nine and twelve points, although on a display screen, the text
should be at least three to five times as large. The text on a poster
may need to be ten times greater in size.
Letter space (verb) to add extra space between letters; (noun)
the amount of extra space added.
Letterform is the design of individual characters of a typeface.
The term describes the formal structure of a typeface. It can be
used to distinguish between linguistic and non-linguistic com-
municative properties of type. There are many complicated and
structural differences between many typefaces. The fundamental
letterforms have not changed since the Renaissance.
Letterhead is the top of a designed writing paper.
Letterpress–early-engravings. In the letterpress process the
image carriers can be cast-metal type, etched-metal plates, or
photopolymer plates on which the image or printing areas are
raised and the non-image areas are below the surface of the
printing areas. In the production of books photo-engravings used
to be very common for the printing of illustrations. Photoengrav-
ing was first done in 1824. The screen principle was introduced

258
in 1852. The first successful process-colour engraving was done
in 1893.
Letterpress–photo-engravings. There are two kinds of
photo-engravings: half-tone block and line cut. A half-tone pic-
ture is photographed in a reproduction camera using a raster to
create a raster-image. The raster-image is copied to a photosen-
sitive plate of zinc. The plate is etched resulting in a relief. Prior
to printing, the plate is mounted in the printing form. There are
several kinds of letterpress printing machines, both sheet-fed
and web-fed presses. Presses include the platen press, the flatbed
cylinder press and the rotary press.
Letterspacing is insertion of space between characters to pro-
duce balanced and harmonious typesetting, and to improve the
visual look of type. >Kerning, Letter space.
Level of competence. Poorly designed learning materials, pro-
cedures, and other operations documents are not acceptable in
industries like aviation, healthcare, or the nuclear power indus-
try. When we design information and learning materials, it is
very important that the materials are reviewed and approved by
people with expert knowledge in the appropriate fields. The ef-
fort put into training and learning may actually give a negative
result, and the learner may end up less competent than before
the learning experience.
Level of detail. Subject matter experts often spend too much
time describing very small and for them, “interesting” details be-
cause they have easy access to information about these details.
However, these details may be of no interest at all to the audi-
ence. Before starting to draw or write, it is important to decide
which level of detail we need to work on. It is often quite im-
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Level perspectives. Top–down these perspectives are called
bird’s-eye perspective, military perspective, gentleman’s per-
spective, eye-level perspective, and worm’s-eye perspective.
Leverage effect. In any new academic discipline and in any
new specific area of knowledge it is hard to create a basic and
unanimously shared and common body of knowledge. What can
we do to start the process? What can we do to boost research in
a specific area of knowledge? A new area of research may engage
a number of individual researchers. However, these researchers
may typically be working in several different parts of the world.
They may be working individually on their own projects and their
own research problems. Most of these researchers may not have
any contacts at all with other researchers with similar interests.
Some researchers may, however, occasionally have some cooper-
ation with one or more other researchers.
Lexi-visual narrators shall consider the theme of the content,
the pedagogical purpose and the aesthetic form.
Lexi-visual products are the result of teamwork between sub-
ject matter experts, visualizers and editors.
Lexi-visual representations. Information materials often
consist of text. Probably no other instructional device leads to
more consistently beneficial results than does adding pictures to
a text. There can be no doubt that pictures combined with texts
can produce strong facilitative effects on retention and learning.
These effects prove to be valid for a broad range of texts, pictures,
learner characteristics and learning tasks. Text and pictures must
both be easy to read as well as complement and reinforce one an-
other. Informative words need pictures and informative pictures
need words. It is important that we use verbal and visual repre-
sentations in an optimal way.
Lexicology is the science that deals with the structure of vocab-
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Lexicography is both the study of how dictionaries are com-
piled and the actual process of compiling and writing them.
Library and information science. >Information science.
Lifestyle is a term often used in advertising to describe groups
of receivers on the basis of social and psychological factors. Psy-
chologists and sociologists conduct comprehensive interview
studies to elucidate the needs, behaviour, expectations, values
and wishes of different groups.
Ligatures are typographic devices that join two or three charac-
ters in order to form single typographic units and prevent char-
acters from interfering with one another. Examples are Æ (A+E)
and Π(O+E).
Light. The physicist defines light as visible radiant energy. Actu-
ally, light is invisible. We can >it only at its source and when re-
flected. Light will articulate our outer orientation with respect to
space, texture and time. Light is essential to the appreciation of
three-dimensional images like sculptures. Whether the light is
coming from the left or from the right, the top or the bottom,
makes a crucial difference in the appearance of the forms. Soft
light helps us appreciate subtle undulations. Strong light accen-
tuates details on the surface.
Light design, lighting design, is the use of light and lighting to
create different atmospheres in art installations, concerts, open-
ing and closing ceremonies of sports competitions, public cele-
brations, theatre plays, water sculptures etcetera.
Light designer, LD, may work in a theatre with lighting in or-
der to create atmosphere and time of day in the production. The
sculptor Bernini used light as an important metaphorical device
in his religious settings. He unified sculpture and richly poly-
chrome architecture and the carefully effects of designed light.
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di Santa Teresa (Ecstasy of St. Theresa, 1644–1652) in the Cor-
naro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. Bernini de-
signed this burial chapel in marble, stucco and paint. He shows
saint Teresa of Ávila in the highest moment of her religious ec-
stasy. She seems floating on a bed of clouds. Her clothes have
undulating and dissolved forms and distinct movements. At the
same time, an angel is getting ready to pierce her heart with the
long golden dart of divine love. The light of golden rays in bronze
falls into the sculpture group through a special, hidden aperture
high up in the vault. This light will clearly emphasize the other-
worldly character of the group. We could say that Bernini was a
very conscious light designer.
Light type has been described as delicate, difficult to read, fem-
inine, gentile, insubstantial, timid and unprofessional.
Light values of colour with white pigment added are called
“tints” of the hue name.
Light waves. Like sound waves, light waves are propagated in
straight lines from their source. They can also be reflected, re-
fracted, bent and absorbed. The velocity of light in air is nearly
300,000 km/s. When light rays (usually parallel) from an object
enter the eye, they are refracted in the cornea and lens and pass
through the vitreous humour until they strike the retina. When
the ambient light level is high, the light rays strike the macula
lutea, the fovea, a small area of the retina, which is rich in cones.
Cones are the receptors that record colours.
Light-emitting diodes. The picture area in LED-displays may
be very large. The resolution is 6,400 pixels per m2. The pixels
consist of red and green light-emitting diodes with high effi-
ciency, i.e., low power consumption and long life. So, far no blue
diodes have been developed. Screens with light-emitting diodes
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possible to create simple animations, for example, text and sim-
ple graphics moving across the screen.
Lighting conditions. Drawers as well as painters and photog-
raphers make use of various lighting conditions, light, shadows
and darkness to create perceptions of volume in two-dimensional
pictures. A person or an object depicted in hard or soft light will
be perceived differently.
Lighting design. >Light design.
Lighting designer. >Light designer.
Lightness is the experienced intensity of white–black. When
the signal to a specific part on a colour display is increased, the
lightness of the area is increased compared to the total screen.
Limen, level of consciousness. >Subliminal messages, Sublimi-
nal reception.
Limited capacity. Only a limited amount of capacity is availa-
ble in our mental verbal and visual processing channels.
Line. A line may vary with respect to its starting point, its bright-
ness, colour, context, curvature, direction, evenness, grain,
length, orientation, positions of change, printing, shape, thick-
ness, value, and terminus. Lines can direct attention to specific
picture elements. See Diagonal lines, Horizontal and vertical
lines, Imagined lines.
When the blue dots are close to one another they form a line.
Line art is a black and white copy, without any variations in
value. Thus, line art is suitable for reproductions without half-
tone screens. Line art images may restrict visual impressions to
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Line art images may restrict visual impressions to the essential
information.
Line diagram is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Line graph. >Playfair.
Line length is the length of a typeset line, measured in picas
and points, but now often measured in centimetres or inches.
The length of a line will affect reading speed. The longer the lines
the wider the vertical space between them needs to be. Typefaces
with small x-heights manage well with less leading than typefaces
with large x-heights. Readers tend to dislike both very short and
very long lines. The maximum line should usually not have much
more than 60–70 characters.
Line numbers. Non-arbitrary numbering systems include the
numbering of lines where line endings are meaningful. This
might be the case in computer programs, in dictionaries and in
texts used for linguistic analysis. Non-arbitrary numbering sys-
tems also include the numbering of paragraphs and the number-
ing of headed sections.
Line of direction. >Continuity principle.
Line perspective, or linear perspective. Here objects are con-
ceived as being placed behind the picture plane onto which
straight beams of light are projected. All line perspectives are
based on the idea that an object appears to grow larger in size as
the distance between it and the observer decreases and vice versa
get smaller in size as the distance between it and the observer
increases. The group Line-based positional perspectives include
Central perspective, Curvilinear perspective, Forced perspec-
tive, Parallel perspective and Time perspective.
Line space, interline distance, is the vertical distance from one
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264
Line space is the same as I interline distance.
Line-based positional perspectives. In a line perspective or
linear perspective objects are conceived as being placed behind
a picture plane onto which straight beams of light are projected.
All line perspectives are based on the idea that an object appears
to grow larger in size as the distance between it and the observer
decreases and vice versa get smaller in size as the distance be-
tween it and the observer increases. A view along a road with
identical lampposts or identical trees will produce the familiar
convergence of lines. The lampposts and trees appear to be suc-
cessively smaller. This phenomenon is sometimes called dimin-
ishing perspective. Parallel lines seem to converge or meet at a
distant point. The category Line-based positional perspectives
include Line perspectives and Reversed line perspective.
Line–to–line spacing is the same as Interline distance.
Linear perspective uses the principle that parallel lines seem
to converge or meet at a distant point.
Linear structure. Novels, radio-programs, audiocassettes, rec-
ords, movies and TV-programs are examples of linear media. The
information is organized with a beginning, a main story and a
resolution.
Lines in graphic design. Various lines are often used for dec-
oration to make a more aesthetically pleasing or artistic product.
However, lines can also be used to aid communication.
Horizontal lines can separate sections or paragraphs or hold
them together. Horizontal black lines are usually one to four
points. When horizontal lines are printed in other colours they
may be wider.
When two or more columns are used on a page, vertical lines
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265
By tradition vertical lines are thin, usually half a point or one
point. >Rules.
Lines in visual language. A line may be varied with respect to
its starting point, brightness, colour, context, curvature, direc-
tion, evenness, grain, length, orientation and points of change,
printing, shape, thickness, value and terminus. The line is a pow-
erful graphic element. Readers tend to follow a line along its way.
As a result, lines can be used to direct attention to specific picture
elements. The line provides the essential elements for perception
of motion in a visual. Since we read from left to right and from
top to bottom in the western cultures most people here will >the
upper or left end of a line as its beginning and starting point and
the lower or right end as the ending point or terminus. A line can
also be a border between two areas in a visual and separate and
group picture element. Since we always perceive graphic ele-
ments with respect to the context, the meaning of a simple and
single line will vary. A thick and heavy, or bold line is more pow-
erful and strong than a thin line. >Basic elements, Curved lines,
Diagonal lines, Dots in visual language, Horizontal lines, Verti-
cal lines.
Linguistic comprehensibility. An easily comprehensible text
has short sentences, short words and simple sentence structure.
Linguistic consultants are responsible for the overall coordi-
nation of the linguistic usage and writing style. The linguistic
consultants, partly, check the linguistic usage to an agreed stand-
ard and partly, check that the writing style is consistent to an
agreed standard. The linguistic consultants may also look at
whether the linguistic usage and writing style are used in a uni-
form way. Terminology experts may review the information and
learning materials with respect to the use of consistent terminol-
ogy. >Technical writers.
Linguistic intelligence is defined as our ability to read, write
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developed in authors, poets, novelists, copywriters, scriptwriters,
orators, political leaders, editors, publicists, journalists and
speechwriters. People in this group are sensitive to patterns.
They are orderly and systematic. They have ability to reason.
They like to listen, read and write.
Linguistic usage. Any language has rules spelling, grammar
and punctuation. It is necessary for communication.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, its context, form,
meaning and structure. Sub-fields are discourse analysis, mor-
phology, phonetics, phonology, pragmatics, semantics, semiot-
ics, stylistics and syntax.
Link is a pointer in a HTML document. A “click” on a link takes
the user to another location.
Lino-cuts are relief prints made from pieces of linoleum with
designs cut into the material.
Linotype is a machine for setting hot type line by line.
Liquid Crystal Display. >LCD.
Liquid crystals can be used for instrument displays or for
screens. >LCD, FLCD.
LIS. >Information science.
List contains related ideas presented in a vertical array.
Listening is a language-related activity performed by the lis-
tener. Listening is influenced by earlier experiences, language
and terminology.
Listening comprehension. Hearing a sentence, a word, or
even a syllable requires the listener to integrate the auditory
stimuli in temporary sensory memory. The recognition of words
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recognized even though their pronunciation is affected by neigh-
bouring sounds and by individual accents. We use contextual in-
formation in recognizing what we hear.
Listening skills. An active listener focus on the verbal message,
analyses the presentation, distinguishes between relevant and ir-
relevant information, and asks the presenter for explanations
when needed.
Listening value. Reading value in the written word is compa-
rable to listening value in the spoken word.
Lists. Four or more items are best presented as a list. Bullets and
numbers are used for items of the first degree. Use a numbered
list when the items have to be considered in a particular sequence
and a bullet list when not. Hyphens are used for lists within such
a list. Bibliographies are often voluminous and may take up a
great deal of space. Since the reader will usually peruse such a list
to find only certain entries, they should be made easy to find.
Lists–bibliographies. References to cited works are usually
put in a reference list at the end of a chapter or at the end of a
document. One idea is to use hanging indents.
Lists–subject index. A well-constructed subject index is often
an indispensable tool for quickly finding information in books.
As is the case with bibliographies, the readers are usually looking
only for certain information when they refer to a list of this kind.
Lists–table of contents. The table of contents may have justi-
fied or unjustified text. The important thing is that the structure
of the content in the document is clearly visible to the reader.
Literacy was restricted to the ability to use language to read
and write. Sometimes the ability to listen and speak was added.
Nowadays there are many literacies: 1) Literacy, 2) Musicacy, 3)
Numeracy, 4) Visuacy, 5) Electracy/mediacy, and 6) Area specific
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Lithography–Alois Senefelder. Originally all lithographs
were printed from a flat, lithographic limestone on a flatbed
press. The image is drawn on the flat surface of the stone with a
greasy crayon, an oily wash, or with India ink. After a chemical
treatment, the parts of the stone without the image elements are
susceptible to water. The printing ink is transferred to the paper
from the surface with the image. The Austrian author Alois Sen-
efelder invented lithography in 1798 and it has been used for
printing of lithographic art, but also posters, placards, cards, ad-
vertisements, etc.
Lithography–Jules Chéret (1836-1932) created his first lith-
ographic coloured poster in a characteristic, sweeping style. Ten
years later, he returned to France after a seven-year-long stay in
London, bringing modern English printing presses with him.
Chéret started a mass production of posters on a large scale.
Printing up to 10,000 posters per hour was realized and at a very
low cost. Chéret drew his posters directly on lithographic stones.
By 1834 specially treated zinc plates began to replace the heavy
stones. The use of photomechanical metal plates in the early
1900s made the technique of hand transferring from stones ob-
solete. In the 1930s the deep-etch process was introduced. Today
graphic artists mainly use the original method.
Lithography–zinc plates. By 1834 specially treated zinc
plates began to replace the heavy stones. The use of photome-
chanical metal plates in the early 1900s made the technique of
hand transferring from stones obsolete. In the 1930s the deep-
etch process was introduced. Today graphic artists mainly use
the original method.
Live media are personal communications in meetings like con-
ferences, church ceremonies, lectures, and live music etc.
LIX. Index of readability, is an index that shows how easy or
hard it is to read a text. LIX is calculated as follows: 1) Count the

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number of words in the text. 2) Count the number of words with
more than six letters. 3) Count the number of sentences. 4) Di-
vide the number of long words by the total number of words and
multiply the product by 100. This yields the average word length
(WL). 5) Divide the number of words by the number of sentences.
This yields the average sentence length (SL). 6) WL + SL = LIX.
(LIX 20–30 = simple text, suitable for children’s books; 30–35 =
literature; 35–45 = moderately difficult text, weekly magazines;
45–50 = popular science subjects; 50–55 = difficult text, trade
literature; 55+ = extremely difficult text.)
Local colour retains the photo-realistic colour of objects.
Locating graphics are used to give the physical location of an
event or of an object. Based on one or more maps, movements of
an object can be explained. Maps are often also included in other
kinds of graphics.
Logical-mathematical intelligence is our ability to calcu-
late, handle logical thinking and reason. This is most developed
in mathematicians, scientists, engineers, police investigators,
lawyers, judges and accountants. People in this group like ab-
stract thinking and problem solving. They use logical structures
and are precise. They enjoy counting and they are organised. Tra-
ditionally, most so-called intelligence tests have focused on lin-
guistic and mathematical intelligence and much schooling
around the world concentrates on those two abilities.
Logo is a general term referring to all marks that represent a
brand, character of a company, product, or service.
Logography has a set of characters that represent words, mor-
phemes, or semantic units. Logographies may have several hun-
dreds and even thousands of characters.
Logomark is a logo cantered around a symbolic image or icon.
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Logos deals with the intellectual content of the message and
may be judged by real life experiences as well as by logical argu-
ments.
Logotype is a logo cantered around a company name or initials.
Logotypes are often referred to as letter marks or wordmarks.
Long-term memory, LTM, appears to consist of physical
changes in the brain — probably within the sensory and motor
association contexts. Long-term memory comprises schemata,
organized networks of related knowledge that permit the human
being to represent reality and to act upon this cognitive represen-
tation. The long-term memory has episodic memories of specific
things we have done, seen, heard, felt, tasted and so on. They are
tied to specific contexts. The long-term memory sets the rules for
the selection filter, so that the filter makes selections related to
previous experience. Normally, we are unable to access all infor-
mation stored in our long-term memory.
Look-up table, reference table, is a table used for display of
specific information, such as bus schedules.
Loop. In typography ‘loop’ is a name for the empty space in the
descender of a lower case ‘g’. Also >Counter.
Lossy is a conversion process for images where some original
data are lost. One example of a lossy compression method is
JPEG.
Loudness constancy is our tendency to judge the loudness of
a sound as constant, even though changes in distance make the
sound seem louder or softer. >Perceptual constancy
Louis Jean Lumière. >Lumière.
Louis-Désiré Blanquart-Evrard (1802–1872) was a French
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Blanquart-Evrard published the Calotype process (1847) and de-
veloped the albumen silver paper print technique (1850).
Low quality images. At an oral presentation, it may be better
not to use any visuals at all than having to use low quality images.
Poorly executed and poorly presented images will influence the
understandings of the whole oral presentation. Simple pictures
are “immediate.” They speak to us holistically and emotionally.
When readers get the “wrong impression” it may be very hard to
change this later on.
Lower case is the un-capitalized “small” letters of the alphabet
(a, b, c etc.).
LPI, Lines Per Inch, measure the number of cells in a halftone
grid that are used to convert continuous tone images (e.g. photo-
graphs) into halftone dots for printing.
LTM. >Long-term memory.
Lumière. The two French brothers Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas
Lumière (1862–1954) and Louis Jean Lumière (1864–1948),
were the earliest actual filmmakers in history. The brothers
worked in their fathers’ photographic firm. When their father re-
tired in 1892 they began to create moving pictures. They showed
their first ten motion pictures in Paris in 1895. Each film was 17
meters long and lasted for approximately 50 seconds.
Luminance is a photometric measure of the amount of light
emitted by a surface (lumen/steradian/sq.m). Parts of graphic
figures should have about the same luminance. The true differ-
ences between areas can be hard to >when shaded differently.

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M
m-learning, ML, mobile learning, is a learning method that can
occur anytime and anywhere with the help of mobile devices.
Macrocognition is the cognitive adaptation to complexity and
the way people actually think in complex and natural settings.
Macrocognitive, or MacroCognitive, is cognition performed in
natural instead of laboratory environments.
Magenta is the particular reddish-purple colour used in process
printing with four colours.
Magnetic field board. An electronic magnetic field board con-
sists of small hexagons containing a black magnetic material, like
iron filings. Close-up the board looks like a honeycomb. By using
a magnetic head, a “page” with text or images can be built up. The
board is “erased” by changing the magnetic field. It is also possi-
ble to write directly on the board with either a magnetic pen or
with markers of different colours.
Main goal in information and instruction design should always
be clarity of communication. Thus, any graphic message should
be legible, readable and well worth reading for the intended au-
dience and any audio message should be audible, distinct and
well worth listening to for the intended audience. The presenta-
tions might also be exciting, aesthetically pleasing and visually
rewarding.
Main message refers to the most important part of the mes-
sage. Excessive detail in image and text may distract from the
main message.
Main types of verbal and visual representations are based
on how the verbal information is presented to the receivers: 1)
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273
messages printed in a book, or messages displayed on a computer
screen. 2) We listen to the spoken words in audio-visual repre-
sentations, such as oral presentations with slides or overhead
transparencies and in television programmes. 3) We read printed
words and listen to spoken words in a combination of lexi-visual
and audio-visual representations in multi-visual representa-
tions, such as interactive multimedia systems.
Manuals and instructions have been preserved since the 15th
century.
Manutius, Aldus Pius. >Aldus Pius Manutius.
Maps is a group of schematic pictures. Maps are heavily reduced
flat images of the surface of the earth. A map enables the user to
>a generally complete representation of the world at one time.
Mapmaking, or cartography, attempts to reproduce portions of
the earth with a minimum of distortion.
Marey. The French photographer Étienne-Jules Marey (1830–
1904) was a pioneer in photography and in the history of cinema.
He developed animated photography and he was able to catch
several phases of a movement in one photo. In 1890, he pub-
lished the richly illustrated book Le Vol des Oiseaux (The Flight
of Birds). In the book he used diagrams, drawings and photo-
graphs.
Margins. The text-face on a page is surrounded by margins: a
header (or top margin) and footer (or bottom margin), an inner
and an outer (or outside) margin. They provide space for com-
ments, headings, illustrations, page numbers and personal notes.
Margins also provide space to hold a printed document while
reading it.
Margins size. Readers expect margins in books to occupy 40–
50% of the space on the page, although this amount can be re-
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“empty” space can be used to aid communication when used in a
consistent way. Guidelines for margins vary a lot, but a general
guideline may be to make all margins one inch on a standard 8
1/2" x 11" page. In electronic documents margins may be smaller.
Market research is a study of business competition, and in-
tended consumer groups. It is used to define projected markets.
Marks. In magazines and other periodical publications, it is
sometimes necessary to use continuation marks like arrows or
triangles and a reference to page number and terminal marks af-
ter the last paragraph. A terminal mark is often a circle or a
square, filled or unfilled. Sometimes the terminal mark is the in-
itials or the signature of the writer.
Mass design, or entertainment design, is an umbrella term for
mass design areas, such as mass-communication, and journal-
ism. The main objective for mass design is to provide news,
views, and entertainment.
Mass design objectives. In mass design the main intentions
are to provide news, views and entertainment. The interpreter/s
may develop views, relaxation, emotions and awareness. In mass
design, it may be an advantage to use verbs like feel, laugh, look,
read and relax. One example of a performance objective for en-
tertainment on television may be: “80% of the viewers should
have fun and laugh at the jokes.”
Mass-communication. During the 1940s–1960s researchers
believed that audiences accepted media messages as “true state-
ments.” The senders wanted to reach out with their messages to
large groups of receivers.
Mass-media societies. In the industrialized part of the world
we are bombarded with information via the media, at home, in
school, on the job and in the society in general. It is rather hard
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275
information that we need at the right time. Audio, text and visu-
als compete for our attention. It is possible that we miss the in-
formation in which we are really interested. In addition to radio,
TV, books, newspapers and magazines, vast amounts of infor-
mation are distributed in the form of letters, advertising throwa-
ways, posters, placards, stencils, photocopies and photographs.
Master page is a page with certain attributes, which may be ap-
plied to any other page in a document.
Matrices is a group of schematic pictures that show mathemat-
ical quantities consisting of rectangular arrays of numbers. This
group includes: 1) Four-field matrices. 2) Multiple field matrices.
3) Complex matrices.
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) was an Austro-Hungarian psy-
chologist. He was one of the three founders of >Gestalt psychol-
ogy.
Maximized learning. Results from several experiments show
that when the contents are the same in visual, audio and print
channels, learning is maximized.
McLuhan. >Medium and message.
MD. >Message design.
Mean, arithmetic mean, is the average value in a distribution of
data. It is the sum of all the values divided by the number of val-
ues. The mean makes it easier to >exceptions and patterns in a
collection of data. >Median, Mode.
Meaningful learning is deep understanding of a material. This
includes attending to important aspects of presented material,
organizing it mentally into a coherent cognitive structure, and in-
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276
Measurement pictures are representations of various meas-
urements in, e.g., medicine. Ultra-sonograms are examples of
pictures employed for identifying differences in the density of
body tissues. The brain’s activity can be visualized and measured
with a positron camera. Measurement of thermal radiation is an-
other example. Satellites with multispectral scanners continuo-
usly record and transmit digital TV images of the Earth. These
images are analysed and used for many different purposes in me-
teorology, geology, agriculture and forestry. The interpretation of
satellite pictures is a widespread activity. Photographic pictures
are also used for a wide range of military applications.
Mechanical typesetting, hot metal type, hot lead typesetting,
hot metal typesetting, metal type, all refers to 19th-century tech-
nologies for typesetting of text. Hot melted type metal is injected
into line moulds. The characters are used for printing ink onto
paper. This process afforded fast creation of large quantities of
type. It was especially used by the newspaper industry.
Media. Each medium has unique aesthetics, codes and conven-
tions. People have to learn how media are made and how they
function. Each person brings her or his own experiences that af-
fect the understanding of the representations. Different media
are capable of representing reality with varying facility owing to
differences in their structure, the kind of representation involved
and the content in each specific case. >Media and communica-
tion, Media consumption, Media development, Media evolution
charts, Media education, Media for advertising, Media for
propaganda, Media groups, Media industry mapping, Media
literacy, Media markets, Media properties, Media selection,
Media trends, Medium, Medium and message.
Media and communication is a wide area of research. At uni-
versities in Sweden media and communication studies take an
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research on personal communication that is common in many
other countries. >mediated communication.
Media and Information Literacy. UNESCO has combined
Information Literacy and Media Literacy to Media and Infor-
mation Literacy (MIL). Irrespective of technologies MIL recog-
nizes the role of information and media in our everyday lives.
Media consumption. In the industrialized, cultural sphere, we
are living in mass-media societies. Every day we are bombarded
with information via the media, at home, in school, on the job
and in the society in general. It is rather hard to avoid infor-
mation and just as hard to obtain the “right” information, the in-
formation that we need at the right time. Audio, text and visuals
compete for our attention. It is possible that we miss the infor-
mation in which we are really interested. In addition to radio, TV,
books, newspapers and magazines, vast amounts of information
are distributed in the form of letters, advertising throwaways,
posters, placards, stencils, photocopies and photographs.
Media development. For many years the media situation was
very stable, only expanding a little each year. In the 1950s we had
live media, sound media, film media, broadcast media, models
and exhibitions, graphic media and telecommunications media.
In the 1970s-video developed into a competitive medium. At the
same time, the classical “borders” between the media groups be-
gan to dissolve. In the 1980s several new technologies, most
based on computers and completely new media began develop-
ing. >Medium.
Media evolution charts. The development of media can be
shown in graphical media evolution charts. >Media develop-
ment.

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In 1950, we had live media (1), sound media (2), film media (3),
broadcast media (4), models and exhibitions (5), graphical me-
dia (6), and telecommunications media (7); the “leaves in the
media flower.” In 1980 video was a new competitive medium
(between film media and broadcast media). In 1982, several
new technologies (black circles) and completely new media
(white circles) began developing. By 2000 most media would
interact and partly merge with each other. I made this chart in
1983.
Media education. Key concepts of media education include
questions like: 1) Who is the sender? 2) Who is the receiver? 3)
What type of message is it? 4) What type of media are used? 5)
How is the message produced? 6) What kinds of technologies are
available?
Media for advertising. It seems that all media can be used for
advertising. The elements of an advertising message are the
words, the pictures, the music, the sounds, the characters, the
setting and the action itself. The structure is the way the elements
are combined to create an effect of a coherent message. In order
to influence others, the senders must exchange information, ac-
curately transmit their messages and intentions and identify and
understand the habits of the intended receivers. Advertising pic-
tures speak directly to our emotional life in a direct way, without
any deeper cognitive involvement. >Advertising.
Media for propaganda. A number of impressive buildings
around the world, the great equestrian monuments of Donatello
and Andrea del Verrocchio and some monumental paintings by

279
Peter Paul Rubens were used for propaganda. Martin Luther
used caricatures, cartoons and leaflets in the fight against Cathol-
icism. Propaganda pictures and propaganda texts are one-sided
and they reinforce our prejudices and past perceptions. Propa-
ganda pictures speak directly to our emotional life in a direct
way, without any deeper cognitive involvement. >Propaganda.
Media groups. The main groups of media are: 1) Live media, 2)
Sound media 3) Film media 4) Broadcast media 5) Video media
6) Models and exhibitions 7) Graphical media 8) Telecommuni-
cations media and 9) Computer media.
Media industry mapping. Several attempts have been made
to make “maps” or “models” of the media industry. These maps
might be useful as tools for strategic planning for the information
business. However, it is not easy, or even possible, to make one
single map that covers all aspects of the media industry. We have
to work with a set of different maps at the same time. Such maps
have been produced according to criteria such as growth of the
information business, media evolution, needs of the users, num-
ber of receivers, technical development and time of delivery.
Media literacy is the ability to access, analyse, create, evaluate,
experience and produce messages in a wide variety of media
forms. A media literate person can comprehend, read, recognize
and question ideas and information, whether conveyed through
printed media or other media formats. The main principle of me-
dia literacy is that media represent actual events. Journalists se-
lect which stories to tell, what to tell and how to tell them. There
are always one or more persons with their subjective views be-
hind all representations. >Medium.
Media markets. We can hardly define one single media mar-
ket. There are a number of specialized media markets or market
segments. These are dependent on factors such as different
needs, geographical and political situations, hardware,

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languages, software, trade and customs regulations, the infor-
mation economy and technology trends.
Media properties. A distinction is often made between private
media, group media and mass media. Each medium has its own
particular advantages and disadvantages. Audio, text and visuals
compete for our attention. The selection of a suitable medium is
important when an informative material is to be produced.
Media selection. It is always important to select the most suit-
able medium to carry the intended message. Therefore, the in-
formation designer will have to: 1) Select the most suitable me-
dium for the message. 2) Produce synopsis for text, pictures and
sound. 3) Adopt the graphic design to the medium. As far as the
choice of medium is concerned, regard must be paid to the suit-
ability of various media in every individual case. To be successful
the sender has to know the medium and its unique possibilities.
Advantages should be utilized and disadvantages should be
avoided. >Medium.
Media trends. 1) Shift from goods to services. 2) Shift towards
increased segmentation. 3) Shift towards greater flexibility. 4) A
new “distribution of roles’ and tradition areas of competence will
be broken up and superseded by new ones. 5) Shift towards new
production systems. 6) Shift towards new channels for market-
ing. 7) Increased competition for the individual consumer’s time
and money. 8) The borderlines between different groups of me-
dia will gradually disappear. 9) Many new media and new tech-
nologies will be developed by “hybridisation’. 10) An interna-
tional, integrated digital telecommunications system will replace
today’s different systems. 11) A common world standard for tele-
vision will be developed. 12) Increased copyright problems.
Median is the middle value in a distribution of data. Half of the
sample is below and half of the sample is above that value.
>Mean, Mode.

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Mediaan system measure size in typography. It is used in
France. Here 12 points = .1649 inches = 4.205 mm. 1 pt. = .3504
mm (72.5 pts/inch). >Size of type.
Mediacy. The two terms electracy and mediacy seem to repre-
sent quite similar concepts, both include the ability to under-
stand and work with digital media. Electracy describes the skills
necessary to exploit the full communicative potential of new elec-
tronic media. Mediacy is a facility in interacting and working
with media. Electracy/mediacy are to digital media what literacy
is to print media. 21st century literacy, computer literacy, digital
literacy, hypertext literacy, multiliteracy, multimedia literacy,
multimodal literacy, new media literacy, screen literacy and
transliteracy belong in this category
Mediated communication comprises the study of the com-
munication processes, including the technical production of me-
dia. Some years ago, the main focus was on the senders, who
wanted to reach out with their messages to large groups of receiv-
ers in mass-communication. These messages were mainly in-
tended to provide entertainment, information and news and to
some extent also advertising and propaganda. Today it is more
common in media and communication studies to focus on the in-
dividual receivers, their individual interpretations of the varying
messages and the constructions of meaning made by the receiv-
ers. >Media and communication, Medium.
Mediated messages refer to messages that are distributed via
media. Mediated communication comprises the study of the
communication processes, including the technical production of
media. It is common to focus on the individual receivers, their
individual interpretations of the varying messages and the con-
structions of meaning made by the receivers. >Medium.

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Medium is an aid used in the transfer of data and information
from a sender to a receiver. Each medium has its own particular
advantages and disadvantages.
Medium and message. In the 1960s professor Marshall
McLuhan coined the expression: “The medium is the message”.
This expression has given rise to considerable confusion. During
the 1980s it was often stated: “The message is the medium”.
Technology is the servant and the message, the idea, is the mas-
ter. However, the medium is not the message. A medium is an
aid used in the transfer of information from a sender to a re-
ceiver. The term aid is used here as a collective designation for
the channel, or information carrier and the processor/equip-
ment required for encoding and decoding of the information.
Medulla oblongata in the brain stem, the lower region of the
brain, regulates autonomic functions, such as control of move-
ments and breathing.
Memory. There are many models seeking to explain the func-
tion of our memories. Information is processed and remembered
in chunks that are organized hierarchically.
Memory and message design. There is a close relationship
between guidelines aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines
aimed at facilitating perception, processing and memory. Sim-
plicity in a message will result in easier and more effective per-
ception, processing and memory of that message.
Memory for pictures is superior to memory for words. This is
called the “pictorial superiority effect.” Visual memory is very
fast. Emotionally charged pictures may improve motivation for
reading and improve the memory. Memory for a picture-word
combination is superior to memory for words alone or memory
for pictures alone. Learners are most able to build connections
between verbal and visual representations when text and illus-
trations are actively held in memory at the same time. Pictures

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should be put as close to the relevant text as possible. >Dual-cod-
ing memory model.
Memory for text is better when content is meaningful. We best
remember what we read at the beginning and at the end of a read-
ing session. The optimum time for learning from reading seems
to be 20–40 minutes and then it is time for a pause. We will for-
get most of what we learn if we do not rehearse the material. After
finishing reading, it is time for the first rehearsal, reading key-
words and notes. It is a good idea to repeat this after a day, after
a week and after a month. Retrieval from verbal memory is a se-
rial integration and sequential processing of auditory-motor per-
ception systems. >Dual-coding memory model.
Memory for words. >Dual-coding memory model.
Memory models. A number of models, or theories, describe
the transfer of information through memory. One way of viewing
memory functions is based on information processing in steps,
the “information processing theory.” Another way is the “dual-
coding theory.” In accordance with the “cue information the-
ory,” information that is shared between channels facilitates
learning. Cues that occur simultaneously in auditory and visual
channels are likely to be better recalled than those presented in
one channel only. >Dual-coding memory model, Memory.
Mental health literacy is knowledge and beliefs about mental
disorders that aid their recognition, management or prevention.
Members of the public need to have some knowledge to allow
them to recognise prevent and seek early help for mental disor-
ders.
Mental images. >Dual-coding memory model.
Mental literacy is a metaphor for the use of the brain as a com-
puter.

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Mental model, an explanation of someone’s thought process
about how things work in the real world.
Mental processing and message design. The producer of
information and learning materials can facilitate communication
and the various learning processes of the receivers. Complicated
language, in both texts and pictures, will impair the understand-
ing of any intended message. Thus, text and pictures for infor-
mation should always be designed so that they are easy to read.
Any graphical message should be legible, readable and also well
worth reading for the intended audience. Any audial message
should be audible, distinct and also well worth listening to for the
intended audience.
Message is information content conveyed with a medium from
a sender to a receiver in a single context on one occasion. Main
components in messages are words, visuals and forms. Some
representations also have movement and sound.
Message access. In order to provide external access to infor-
mation materials the information designer should design infor-
mation materials to fit main systems for storage, use interna-
tional standards, such as standard page sizes and consider as-
pects of information security.
Message attention is needed. In directing attention, we seek a
balance between novelty and familiarity, between complexity
and simplicity, between uncertainty and certainty. Familiarity in
excess produces boredom, while novelty in excess produces anx-
iety. Change and novelty should direct attention to the most rel-
evant ideas in a message rather than to marginal or superficial
content.
Message clarity is determined by legibility, the technical de-
sign of texts and pictures. Information sets should be as clear,
simple, unambiguous and transparent as possible. Avoid unusual
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285
Adapt typeface and character size to meet the limitations of the
medium and the technical production. A message has good legi-
bility if it is easy to read, from the viewpoint that the reader
should easily be able to >and distinguish all different parts.
Message content, context, format and structure influence the
viewer’s ability to perceive it. Learning is maximized when con-
tents are the same in different channels. Information presented
in pictures is encoded twice, once as a picture and once as a ver-
bal label for the picture. The redundancy in memory that results
from this “dual coding” means that information can be retrieved
either from the pictorial or from the verbal memory. >Dual-cod-
ing memory model.
Message context. The context in which a message is presented
has a major impact on the way that the message is perceived. For
example, the context may consist of text, speech, music, sound
effects, or visuals. Message context will influence interpretation
and can convey a “pre-understanding” of content. >Context per-
spective, Pre-understanding.
Message credibility is important for the source as well as for
the receiver. Receivers believe in a high credibility message with
good structure, convincing arguments, proper references and
relevant examples. It must be possible to understand the mes-
sage and to be able to believe that the information is honest and
correct. High credibility sources exert a more persuasive influ-
ence than low credibility sources.
Message design refers to the five areas graphic design, infor-
mation design, instruction design, mass design, and persuasion
design. All these design areas deal with the design of messages,
however with different objectives. This interdisciplinary and
multi-disciplinary field of knowledge receives contributions from
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286
Message design family. A group of design disciplines all deal
with the design of messages. The main components in message
design are words, visuals and forms.
The message design family (middle) has five design genera
(right): 1) Graphic design, 2) Information design, 3) Instruction
design, 4) Mass design, and 5) Persuasion design.
Message design genera are graphic design, information de-
sign, instruction design, mass design and persuasion design.
Message design model. The “information and message design
model” include the following four process activities: 1) Analysis
and synopsis, 2) Production of draft, 3) Production of script, and
4) Production of original and master. Each process activity in-
cludes a design sub-process, production of documentation, and a
review process. Main information and message design tools will
include words (printed and spoken), symbols, pictures (drawings
and photos), typography and layout, light and light effects, sound
and sound effects.
The creative information and message design processes include
four different production (P1–P4) and review activities (R1–
R4). The production activities are analysis and production (P1)

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of synopsis (1), production (P2) of draft (2), production (P3) of
script (3), and production (P4) of original 4) and master (5). C
= commission.
Message design objectives are important to define objec-
tives, always keeping the intended receivers in mind.
Message design research. >Research.
Message design principles exist in different areas, such as
data graphics, general design, graphic design, message design,
instructional design, instructional message design, information
design, and persuasion design.
Design processes are guided by design principles.
There are four groups of design principles:
1. Functional principles. This group includes six principles: de-
fining the problem, providing structure, providing clarity,
providing simplicity, providing emphasis, and providing
unity.
2. Cognitive principles. This group includes four principles: fa-
cilitating attention, facilitating perception, and facilitating
mental processing, and facilitating memory.
3. Aesthetic principles. This group includes two principles: har-
mony, and aesthetic proportion.
4. Administrative principles. This group includes four princi-
ples: information access, information costs, information eth-
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A total of 150 practical information design guidelines are linked
to my sixteen design principles. These guidelines may be used in
the production of information and learning materials as well as
in any kind of instructions.
Message design processes include cognitive as well as prac-
tical activities and aspects. My own model includes the following
four process activities: 1) Analysis and synopsis, 2) Production of
draft, 3) Production of script, and 4) Production of original and
master. Each activity includes a design sub-process, activity doc-
umentation, and a review process.
Message design tools. Design process and sub-processes are
performed with design tools that are suitable for the type of rep-
resentation that is selected during an early phase of the work.
Main message design tools include text (printed and spoken),
symbols, pictures (drawings and photographs), typography and
layout, sound and sound effects. These tools have different prop-
erties that offer and restrict the foundations for communication.
Design processes are performed with the help of design tools.
Message evaluation. The receiver’s evaluation of the message
will affect her or his evaluation of the source.
Message execution. Several authors have pointed out “form
follows function.” Thus, the content of the message is more im-
portant than the actual execution of the message. Therefore, we

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should always begin by defining what any message is supposed
to show. What is the problem we want to solve? The information
in each message will have to be structured and adapted to the
needs of the target group, the intended readers or listeners.
Message legibility. Legibility is determined by the technical
design of the text and the pictures, that is, their clarity. Avoid un-
usual typefaces, as well as typefaces that are too small or too
large. Typeface and font size must be adapted partly to the me-
dium and partly to the choice of technical production.
Message literacy is the ability to access, analyse, evaluate, in-
terpret, create, produce and distribute messages that are con-
veyed by words, visuals, forms, music and numeric data etcetera.
Message literacy helps the intended receivers to read, recognize,
comprehend, experience and understand message contents,
whether conveyed to them through print media or other media
formats.
Message memory. >Memory.
Message objectives should be defined while always keeping
the intended receivers in mind. >graphic design objectives, per-
suasion design objectives, mass design objectives, information
design objectives and instruction design objectives for examples
of objectives.
Message objectives diagram is a rhomb, divided in four parts
of equal size. Each part represents different sets of objectives and
receiver activities that may be noted as a cognitive state of mood.
The first part, learning and subsequent knowledge is located in
the top corner. Knowledge may develop into insight and wisdom.
The second part is the right corner. It represents experiencing
feelings such as beliefs, delight, desire or willingness to buy
something, distress, dread, eagerness, excitement, fear, fun,
grief, happiness, mourning, opinions, pleasure, prejudices, ro-
mance, satisfaction, sorrow and tension. The third part, at the

290
bottom corner represents relaxation, such as ease, rest and slack-
ening. The fourth part, at the left corner represents understand-
ding, including awareness, consciousness and understanding of
facts.
Message purpose. The purpose of an intended message may
be advertising of a product or a service, providing a business pro-
posal; providing education, entertainment, information, instruc-
tion, learning, training, establishing a change of behaviour, mak-
ing a decision, performing an action of any kind, or any combi-
nation of these and many other examples.
Message receiver. The receiver’s evaluation of the message
will affect her or his evaluation of the source.
Message response is sometimes easy to predict. This predict-
ability is often heavily exploited in movies, television and theatre.
However, often people respond differently to the same message.
Individuals differ in their ability, motivation and readiness to re-
spond to a message. Reinforcement is helpful in establishing re-
sponse. In learning, active participation is better than passive
participation. Meaningful responses are easier to learn than
meaningless responses.
Message rhomb. >Message objectives diagram.
Message simplicity. Simplicity in a message will result in eas-
ier and more efficient perception, processing and memory of that
message.
Message structure. A great deal of perceptual organization oc-
curs pre-attentively, not under cognitive control. The way a mes-
sage is organized, therefore, will have an important effect on the
way the perceptual system structures what it detects and, in ways
that the perceiver will not be aware of, on how that information
is interpreted.
Message triangle. >Message design triangle.

291
Meta-information can be abstracts, different classification
systems, index tables, information about the author of a book,
keywords, etc.
Meta-literacy is a part of the overarching concept of infor-
mation literacy.
Metal type, hot lead typesetting, hot metal type, hot metal
typesetting, hot type, mechanical typesetting, metal type, refers
to 19th-century technologies for typesetting of text. Hot melted
type metal is injected into line moulds. The characters are used
for printing ink onto paper. This process afforded fast creation of
large quantities of type. It was especially used by the newspaper
industry.
Metallic is a highly reflective ink, outside of the standard colour
spaces.
Metaphor transfers meaning from one thing to another. Meta-
phors can be verbal and visual.
Metaphorical pictures is a group of schematic pictures that
are used for something that has a similarity with the actual image
contents. Some examples are: 1) Staircase leading to a target. 2)
Pieces in a jigsaw puzzle. 3) Concentric circles around a centre.
4) Circulations. 5) Spirals showing circular continuity.
Metonym is something that denotes one thing, but is used to
refer to something else.
Metroglyph chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Mezzotint. In mezzotint, the entire surface of the copperplate is
first covered with hundreds of small pricks. These are burnished
and scraped to create light areas. Mezzotint was invented in the
17th century and was used extensively until the early 19th cen-
tury. It was the only method by which the many nuances in oil

292
paintings could be reproduced. Graphic artists mainly use this
method as a fine arts technique.
Midbrain in the brain stem, the lower region of the brain, is in-
volved with sensory and motor integration.
Middle Ages. Already by the Middle Ages, a wide spectrum of
image types was used for teaching and training. The pictures
ranged from realistic drawings to abstract diagrams. Pictures
were used for the identification of important medical herbs, for
instruction on how to load and use a cannon, how to swim, how
to fight with a sword, how to construct a building and for training
the art of angling. >Gregorius the Great.
Miedinger. The Swiss typeface designer Max Miedinger (1910–
1980) designed the sans-serif typeface Neue Haas Grotesk in Zü-
rich 1957. It was renamed Helvetica in 1960 and was immedi-
ately a success. >Helvetica.
MIL, Media and Information Literacy. UNESCO has combined
Information Literacy and Media Literacy to Media and Infor-
mation Literacy (MIL). Irrespective of technologies MIL recog-
nizes the role of information and media in our everyday lives.
Military perspective is a level perspective. It is higher than the
Gentleman’s perspective and used in several historical paintings
of troops and battles. This perspective is perfect to >the different
groups of soldiers on the battlefield.
Minard, Charles-Joseph >Charles-Joseph Minard.
Mirror images are virtual images. Like inner images virtual
images lack a physical format. These virtual images are located
at a point behind the mirror from which divergent light beams
seem to start before they have passed the optical system. Mirror
images can be seen, but not “captured” like images that are pro-
jected on a screen of any sort. Pictures in a mirror can be

293
photographed, but then they become “photographs” and they are
not “mirror images” anymore.
Mixed learning integrates models of distance learning and tra-
ditional learning. It emerged as a new teaching method for dis-
tance learning in the late 1990s. Teachers adopted a more stu-
dent-centred learning model rather than a teacher-centred learn-
ing model. It is also called blended learning and hybrid learning.
Mixed modality. Children with mixed modality strength learn
from visual, auditory, as well as kinaesthetic and tactile stimuli.
>Modality.
Mixed Reality (MR), or hybrid reality, is an environment
where the real and a virtual world merge. Digital and physical
objects form new kinds of environments where the users may in-
teract with all objects in real time.
ML, mobile learning, m-learning, is a learning method that can
occur anytime and anywhere with the help of mobile devices.
Mobile learning, ML, m-learning, is a learning method that
can occur anytime and anywhere with the help of mobile devices.
Mobiliary art, portable art. In archaeology mobiliary art and
portable art refers to human-made small examples of prehistoric
art, like carved figurines, that people could carry when they
moved from on place to another.
Modal. Relating to form or mode as opposed to substance.
Modality in educational psychology. In “educational psy-
chology” modality refer to inner, mental activities and experi-
ences. It is mainly a reception perspective. People may have au-
ditory, kinaesthetic (or tactile), visual modality, or a combination
of these modalities. In the USA, it has been found that 30% of
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294
auditory modality and 15% have kinaesthetic modality. The re-
maining 30% have a mixed modality.
Modality. The word “modality” is used as a term for concepts in
quite different areas such as cognitive theory, education, educa-
tional psychology, learning, linguistics, medicine, multimedia,
music, semiotics, sociology, theology, transportation, and visual
analysis.
Modality in semiotics. In semiotics modality refers to the
channel or mode by which signs and representations are trans-
mitted.
Modality in visual analysis. In visual analysis modality
means how real a representation should be taken to be.
Modality principle. According to the “modality principle”
multimedia materials that present both verbal and graphical in-
formation should present the verbal information in an auditory
format and not as written text.
Mode. 1) A mode is a system of signs to express and represent
meanings. A multi-modal text is a text composed of more than
one mode. 2) The value that occurs most often in a distribution
of data. >Mean, Median.
Models and exhibitions is the name of a media group. In con-
trast to other groups this group is multidimensional. The depth
dimension makes it possible to exhibit models and real objects
with a spatial relationship to each other and to the public. The
use of acoustic media provides some idea of the chronology. Film
and video media also contribute movement, distinct processes
and courses of events. Lighting, texture, smells and tastes can
also be utilised. Many exhibitions offer visitors opportunities to
perform their own activities.
Moderate weight type has been regarded as professional.

295
Modern textbooks often have many different types of pictures
such as black and white photos, caricatures, cartoons, collages,
colour photos, diagrams, graphs, realistic drawings and maps.
But how are the pictures used? A poll of teachers in Stockholm
showed that they often consider the pictures in textbooks as
“good,” but that many pictures quite simply are “unnecessary.”
Less than half of the colour photos and drawn illustrations in the
textbooks were interpreted as relevant to the texts. At the same
time, we know that colour pictures are very expensive to buy and
to print and they force up the price of textbooks and often colour
ads no pedagogical value to a picture.
Modern type is a typeface with great variation between thick
and thin strokes, and flat, thin, un-bracketed serifs.
Moiré is an undesirable pattern in a picture which may occur by
re-screening any halftone copy of a picture. Thus, we should
avoid using a printed picture as an original for a new publication.
Moiré patterns are large-scale interferences. They can be pro-
duced when an opaque ruled pattern with transparent gaps is
overlaid on another pattern. A printed pattern of dots can inter-
fere with an image. In digital photography and television, a pat-
tern on an object can interfere with the shape of the light sensors.
Monochromatic colour is the use of varying values of a single
hue.
Monochrome is an image made of varying tones of one single
colour.
Monospaced type always allocates the same amount of space
for each character. The letter “i” takes the same space as the letter
“m.” In a text block each character aligns vertically. This is useful
with numerals in tables. >Proportionally spaced type.
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296
Montage is a composition of a number of different parts, in or-
der to form an image.
MOOC, Massive Open Online Courses.
Morison, Stanley. >Stanley Morison.
Morphology. 1) Generally speaking morphology is the study of
form and structure of anything. 2) In biology and life sciences
morphology is the study of form and structure of organisms and
their parts. 3) In linguistics morphology is a sub-field that focus
on the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words
in a language, how words are changed, combined, formed, and
modified.
Morris, William >William Morris.
Mosaic may be any decorative covering made of small coloured
pieces of ceramic, glass, or other materials, mounted on a surface
such as a ceiling, a floor, a plate, a wall, or something else.
Motion and rhythm. Several types of content benefit from be-
ing shown in media with moving pictures such as film, video and
television. The best way to illustrate motion in a still picture is to
depict a natural movement in a clear contrast to a static situation.
In a still picture the impression of motion can be enhanced with
graphic motion symbols such as speed lines that are common in
comic strips. The meaning of these symbols has to be learned and
in fact are usually soon learned even by young children.
Motion designer. The sculptor Bernini solved complicated
spatial relationships and various motion problems with great im-
agination and great skill. He transformed immobility and cer-
tainty into movement and ambiguity. Already at a young age he
demonstrated this with some stunning works. >Bernini.

297
Motion graphics involves the changes in a position in space of
an object, which create the illusion of motion. Any kind of ab-
stract animation can be called motion graphics.
Motivation is a necessary antecedent of cognitive effort to in-
terpret meaning.
Movable type. The world’s first known movable type printing
press technology using ceramic materials was invented in China
around 1040. The first movable-type printing press technology
using metal was developed in Korea in 1234. Both systems re-
quired enormous amounts of labour in the production of large
numbers of individual characters and then production of com-
plete solid ceramic tablets and metal tablets respectively for each
individual page. In the middle of the 15th century Johann Guten-
berg invented the first European printing press and he inde-
pendently developed a movable type system.
Moving pictures can be affective and provide readers with en-
tertainment and reinforce an experience both positively and neg-
atively. They can trigger associations and influence emotions and
attitudes.
Mulhall, Michael George (1836–1900) was a pioneer in sta-
tistical diagram design. In his work as a journalist in Ireland Mul-
hall introduced simplified images, called pictograms. In a chart
or a map, the varying sizes of the pictograms represented data.
Different sized silhouette images of a cow, for example, could
represent meat production in different countries. Silhouette im-
ages of ships illustrated volumes of transported goods. The
reader could easily compare the sizes of these diverse figures.
Multi-dimensional. Information design principles are not tied
to the unique features of a particular language, nor are they tied
to a particular culture. Information design is a worldwide consid-
eration and not related to any particular language or culture.

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Multi-view-perspectives show different views at the same
time. The pictures show objects as they are known to be rather
than as they are seen to be. In many Egyptian paintings, the head
and legs of a person are shown in profile, while the eye and torso
are shown frontally.
Multicultural literacy. We live in multicultural societies. We
interact with people from different countries, and with different
experiences. Multicultural literature describes how people live in
different parts of the world. It includes knowledge of cultures and
languages, as well as the ways graphics, text and sound may in-
troduce bias into language, generalizations, perspective, stereo-
types, subject matter and visual content.
Multidisciplinarity involves the combining of several aca-
demic disciplines into one activity. The term multidisciplinary is
applied within some disciplines for studies that use methods
from several traditional fields of study.
Multilevel pie chart is a schematic picture.
Multiliteracy is the ability to understand and use literacy and
practices with a range of texts and technologies (including com-
puters, cell phones, the Internet and social networking sites.)
Multimedia originally referred to the use of several different
media at the same time. An example is a verbal presentation
where the presenter uses slides and audiotape. Today this con-
cept refers to the use of several representations on one or more
computer screens, controlled by a computer. It may be anima-
tions, audio, graphics, text, and video. The information is usually
stored with digital technology on digital-based platforms.
Multimedia instruction is presenting words and pictures that
are intended to foster learning. Words can be printed (e.g., on-
screen text) or spoken (e.g., narration). Pictures can be static

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(e.g., charts, graphs, maps, and photos) or dynamic (e.g., anima-
tions, interactive illustrations, and videos).
Multimedia learning is learning from words and pictures.
Multimedia literacy, new media literacy and screen literacy,
highlights a belief among many educators and scholars that lit-
eracy should include electronic media that have moved into the
mainstream of communication.
Multimodal text. The extended text concept implies that texts
can consist of a variety of communicative resources, where
meaning is communicated through combinations of two or more
modes, such as spoken and written language, and also different
patterns of meaning. These patterns may be audio, gestural, spa-
tial, tactile, and visual.
Multimodality, multimodal messages combine various modes
of representation and the interplay between these. Thus, multi-
modality attend to the full range of communicational forms peo-
ple use, such as body language, gaze, gesture, image, posture,
sound, speech and so on and the relationships between them.
Multiple bar is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
Multiple field matrices is a kind of matrix. >Matrices.
Multiple frequency polygon is a schematic picture.
Multiple histogram is a schematic picture.
Multiple line graph is a schematic picture.
Multivision, Video Wall is a display system where many televi-
sion-receivers (for example 16, 24, or 30) are put close together
forming a check pattern. All screens can show the same image,
different parts of the same image, or different images in varying
configurations. Multivision is used at, for example, shows, exhi-
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Munsell Colour System (MCS) was introduced in 1905. Since
then it has been modified several times. The system consists of
fixed arrays of samples which vary, in hue, lightness (here called
value) and saturation (here called chroma). The value scale in the
system ranges from white to black with nine steps of grey. Forty
equal steps in a circle represent hue. The value and the hue are
related to each other by a maximum of sixteen “saturation steps.”
>Natural Colour System.
Mural is a large wall painting. In ancient times they were
often executed in fresco.
Museology. >Museum studies.
Museum studies is the interdisciplinary engagement in critical
examination of functions, history, and roles of museums in soci-
ety. This term began to be used in Canada, the United Kingdom,
and the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The older
term, museology, is more commonly used in non-English speak-
ing countries. Museology is a more descriptive term for the field.
Music is a sophisticated language with its own logic and syntax.
Music reading and writing skills are quite different from lan-
guage reading and writing skills.
Musicacy, musical literacy, is the ability to understand and
work with music. It incorporates the ability to read music and
understand how to make the notes on a page audible.
Musical intelligence is the ability to compose songs, sing and
play instruments. People with musical intelligence are sensitive
to pitch, rhythm, timbre, emotional power of music and organi-
sation of music. This is obviously highly developed in composers,
conductors, performers, musical audiences, recording engineers,
musical instruments makers, piano tuners and also in cultures
without traditional written language.

301
Musical literacy, or musicacy, is the ability to understand and
work with music. It incorporates the ability to read music and
understand how to make the notes on a page audible.
Muybridge, Eadweard (1830–1904) was an English photogra-
pher. He made the first projected film, after 1877 and before
1880. In the 1880s Muybridge produced over 100,000 images of
animals and of humans in motion at the University of Pennsyl-
vania in Philadelphia.
Myopia, or near-sightedness, means that the image of a distant
object is formed before the retinal plane. The axial length of the
eye is too long for the lens. Close objects, however, are properly
imaged on the retinal plane. The opposite to myopia is called far-
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N
Naïve user review is a process in which a draft of a document
is appraised by individuals whithout expertise in the area.
Napoleon’s march to Moscow, is the title of the best-known
graphic diagram ever made. Charles Joseph Minard (1781–1870)
designed this 24 x 51,8 cm graphic in 1869, in order to explain
Napoleon’s problematic march to Moscow and back. Minard
combined statistical data with a time-line treatment. He shows
the size of the French army, its locations, and movements. He
shows the freezing temperature during the retreat from Moscow.
More than 422,000 men invaded Russia in June 1812. Only
about 40,000 soldiers survived Russia. Finally, only 10,000 men
returned back into Poland from this devastating campaign.
Narrow and condensed type has been regarded as cramped,
economical, precise, restrictive and un-assuring.
National Television Standard Committee. >NTSC.
Natural Colour System–1, NCS, is a colour description sys-
tem, developed during the 1970s. From a perceptual point of
view, we perceive six colours as “pure.” Black and white are
achromatic colours. Yellow, red, blue and green are chromatic
colours. These six colours are called elementary colours. All col-
ours that are not pure elementary colours have a varying degree
of resemblance to several elementary colours.
Natural Colour System–2. Every possible colour can be de-
scribed with its specific location in a three-dimensional model, a
twin cone, called the “NCS Colour Solid”. The Colour Circle is lo-
cated on the circumference of this twin cone. Each quadrant in-
cludes one hundred steps, thus describing the exact hue of a spe-
cific colour.

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Natural Colour System–3. In order to describe the nuance of
a colour a vertical sector through half of the NCS Colour Solid is
used. Every chromatic colour has an exact position in the vertical
sector. This position tells the degree of resemblance to white,
black and the pure chromatic colour of the hue concerned, the
chromaticness.
Natural Colour System–4. In order to describe a colour using
the colour circle and the colour triangle it is done in the follow-
ing sequence: blackness, chromaticness and hue. For example, a
colour of 10 percent blackness, 80 percent chromaticness and
with a hue of Y70R will have the notation 1080–Y70R. The NCS
places emphasis on qualitative variation in the colour sensation
whereas the Munsell System is based on equally spaced visual
scales. Both systems are based on surface colours.
Natural law. >Closure principle.
Natural style. >Bacon, Roger.
Navigation. 1) When we browse through a paper, an encyclo-
paedia, or a hypermedia system, we navigate using a combina-
tion of alphanumeric information (headings and subheadings)
and pictorial information. 2) Navigation is a metaphor to de-
scribe how readers interact with hypermedia texts.
Navigation in hyperspace. Around the world software de-
signers are trying to create systems that combine the unique ca-
pabilities of computers and the human capabilities of under-
standing complex information structures. A library structure,
with departments, bookcases, bookshelves, books, chapters, ,
pages sections may be used. Large structures may need indexes
to access exact information. Each page must include necessary
administrative data, such as company, department, document
number, revision status, revision date, persons responsible for
the contents, persons responsible for the approval of the infor-
mation, and also security class.

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NCS. >Natural Colour System.
Near-sightedness. >Myopia.
Negative effect. Pictures can have a negative effect on learning.
When too many pictures are used, readers may ignore many of
them–the opposite of attention. Haphazard use of visuals may
lead to minimal or no instructional gain and gradual loss of ef-
fectiveness as an instructional tool. Cognitive and decorative
functions should never be confused or mixed.
Negative indents extends into the left or into the right margin.
The width of an em dash is commonly used for paragraph inden-
tation. This width is equal to the height of the type. So, in 10 point
an em dash is 10 points wide. Negative indents may be used for
reference lists, numbered lists and lists with bullets and other
characters like stars, squares etcetera. Negative indents may also
be used in texts where it is very important to draw attention to
each new paragraph. However, indenting of every sentence will
slow down the reading speed. >Indents.
Negative leading may look dramatic. However, when the text
lines crash into one another it will be difficult to read. >Leading.
Negative results. When we design information and learning
materials, it is very important that the materials are reviewed and
approved by people with expert knowledge in the appropriate
fields. The effort put into training and learning may actually give
a negative result and the learner may end up less competent than
before the learning experience. Using the “wrong materials”
means spending extra time and extra money.
Negative space, or passive space, in a visual is the part that is
not filled with picture elements. The negative space is usually the
background. Active space or positive space in a visual is the part
representing different objects. Space has no meaning in itself,
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elements. In typography the shape of the space within an open
character, such as an upper case C is called a negative space.
Neolithic art have thirteen main categories of motifs: face mo-
tifs, circles, rayed circles, crosses, spirals, arcs, ovals, scalloped
outlines, hurdle patterns, fir tree motifs, zigzag patterns, trian-
gles and lozenges and cup-marks. There are several versions in
each category.
Neolithic period. >Prehistory.
Neolithic rock designs. >Curvilinear decorations, Rectilin-
ear decorations.
Nested indents are a form of indention in which each subse-
quent indent is set relative to the previous indent and not relative
to a margin. Nested indents may be used to graphically show the
relationship between sections, sub-sections and paragraphs
within a text. Tables of contents often have nested indents to
show each successive level.
Network is a connection of two or more computers. This allows
computers to share data, software, and other resources.
Network operators invest vast sums on the expansion and
maintenance of their digital networks. They are capable of han-
dling text, audio, video, pictures and data. Governments are com-
missioning an increasing number of studies to examine the need
for control systems, ethical rules and new sources of tax revenue.
Copyright of and responsibility for factual information, i.e., data
in constant need of change, processing and updating by many
different people, are among the most difficult issues being ad-
dressed.
Network visualisation, or network visualization, is a pictorial
representation of edges and vertices of a graph. >Visualisation.

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Neutral. Some researchers argue that many illustrations serve
no important function for student learning. The effect is neutral
when the pictures do not add to the text of the textbook.
New Century Schoolbook is a common serif typeface.
New disciplines. Academic disciplines constantly change and
evolve. Some develop in different directions and form new disci-
plines. Some disciplines partly overlap other disciplines and
form new disciplines. Information design was deliberately “put
together” with elements from several different areas. This hap-
pened at the same time in different parts of the world. Infor-
mation design has its origin and its roots in different areas.
New literacies include a large number of different literacies.
Some literacy concepts are rather similar and most of them have
been defined in many different ways. Main categories are Area
specific literacies, Electracy/mediacy, Musicacy, Numeracy
and Visuacy.
New media literacy, multimedia literacy, screen literacy, is
the ability to cope with the numerous media in use today.
Newgrange is a large prehistoric megalithic monument in Ire-
land. A well-organized farming community constructed New-
grange over 5,000 years ago. The mound is 79–85 meters in di-
ameter and 13.5 m high and it is built of 200,000 tons of stone
and alternating layers of earth. On the shortest days of the year,
the winter solstice, the first beams of light from the rising sun
illuminates an altar-stone inside the main burial chamber. This
special construction shows a deep understanding for the im-
portance of special illumination. Many large kerbstones and
stone slabs have carved decorations with “basic designs.”
News graphics are used to convey all kinds of news that are fit
to >rather than to read as a printed story.

307
Nicéphore Niépce (1765–1833) was a French inventor. In
1825 he made the world’s first photograph. His technique was
called heliography.
Nicolas Jenson (1420–1480) was a printer in France. Already
in 1471 he perfected the first Roman lowercase letter type. He
transferred Gutenberg’s imitation of handwriting to a printing
style that is still used. To a large extent the history of graphic de-
sign is parallel to the history of art and the history of illustration.
Nightingale, Florence. >Florence Nightingale.
Nipkow. >John Logie Baird, Paul Gottlieb Nipkow.
Noise may intrude on various occasions and interfere with the
communication process or processes. Every “perception,” such
as a visual sensation, is actually composed of a large number of
different sub-components that are aggregated into a single holis-
tic impression.
Nominal literacy is the ability to recognize basic terms used in
communicating about the environment and to provide working
definitions of their meanings. Nominal literacy is a part of Envi-
ronmental literacy.
Nominal quotient. The nominal quotient gives the total num-
ber of nouns, prepositions and participles divided by the total
number of pronouns, verbs and adverbs in the text. A good infor-
mation text has a quotient of slightly more than 1.0. A text with a
lower nominal quotient seems “chatty,” whereas a text with a
higher nominal quotient is cumbersome and hard to read.
Nomogram is a schematic picture. There are two kinds of nom-
ograms: Abac and Alignment chart.
Non-figurative representations include two groups: 1) Ver-
bal symbols, and 2) Non-visual and non-verbal representations.

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Non-linear presentations are lists, tables, linear branching,
matrixes, and, of course, all kinds of visuals.
Non-linear structure. Hypermedia and expert systems might
allow for almost totally non-linear structures. The user would
then not be restricted by pre-defined structures and thus be able
to navigate freely between different nodes with information.
Non-literality refers to cognitive schemes and is expressed in
many forms such as gestures, music, smell, sound, speech, taste,
touch visual images and writing. Children easily comprehend
non-literal meanings that are based on features like colour, shape
and size.
Non-objective shapes are shapes of pure design elements.
These design elements are not related to any pictorial source.
Nonverbal communication describes how it is possible to
convey messages without words.
Normal curve is a schematic picture.
Normal perspective. A “normal” way of viewing could be said
to represent the eye-level perspective or normal perspective.
Notes tend to fray the reading fabric. If notes are required, they
may be collected in a numbered list at the end of each chapter
immediately before the bibliography and arranged like a list of
items with numbers instead of characters to mark them. Occa-
sional notes and brief references may be placed as footnotes at
the bottom of the page, or sometimes in the left or right margin.
Noun is a word referring to an event, a person, a place, a quality,
a substance, or a thing. It is not always possible to identify a noun
by its form. “Nouns” is the largest of the four open word classes.
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NTSC is both the name of the authority, which developed the
American colour television-system, and the name of the system
itself, National Television Standard Committee. NTSC is used in
US, Canada and Japan. This analogue system was first appearing
in black and white in the 40’s. Colour was added in 1953, and
stereo audio was added in 1982. NTSC uses 525 lines of resolu-
tion. In this system 60 half images are produced every second
and they are combined to 30 whole images per second.
Number of words in a sentence appears to exert the strongest
effect on reading rate and reading comprehension.
Numbering. To achieve a clear structure, we can use a com-
bined numbering and lettering system. Main points in a text are
traditionally labelled with Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV etc.).
Sub points of the first degree are traditionally labelled with capi-
tal letters (A, B, C, D etc.). Second-degree sub points are tradi-
tionally labelled with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.). Number-
ing and lettering systems can be combined with typographic cue-
ing of headings. Headings set in different type versions aid com-
prehension of the material.
Numeracy is the ability to understand and work with numbers
and other mathematical concepts. To be numerically literate, a
person has to be comfortable with logic and reasoning. Innumer-
acy or numerical illiteracy refers to a lack of ability to reason with
numbers. Economic literacy, financial literacy and statistical lit-
eracy belong to this category.
Numerals are characters that represent numeric values. There
are two groups. In the group lining numerals all characters are
aligned to the baseline and all are of equal height. In the group
old style numerals characters are not aligned to the baseline, and
the characters 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 have descenders.
Numeric data are often used to illustrate situations, such as re-
lationships between variables and parts of a whole. Data can be

310
presented in many formats. Graphic formats include compari-
sons of numbers, lengths, areas, volumes, positions and also
comparisons of different combinations of these variables. Dis-
criminations are most readily perceived and learned when the
differences between stimuli are maximal. If you wish to be clear,
choose clear examples.
Numerical illiteracy refers to a lack of ability to reason with
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O
Object-oriented image, or vector image, is based on mathe-
matical functions and is composed of lines and closed polygons.
A coordinate system holds all the information on where lines, cir-
cles, squares, rectangles and other shapes start and stop. Shapes
can be filled with various patterns and delineated with different
lines. This means that an image can be scaled up and scaled down
without loss of quality. The image is re-drawn according to the
specifications set by the new size.
Object. >Sign.
Objective is a specific result to be achieved within a specific
timeframe. It is easier to measure objectives than goals. A goal is
a measurable end result (the big picture).
Objective set law. >Objective set principle.
Objective set principle is also known as the objective set law.
Two lines that almost form a right angle are perceived as a right
angle. This refers to our perception tendency towards a stable
group. Once perceptual units are seen as a group, perception will
try to retain this group. Horizontal lines are often perceived as
shorter than equally long vertical lines.
We may easily perceive two lines that almost form a right angle
(left) as a correct right angle (right).
Objectives. In graphic design, information design, instructional
design, instructional message design, mass design, message de-
sign and persuasion design, it is important to define the purpose

312
and the objective with any message, always keeping the intended
receivers in mind. >Advertising objectives, Clear objectives,
Course objectives, Educational objectives, Graphic design objec-
tives, Groups of information materials, Information design ob-
jectives, Instruction design objectives, Learning objectives,
Mass design objectives, Message design objectives, Message ob-
jectives, Message objectives diagram, Performance objectives,
Persuasion design objectives, Reading objectives, Visual liter-
acy objectives.
Objectivism. >Constructivism.
Objects. It is known that objects and pictures of objects are re-
membered better than their names.
Oblique is an “artificial italic.” formed by electronically slanting
a vertical typeface. Italics, however, are specially designed.
Oblique perspective, angular perspective, two-point per-
spective, have lines that vanish in two directions to two different
vanishing points.
Oblique typefaces are slanted versions of Roman typefaces.
Both kinds are visually rather similar. >Italic typefaces.
Observations. Producers of visuals for information may benefit
from observing how receivers use information materials in nor-
mal situations. Observers could also interview “members of the
audience” about how, why and when they use visuals.
Occipital lobes at the back of the cerebral cortex in the brain
process vision.
Occupational roles. Examples of occupational roles related to
information and information material are archivist, book editor,
chief editor, computer typographer, consultants, design assis-
tant, designer, desktop publisher, dictionary editor, documental-
ist, draughtsman, editor, editor of cultural pages, editor-in-chief,

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exhibition producer, expert, foreign editor, gate-keeper, graphic
artist, graphic planner, illustrator, info-master, informatic, infor-
mation broker, information designer, information manager, in-
formation secretary, information stage designer, information-
provider, journalist, librarian, linguist, map editor, marketer,
night editor, non-fiction writer, photographer, picture editor,
press secretary, producer, social information-provider, teacher,
technical information-provider, technical writer, translator, ty-
pographer and webmaster.
OCM, Outline of Cultural Materials. >Outline.
Offset lithography. In offset printing, text and images are cop-
ied to a photosensitive plate. The printing areas are covered with
ink that is grease-receptive. The non-printing areas are made wa-
ter-receptive. There are many kinds of offset printing machines,
from small office machines to very large industrial machines. In
large offset printing machines, it is possible to print four colours
directly in one combined process. Today offset printing is very
common for printing of newspapers, books and most kinds of
graphical products.
OH. >Overhead transparencies.
Old style type is a type category characterized by mild contrast
between thick and thin parts, and by bracketed serifs.
OMAX, or Omnimax, is a wide-film system giving a very large
picture area. The film-frames are put “lengthwise” on a 70-mm
film and not “crosswise” as IMAX on normal 35-mm film. OMAX
is shown inside a dome. The audience sits high up in a slanting
auditorium, with a shorter distance to the screen.
Omnimax. >OMAX.
On-line databases are offered by different by different provid-
ers, such as the printing companies, publishing houses, com-
puter manufacturers and libraries.

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One-dimensional representations, like words in a verbal
message, “flow” in a relatively fixed and often unambiguous form
along a time axis. The simplest form of a “one-dimensional” rep-
resentation is a simple acoustic signal, such as a baby’s cry. A
higher degree of complexity is found in texts and music. Music is
always structurally more complex than text but can, of course,
sometimes be “simple” in content.
One-point perspective, all lines vanish in a single point in the
picture. >Central perspective.
One-way communication theory. Media are controlled by
the ruling classes and impose a repressive ideology on passive
audiences.
Online education is a kind of E-learning. >E-learning.
Online instructional design. Many students say that the con-
cept and the logical structure of a course are the most important
aspects to them. Typical comments include: “Poor course design
and structure can make for confusion in finding assignments,
due dates, etc.” “Students easily get apprehensive, agitated and
panic stricken when they have questions that go unanswered for
days.” “Both the visual layout and the information architecture
need to be user-friendly and attractive.”
Online learning. Instruction is designed and delivered via e-
mail, Internet or Intranet.
Online teaching. Faculty and students have contact via e-mail,
Internet or Intranet.
OODA-loop (Observe, Orientate, Decide and Act), also called
the Boyd cycle is a process dimension of a case study. The first
phase in the process addresses issues like key concepts and defi-
nitions, the second phase looks at major arguments and evi-
dence, the third phase introduces assumptions and methodology
and the fourth phase concludes and summarizes. Each step

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depends on the content. Problems at the tactical level differ from
problems at the strategic level. From military literature, it could
be simplified to say that tactics are how to win the battle, opera-
tion is how to win campaign and strategy is how to win the war.
The level of problems differs in abstraction and time.
Open ended boxes are boxes with rules only at the top and
bottom.
Open word classes. Adjectives, adverbs, nouns and verbs, are
open word classes. They all accept new words.
Operant conditioning, instrumental conditioning, an organ-
ism learns that a response it makes will be followed by a particu-
lar consequence (operating on the environment, thus the term
“operant”). Animals engage in trial-and-error behaviour. The
more a specific behaviour is practised, the more strongly it will
be “learned.” The ethological approach, however, challenges
these assumptions. In accordance with the ethologists, what an
animal learns is constrained by its genetically determined “be-
havioural blueprint.”
Operating instructions is a term for a group of information
materials in the category Instructions.
Operational literacy is progress beyond functional literacy in
both the breadth and depth of understandings and skills. It is a
part of Environmental literacy.
Operative memory. >Short-term memory.
Oporinus. >Vesalius.
Optic nerve. The optic nerve has about one million optic nerve
fibres leading from the ganglion cells. In the fovea, there is an
almost one-to-one connection between cones and fibres, whereas
as many as 600 rods may be connected to one optic nerve fibre

316
in the outer periphery of the retina. This helps to explain why
visual acuity is best in the fovea.
Optical Character Recognition is a system that allows com-
puter software to translate images of typewritten text into ma-
chine-editable text.
Optical media has been developed at a rapid pace. This is es-
pecially true of 12 cm optical compact discs. They can be viewed
as “distributed databases.” A number of different systems with
different characteristics are available.
Optima is a common sans serif typeface.
Optimum legibility. The technical quality of type should be
high. Machine-created characters, type, are well-formed and
consistent in their size and style. Traditionally, type was the old
wooden or metal cast of letterforms. The individual pieces of type
were put together and locked up into forms. Then the type was
coated with ink. Sheets of paper were placed on the type, pressed
with a roller and then removed. Each sheet of paper then con-
tained an impression, an image, made from the real type. The use
of physical letterforms was replaced by a system that used pho-
tographs of the letters’ images. Today photo-typesetting ma-
chines work with digital images of characters. They work with a
good resolution and create high-quality typography.
Oral presentations. Speaker and listeners communicate in
real time. The writer and the reader can take the time they need.
Orbis Sensualium Pictus, (The Visible World in Pictures),
Comenius’ illustrated textbook, was first published in 1658. Co-
menius presented information on the world and on mankind in
closely related pictures and words. Through 150 illustrated chap-
ters the book was designed to teach the students Latin with the
help of short, but memorable sentences in the child’s own tongue.
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317
children, the Orbis brought into the home a complete world,
combining subjects and modes of life from near and far. This
book was widely used in both Europe and the USA for some 200
years. >Comenius.
Ordered perception. The reader must >the relative ordering
of values along a perceptual dimension. Size, position and value
are variables that are ordered. Objects can easily be arranged ob-
jectively from least to greatest. This is often used in diagrams.
Organisation. A number of tasks and roles, or “competence ar-
eas,” are the same for any information material. Different people
work on different assignments, to some extent at the same time.
In a large project, there may be a need for many different skills,
such as a project manager, a subject matter manager, a project
secretary, a number of sub-project leaders, subject matter ex-
perts, technical writers, technical editors, translators, informa-
tion brokers, graphics editors, photographers, illustrators, fine
art artists, subject matter reviewers, linguistic consultants, ter-
minology experts, pedagogues, graphic designers and web-mas-
ters. In a small project, it is usually not possible to employ a large
number of experts. However, also in small projects we need to
organise various reviews.
Origin. >Information design genus.
Original ideas are new, novel, unexpected, unique, and/or un-
usual.
Originator of term. The people who create concepts and terms
may be called “originators of terms”. They should get into contact
with the “terminology coordinators”.
Ornaments. Various ornaments and patterns can be used to
separate different sections in a text. In instructional materials,
they are often used to mark specific activities. They can also be
used for decoration, to make a more aesthetically pleasing or

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artistic product. Dingbats is a special PostScript font in desktop
publishing systems.
Orphan is the last line of a paragraph when it is alone at the top
of the next column or page.
Orthographic drawings do not show an object in perspective,
but in “scale.” Objects are represented as they are remembered.
Other positional perspectives. This group of positional per-
spectives has two types: 1) geometrical perspective and 2) multi-
view perspective.
Outdentation, or hanging indent, is the reverse of indentation.
It is often used in lists with bullets, and in lists with numbers. It
may also be used in reference lists, for the lines following the in-
itial line in a reference. >Indents.
Outline. 1) Many museums use Outline, OCM (Outline of Cul-
tural Materials) for classifying pictures. Outline was designed to
be a general classification and code system for social and cultural
subjects and operates with computerized routines. Classification
is influenced by the perceptions of the individuals doing the cod-
ing. This makes it difficult for a visitor to find pictures complying
with her or his requirements. >Inconclass. 2) In typography out-
line is a version of a font that only presents the outlines of the
characters.
Outline letters. >Emphasis in text.
Overhead projector is used to project overhead transparen-
cies. Room illumination (at least illumination near the screen)
must be reduced. To prevent image distortion, the top of the
screen must usually be tilted forward. The projector should be
put at such a distance from the display screen that the complete
image is projected on the screen. If parts of the image fall on the
wall, outside the screen, this may be quite disturbing. It is also
very important that the whole image is in focus. Dirt on the

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transparency, on the lenses, or on the screen is also disturbing
and makes the image less effective. >Overhead transparencies.
Overhead transparencies, OH, can only be projected with an
overhead projector. In Europe, the actual plastic film is 210 x 297
mm and the picture surface is 190 x 245 mm. Many speakers
mainly use text transparencies, or “word visuals,” containing key
words in attempting to supply an overview, clarify, reinforce and
summarize complicated arguments. These texts must be brief,
concise and easy to read. For good legibility, characters should
be large, distinct and boldface, never less than 5–6 mm high
when projected in a room the size of a normal classroom. Larger
rooms require larger character sizes. Today many speakers have
left overhead transparencies and slides and use PowerPoint
presentations and other similar digital systems.
Overhead view is a kind of level perspective that is used in
computer and video games. Here the vantage point is only a few
feet above human height.
Overlapping perspective, cropping perspective, or playing-
card perspective. When certain objects are placed in front of
other objects this will enhance the impression of depth in a pic-
ture. The overlapping perspective was quite common in Euro-
pean mediaeval art.
Overprint is the effect where one ink is printed over by one or
more other inks. This may result in interesting type effects.
Own goal. In my own work the goal has been to study the
presentation of visual and verbal and visual messages in infor-
mation and learning contexts in order to gain a better under-
standing of the conditions related to the design, use and inter-
pretation of such information. Most of my own work has been
related to audience interpretation and perception of verbal and
visual messages, to visual literacy and to the question of a visual
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P
Package design, packaging design, must meet legal and mar-
ket requirements. It has to protect the content against contami-
nation, damage, and loss. In the market packaging should attract
the attention of customers, and stimulate sales of a product.
Finding the appropriate packaging for a given brand/product has
become the key element of the corporate marketing strategy in
the increasingly competitive market.
Page. For reports and similar documents, it is reasonable to use
one, two, or three columns on the page. In multi-columnar lay-
outs, the narrow columns should have unjustified lines. In a jus-
tified text the distances between the words are too long, creating
white “rivers” of space in the text columns. Consistent use of col-
umns will help to establish a regular pattern throughout a pro-
ject. There are many possibilities for placement of the page num-
bers. They should be clear and easy to find. Usually readers are
likely to look for page numbers in the margin at the bottom of the
page. However, this should not to be considered a rule.
Page composition. Headings, text, pictures, margins and
“empty” space can be used to aid communication when used in a
consistent way. Learners are most able to build connections be-
tween verbal and visual representations when text and illustra-
tions are actively held in memory at the same time. This can hap-
pen when text and illustrations are presented in close connection
on the same page.
Page format index is a format index to compare pages in
books, magazines and other publications. >Format index.
Page numbers indicate arbitrary divisions of the text. For tech-
nical reasons. some books contain more than one series of page
numbers. For example, technical manuals and instructional ma-
terials often use a separate numbering series for each chapter.

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Then a single chapter can be updated without reprinting the
whole manual. The running head includes the name of the pub-
lication, the issue date, or other header or footer style material.
In all kinds of reference materials, it is important to have page
numbers, folios. The reader can find information in the material
by using the table of contents and/or the index.
Page numbers placements. Page numbers should be clear
and easy to find. There are many possibilities for placement of
the page numbers. They can be put to the left, in the middle, or
to the right in the header or in the footer. Page numbers are
sometimes also put in the margin. In products with large page
sizes, it is usual to put page numbers in the header. In products
with small page sizes, it is quite common to put page numbers in
the footer. However, this should not be considered a rule. The
important thing is consistency.
Page size. Often the available paper defines the possible page
sizes. The use of international standard paper sizes can aid com-
munication. For reports and other similar documents it is rea-
sonable to use one, two, or three columns per 8 1/2" x 11" page.
The same is valid for the A4-size, which is standard in Europe.
Pain threshold is the highest sound intensity we are able to tol-
erate.
Painting is the act and skill of making a picture, or putting paint
on a wall. A painting is also a picture that is made using paint.
PAL. Most Western European countries have agreed on a colour
television-system called PAL, Phase Alteration Line. PAL is also
used in Australia and in several countries in Africa and in the
Middle East. 625 lines build up the television-image. Every line
consists of a large number of pixels. A colour television-receiver
has a “shadow mask” with some 400,000 small holes for red,
green and blue, respectively. Our 50-periodical alternating cur-
rent is used to produce 50 half images per second. In one pass,

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the electron gun of the television displays every odd-numbered
line of the image from top to bottom. In a following pass, the elec-
tron gun creates the even lines. Each pass takes 1/50 of a second.
This process is called interlacing. The two image halves “inter-
lace” and we >only one image. A black and white television uses
450 effective lines with each 560 pixels. Thus, a black and white
television-image consists of 235,200 pixels. Most video systems
have considerably worse resolution than broadcast-television.
VHS has, for example, usually 248 lines. Super VHS has an im-
proved resolution of 400 lines.
Palace Script is an example of the script type style. >Script type
style.
Palatino is a common serif typeface.
Panorama is a schematic picture. >Drawings.
Paper and ink. The paper has its bulk, finish, grain, texture and
weight. It may be stiff or floppy. It may be glossy and shining,
matte and maybe dull. It may be thick or thin. Thin lines may
require a harder paper than the normal lines. Printing technique
and quality of ink affect the type of paper needed. Contrast
should be optimum. For text printed in black all paper surfaces
are equally legible if they have a reflectance of at least 70%. The
most legible combination is a black text on a light-yellow back-
ground. In a normal reading situation, black print on white paper
is over 10% more efficient than white text on black paper.
Paper format index is a format index that allows you to com-
pare different sizes of paper from different distributors and man-
ufacturers. >Format index.
Paper size. There is one widespread international ISO standard
and a local standard used in North America. Paper sizes affect
cards, envelopes, printed documents, stationary and writing pa-
per. All ISO paper sizes are based on a single aspect ratio of the

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square root of two, approximately 1:1.4142. The base for the sys-
tem is the A0 paper. An A0 (A zero) paper has an area of 1 m2,
with the sides 841 and 1189 millimetres (33.1 in × 46.8 in). The
most frequently used paper size is A4 210 by 297 millimetres
(8.3 in × 11.7 in). A standard A4 sheet made from standard
80 grams per m2 paper weighs 5 grams. >A series, B series, C se-
ries, D series, E series.
Paradigm is a set of assumptions or common values that will
influence how people view a community.
Paradigm shift. A paradigm shift represents the notion of a
major change in a certain thought-pattern. We will >several par-
adigm shifts related to information design.
• Efficiency. 1) The “information sector” will become more ef-
ficient, and more effective. 2) Production of information sets
will be more “objective-oriented”.
• Learning. 1) A learning revolution takes place outside of the
traditional classrooms, without traditional teachers. 2) There
will be emphasis on learning rather than on teaching. 3) Fac-
ulty members will become collaborators in learning.
• Market. Consumption of information does not continue to
grow as quickly in the future.
• Medium. 1) Printed documents are replaced by on-line ser-
vices. 2) Visual communication will be even more important.
• Message. 1) Focus on the information content rather than on
printed documents as such. 2) According to the encoding–de-
coding model the sender is an encoder constructing “mean-
ingful” texts. The receiver is a decoder and he/she may accept,
negotiate or oppose the intended meaning.
Paragraph is a unit of text dealing with an idea or a particular
point. A paragraph consists of one or more sentences. Readers
prefer small text paragraphs to big ones. Natural breaks empha-
sized by typography are helpful. >Terminal mark.

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Paragraph sign ¶ or alinea sign, paragraph mark, paraph,
and pilcrow is a typographical character showing individual par-
agraphs.
Paragraphs extra space. Providing “extra white space” be-
tween paragraphs and between larger portions of the text pro-
vides valuable cues to the learners that a new section or a new
type of activity follows.
Parallel perspective. In a parallel perspective, the distance is
endless. Parallel lines of an object are parallel in the picture too.
Perspective drawing offers possibilities to reproduce depth, but
it is always limited to showing objects from just one certain point.
Parallelepipeds are a kind of schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Parietal art, rock art. In archaeology, rock art, is human-made
drawings, engravings, markings, and paintings on immobile,
natural surfaces, typically vertical stone surfaces. Rock art is
found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica.
Parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain are important
association regions that combine information from different
sources.
Partitive concept system shows the different parts that to-
gether form a super ordinate concept. >Conceptual model.
Parts of a whole can be presented using comparisons of lines
as well as comparisons of areas.
Parts of communication. In information design, we can study
the whole communications process, for example with respect to
social aspects or “noise” in the system. We can also study aspects
related to the sender, the representation and the receiver.
Passe partout is a border around an image that frame it.
Passive colours are greens, blues and violets.

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Passive space, or negative space, in a visual is the part that is
not filled with picture elements. The negative space is usually the
background. Active space or positive space in a visual is the part
representing different objects. Space has no meaning in itself,
but it may be used to separate or bring together different picture
elements.
Passive voice has a complicated word order and subordinated
clauses. It makes your writing imprecise and difficult to follow.
Passivity. The contents of movies and television programmes
are presented in a preordained fashion, decided on by the pro-
ducer. This tends to encourage passivity in the viewers and to
perform at a low cognitive level. The same is true of prepared oral
presentations, like formal speeches and rigid lectures. However,
the reader of a book or a newspaper digests the textual and the
pictorial information at his or her own pace. Interested readers
are active and perform at a high cognitive level. Readers that are
not interested in the subject matter easily become passive.
Past experience principle, previous experience principle,
and the law of past experience. New impressions are dependent
on and interpreted against the background of our previous indi-
vidual experience, learning and knowledge. Our assessments and
our experiences change over time and affect our way of associat-
ing. We sometimes perceive only what we want to perceive. It is
easy to jump to the wrong conclusions. Contradictory messages
often create more confusion than they provide help. A torrent of
information bombards us from the outside world.
Pasteup is an assemblage of the elements of a layout, prepared
for reproduction.
Pastiche is an artistic work made in a style that imitates the
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Patent officers. In commercial technology projects the patent
officers should first review any information material, with re-
spect to patentability matters. Members of the group of intended
users should take part in the production process. They should be
asked to discuss and review the information material at various
steps in the process.
Path is a mathematical method used for describing shapes.
Path layout is the harmonious arrangement of graphic ele-
ments that assume no underlying grid structure.
Path name is the full name of a file, or a folder listed with all
parent folders.
Pathos is the emotional appeal that mainly works indirectly by
associations to the expressions. Pathos may evoke feelings of joy
or fear, of formality or informality. By logos is meant the rational
appeal.
Paul Gottlieb Nipkow (1860–1940) was a German student
when he developed the first electromechanical television in 1884.
Nipkow used a spiral-perforated disk to divide a picture into a
mosaic of points and lines. Soon entirely new designs followed.
>John Logie Baird.
Paulinus of Nola (354–431) was a Bishop. He argued that the
Latin texts in scrolls on the walls in the churches served as clari-
fication of the messages in the pictures in the churches.
Pedagogical model. In information design the emphasis is on
the learner, not on the teacher or the technology. Students need
a comprehensive Study guide with information about the course.
During a course students may use a Virtual classroom when they
work together with group assignments. Here they can upload
their own individual assignments. In this way, all assignments
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Work with the individual examination paper includes selection
of a topic, studies of literature, producing a draft (D), review
and editing this until you have a final essay (E), which you can
distribute at the end of the course. Each course module includes
study of the required texts, participating in the forum discus-
sion, work with assignments, writing provisional module re-
port (PR) and a final module report (FR), distributing this and
reading the module reports from the other groups, and finally
participating in the concluding web seminar for the course
module (WS).
Pedagogues are needed to review any learning material, check-
ing that it is sufficiently legible and readable and that it has good
reading value for the intended audience.
Peirce, Charles Sanders >Charles Sanders Peirce.

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Perceived messages. There is often a considerable discrep-
ancy between the sender’s intended message and the message
perceived by the receiver. It is sometimes doubtful whether re-
ceivers perceive anything. Everything usually works better when
words, pictures and graphic design are allowed to interact. In
perceiving a message, the receiver uses sensory organs and the
nervous system. When a message is internalized the receiver has
got new emotions, new experiences, new feelings and new
knowledge. Often individuals will interpret the same representa-
tion in different ways. Here age and gender, cultural, economic,
historical, political, religious and social factors may be im-
portant. The internalized message will influence the interpreta-
tion and understanding of future and related messages.
Perceived personas. >Typeface personalities.
Perceived size. The perception of distance is related to the per-
ceived size and the perception of size is reciprocally related to the
perceived distance.
Compare the size of the two red circles. The perceived size of an
object is relative to the size of nearby objects. The red circle is
actually equal in both contexts.
Percent sign % is the symbol used to indicate a percentage,
which is a ratio expressed as a fraction of 100, such as 20%. Some
style guides recommend a space between the number and the
percent sign, while other style guides recommend no space.
Percentage shows proportions in a collection of data, as parts
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329
Perception is a collective designation for the different pro-
cesses in which we obtain information about the outside world.
We >areas, dark, dots, light and lines, in an organized way. One
of the simplest perceptual organizations is that of “figure and
ground.” We select some elements in a picture as the figure and
the remaining elements constitute the background. When a mes-
sage is internalized the receiver has got new emotions, new expe-
riences, new feelings and new knowledge. Adult perception tends
to be holistic rather than detail-oriented. All elements in a visual
should contribute to clarity. Our perception varies as a result of
a number of factors, such as cultural and social status, our
memory and other cognitive processes.
Perception of change. The least possible difference that can
be detected between two similar stimuli is called the just notice-
able difference, or the differential threshold.
Perception of colour. Use colours should with care. Yellow,
orange and red hues are perceived as active and warm colours.
Red evokes feelings of strong emotions. Violet, blue and blue-
green are cool and passive. Blue is often used to represent truth
and honesty. White is often associated with innocence and purity
and black often represents evil and darkness. However, it should
be noted that certain colours have different meanings in different
societies. >Legibility of colour, Perception.
Perception of layout. The layout may aid or hinder perception
of the content. We read texts as “word pictures,” not letter by let-
ter. Readers tend to dislike both very short and very long line
lengths. The optimum line length quite often seems to be about 1
1/2 alphabets–42 characters. Pictures are perceived more rap-
idly and readily than text. Sometimes image-enhancements in-
tended to improve the interpretation of image content get in the
way of the actual message. A number of studies demonstrate how
graphics activate learner’s cognitive processes. >Perception.

330
Perception of pictures. Prior experience and context are very
important. The pattern for eye movements and fixations depends
on what we wish to see, or what we are told to >in a picture. The
design of a picture can be changed a great deal without any major
impact on the perception of the image contents. Open and light
forms are perceived as being larger than closed and darker forms
of the same shape. Colour and grey scale can be used to influence
the perception of size.
Perception of text. Perception of text requires a slow and se-
quential processing. It is structured with several eye fixations on
each line. The end of a sentence should be determined by syntax
rather than by a set with of a line. It may take only 2–3 seconds
to recognize the content in an image, but 20–30 seconds to read
a verbal description of the same image and 60–90 seconds to
read it aloud. It is easier to assimilate and profit from a rich lan-
guage by reading than by listening. Pictures that are relevant to
the content of a text will facilitate learning from reading prose.
We will remember more from a graphically complex text than a
“plain” text. Prior experience and context are very important.
Perceptual aesthetics is based on Gestalt psychology and the
perceptual process. It seeks meaning through the process of be-
coming or developing according to nature through perceptual dy-
namics. This provides us with a unified approach to art that re-
veals a cross-pollination of aesthetic and perceptual insights. A
perceptually based approach to art provides a simple and more
basic system of aesthetic judgement than do approaches based
on morality, contemporary manners and taste of style.
Perceptual constancy. We can view a picture, a symbol and a
text from various distances and various angles and still get the
same perception of the content. Our minds constantly fill in
missing details and complete images, without our realizing that
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331
Perceptual learning. There are two perceptual learning theo-
ries: the discovery theory and the enrichment theory. According
to the discovery theory, perceptual learning makes a person
aware of stimuli he or she had previously not considered or over-
looked. Perceptual abilities are modifiable by learning. The en-
richment theory refers to our increased awareness and height-
ened response capabilities, as a result of perceptual learning. A
practical example of this is that we learn to assume that a plate
remains circular even though it may appear elliptical when we
view it from most angles. The psychomotor domain may be seen
as a progression in the design of the coordination that is re-
quired. Some motor acts occur automatically, such as retracting
a finger from a fire or any hot item. Many motor skills, however,
require practice. Everyday examples are walking and eating.
Perceptual motor-skills. Any acquired ability to perform
tasks in response to sensory stimuli is often called perceptual
motor-skill, sensory-motor-skill and psychomotor skill. These
skills ranges from simple imitative movements to physical skills
requiring complex neuromuscular coordination. The position of
a skill on this continuum is a major determinant of the training
approach that we have to adopt. A person usually learns a skill
more easily with short, widely spaced practice sessions than with
fewer and larger sessions. An expert instructor is often helpful to
show the learner what a good performance is like, to diagnose
and correct errors early in the motor-skill learning process and
to prevent the learning of wrong movements and bad habits.
Perforation is a series of small holes punched into paper. In
printing perforation may be used to aid folding the paper, or to
make it easier for the user to remove a page.
Performance design. >Design science.
Performance objectives. A performance and a change in be-
haviour, must be observable. Thus, subjective objectives defined

332
by verbs like appreciate, assess, describe, discuss, evaluate,
know, outline and understand should be avoided. A statement of
design objectives should include the conditions under which the
required performance is to be observed and measured when such
conditions are relevant. Time and accuracy are often meaningful
dimensions in assessment of objectives. When performance is
qualitative rather than quantitative, the performance may be as-
sessed by a group of experts.
Permille sign ‰ is the symbol used to indicate a ratio ex-
pressed as a fraction of 1000. Some style guides recommend a
space between the number and the percent sign, while other style
guides recommend no space.
Permyriad sign ‱ is the symbol used to indicate a ratio ex-
pressed as a fraction of 10 000. This symbol is also known as a
basis point. Higher proportions have no individual names. Some
style guides recommend a space between the number and the
percent sign, while other style guides recommend no space.
Person schemas organise our knowledge of persons. Media is
our most important source of information of persons and groups
of which we have no direct knowledge. >Long-term memory.
Persona is a social character or role.
Personal context. Receivers are apparently capable of sensing
far more information than is explicitly displayed in a given pic-
ture or text. Subjects express opinions about circumfluous events
on their drawings. They also tend to feel that their particular in-
terpretations are the correct ones. >Context perspective.
Personal–impersonal. In technical and scientific descrip-
tions, we want to focus on the subject matter. Here, the third-
person point of view, or the impersonal style, is the most appro-
priate. In instructions and rules, the informal you is often the
most effective form of address. In non-fiction books, we may

333
want to discuss a topic with the readers. Here a personal style
may be the most appropriate.
Perspective is the appearance of objects in space and their re-
lationships to each other and the viewer. >Aural perspectives,
Pictorial perspectives, Verbal-linguistic perspectives.
Perspectives on subject. We can look at a specific area of art,
science, technology, a specific system, or a specific product from
several perspectives. Depending on our choice our impressions
will be different. A manufacturer, a sales person and a user will
need different types of documentation, with different texts and
different illustrations. Before starting to write or draw, it is im-
portant to decide which perspective we need to provide. It is im-
portant that it is easy to gain a general understanding of every
topic.
Persuasion is 1) a process of communication designed to mod-
ify the judgements of others and 2) success at modifying the
judgement of others in intended directions. Persuasion is an im-
portant part of the daily life of every human being. Everyting we
do is affected by persuasive communication. As a minimal con-
dition, to be labelled as persuasive, a communication situation
must involve a conscious attempt by one individual to change the
attitudes, beliefs, or behaviour of another individual or group of
individuals through the transmission of messages. Persuasion
tends to be accomplished almost exclusively through imagery. It
is not likely that there will be just one, but several equally good
options available for achieving satisfactory communication.
Persuasion design is an umbrella term for advertising,
planned communication, and propaganda. The main objective is
to persuade the receiver of the message to buy a product or a ser-
vice, or to change her or his behaviour.
Persuasion design genus. There are several persuasion de-
sign areas or disciplines such as advertising, persuasive

334
communication, planned communication and propaganda. Per-
suasion is used so frequently and is so pervasive in our daily lives
that we often fail to recognize when we are using persuasive com-
munication, as well as when we are exposed to it. >Advertising,
Planned communication, Propaganda.
Persuasion design objectives. In persuasion design the main
objective is to persuade the interpreter of the message to buy a
product or a service, or to change his or her behaviour. The indi-
vidual information interpreters might be seen as “possible buy-
ers,” or “prospects.” They may develop new prejudices, appre-
hensions, willingness to buy, beliefs, reinforced attitudes, emo-
tions, opinions and views. It may be an advantage to use verbs
like appreciate, believe, buy, change (behaviour), desire, dread,
fear, feel (relaxed), hate and have (fun) in the writing of persua-
sion design objectives. These verbs all denote observable behav-
iour. One example of a persuasion design objective may be: “For
a warning 90% of the viewers should change their behaviour
when they have seen the information once.”
Persuasive. >Persuasion, Persuasive messages.
Persuasive communication. >Persuasion, Planned commu-
nication.
Persuasive messages. The goal of credibility, to persuade,
leads to intended behaviour such as buying, giving, loving, voting
and so forth. A message that is not believed cannot persuade. A
crude presentation (like a typewritten letterhead) or a huckster-
ish presentation (like TV ads of some auto dealers) may not be
believed. Careful presentation may be required to overcome prej-
udices held by decoders.
Petroglyphs. >Rock art, Rock carvings.
Phase Alteration Line. >PAL.

335
Phenomenography is a method to investigate and describe the
existing qualitative variation in how people experience different
phenomena in the world around them. The object of investiga-
tion is the variation in which people experience, understand, see,
conceptualize, or relate to different phenomena. From a phe-
nomenographic perspective learning can be regarded as a con-
ceptual change, or a leap from a lower to a hierarchically higher
conception. The focus is on the learner. The outcome of the learn-
ing process is analysed in qualitative terms.
Phi phenomenon. The phi phenomenon is the optical illusion
of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects
viewed rapidly in succession. It is an apparent movement caused
by luminous impulses in sequence. The psychologist Max
Wertheimer defined the phi phenomenon in 1912. It formed a
part of the base of the theory of cinema, applied by Hugo Mün-
sterberg in 1916. >Beta movement.
Philosophy of art includes traditional, philosophical theories
of art. Such theoretical positions inform, but are also tested by,
critical and interpretive articles about particular types or exam-
ples of artworks. The information designer may focus attention
upon the visual arts–as opposed to dance, literature, music and
theatre. Philosophers have encountered difficulties in framing a
theory of “aesthetic perception” and, more importantly, of the re-
markable variety of visual arts. Aestheticians discuss the philos-
ophy of art from various perspectives, such as: the metaphysics
of art, experiences of art, interpretations of art, production of art
and definitions of art.
Philosophy of beauty recognises aesthetic phenomena out-
side of the arts. These aesthetic phenomena can be found in na-
ture and in non-artistic cultural areas such as mathematics, mo-
rality and science. The philosophy of beauty is concerned with
fine arts only insofar as art may be beautiful. However, there is
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336
may have little, or nothing to do with beauty. Until the 18th cen-
tury, scholars regarded the study of beauty as the whole or as the
main problem of aesthetics. Since that time, aestheticians have
devoted more efforts to the philosophy of art than to the philos-
ophy of beauty.
Phonemes are basic units of sound without meaning. When
combined, they form units with meaning.
Phonetics is a sub-field in linguistics, with focus on the study of
the physical properties of the sounds made by the human voice
in speech, sound production and human perception of sounds.
Phonology is the study of phonemes and combinations of these
units. The smallest written unit that fills a semantically differen-
tiating function is called a grapheme.
Phosphor is a solid material coating the inside of picture tubes.
The phosphor emits light, when hit by an electron beam.
Photo archives. Pictures are now being created more rapidly
than at any time in history. Millions of pictures are produced
every day. The contents of photo archives can help explain how
others live, can illuminate the convictions of a community and
can document processes and procedures. >Archives, Simple in-
dexing, Stock photography.
Photo fax. >Telephoto.
Photo illustration is a photography that illustrates an accom-
panying story.
Photo journalism is candid photography that captures a news
event on location.
Photoengraving. >Letterpress.

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Photogram is a photographic image made by placing an object
on a photo-sensitive surface and then exposing it to light. >Ray-
ograph.
Photograph is a picture made using a camera, in which an im-
age is focused on to light-sensitive material and then made visi-
ble and permanent by chemical treatment, or stored digitally.
Photograph readability index, PRI, refers to the success of
the image as defined by its objective or caption. It may be used to
evaluate photos in textbooks. The initial phase gathers infor-
mation on how a viewer perceives a photograph during an initial
brief period, that is, at a first glance. The latter phase entails ex-
tended exposure to the photograph and endeavours to reveal how
a viewer encodes information while being influenced by a cap-
tion. Later the PRI utilizes an interdisciplinary battery of meth-
ods adapted from the fields of cognitive psychology, linguistics,
reading of text, semiotics and visual literacy.
Photographic copies have the highest hard copy quality. The
chemical constitution of film and paper gives the limits for reso-
lution.
Photographic messages. In journalism, a photograph should
reflect reality without distortion. The most desired quality is
credibility. Deliberately dishonest pictures and digitally manipu-
lated pictures should not be used. In most cases photographs
need a partnership with words that will confirm, clarify and re-
inforce their messages. Despite common belief photography is
not a universal language. Viewers react to photos very personally.
They interpret them in terms of their cultural heritage and envi-
ronment. A photograph, therefore, may not communicate the
same message to all viewers.
Photographic portrayal — camera angel. An individual ap-
pears powerful if he or she is photographed from below with the

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photographer looking up at the subject. An individual appears
less powerful if he or she is photographed from above.
Photographic portrayal — camera placement. Photo-
graphs showing a subject straight on are more positive than those
showing a subject from the side and much more positive than
those showing a person from behind.
Photographic portrayal — eyes. Individuals shown with
closed eyes are viewed more negatively than those shown with
open eyes.
Photographic portrayal — facial expression. Individuals
smiling are viewed as positive and individuals frowning are
viewed as negative
Photographic portrayal — framing. The larger a person’s
face appears in a picture, the more positively our perception of
that individual is. A close-up headshot of a person is more posi-
tive than a photo taken from a distance.
Photographic portrayal — head position. Individuals look-
ing straight at a camera look more in control than those individ-
uals looking up or to the side. Individuals look least in control if
they are looking down.
Photographic portrayal — posture. Individuals are viewed
more positively if they are shown walking, running or moving.
People standing are viewed more positively than if they are mo-
tionless.
Photographic portrayal — purpose of photo. The purpose
of a photo is important for our perception of the person depicted.
Photographic portrayal — secondary subjects. Other peo-
ple in a photograph, the context of the individual, may influence
how people view a photograph.

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Photographic portrayal. An analysis of a photographic por-
trayal can identify positive and negative depictions of individuals
seen in the photographs. Individuals are viewed more positively
when they are shown walking, running or moving than just sit-
ting or standing. Visuals with varied degrees of realistic detail can
be used to reduce differences in the performance of learners with
different levels of prior knowledge of the subject matter.
Photographic style is a pictorial artistic style, a coloured pho-
tograph of the subject.
Photography. The word photography has its origin in Greek
and means “writing with light.” There have been many different
formats for still photography with miniature formats, film discs,
film cassettes, standard 35mm film and several larger film for-
mats. The individual grains are irregular and run into and partly
cover each other. Several camera manufacturers have digital
cameras that store photographs on a small magnetic memory
card. The photographs can be stored in a computer and printed.
Photomontage is a combination of two or more images.
Phototypesetters. A phototypesetter usually works with high-
quality such as 1,250–2,600 dots per inch. This is good enough
to create very small and close raster dots and to reproduce a great
number of grey levels. Printouts are made on photographic ma-
terials, paper, or film, which are then used to produce printing
plates. In order to get really good half-tone pictures, the quality
of a phototypesetter is required.
Phrase. A phrase may be any group of words. In linguistic anal-
ysis, a phrase is a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy.
Physio-pleasure is input from our sensory organs, such as feel,
taste, touch, and smell.

340
Pica system measure size in typography. It is used in Great Brit-
ain and USA. Here 1 pica = 12 points = 12 pt = .1660 inches =
4.22 mm. 1 pt = .3516 mm (72,27 pts/inch). >Size of type.
Pictodiagram is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Pictogram is a graphic element that presents an action through
visual clues. Some Asiatic language systems use pictogrammatic
or ideogrammatic characters. >Pictographic languages.
Pictograph is a kind of diagram where each icon represents a
given quantity. It can be cars or ships in different sizes represent-
ing transportation. >Diagrams, Rock paintings.
Pictographic languages have evolved in different cultures.
The Chinese language is an example of a living pictographic (ide-
ographic) language in which each character represents one or
more words.
Pictor, Albertus. >Albertus Pictor.
Pictorial area chart is a kind of diagram with comparison of
areas. >Diagrams.
Pictorial characters in space is a schematic picture. >Dia-
grams.
Pictorial dictionary. >Picture dictionary.
Pictorial dimensions. A picture has a height and a width, y
and x-dimensions. New dimensions can be added to pictures
stored in a database. We can attain an expanded time dimension
by “before-now-after” picture storage. Or we can expand to a
movement dimension by the use of animation. Not cropping too
severely and retaining elements around the main subject attain a
context dimension. A picture manipulation dimension occurs
when we enlarge, shrink, change projection, crop or expand, de-
lete, change, move, turn, supplement, isolate or combine

341
different image elements in new ways. Departure from the pic-
ture plane and utilization of overlays provide us with a supple-
mentation dimension. We can attain a depth-enhancement di-
mension by employing windows opening on other databases
Pictorial perspectives. Usually the word perspective refers to
a reproduction, on a plane surface, of a three-dimensional object,
which conveys to the human eye the same impression of depth as
that of the real object. Obviously, it is a matter of creating an il-
lusion of depth; on a paper surface, for example. >Psychological
perspectives and Spatial perspectives.
Pictorial style can be defined as the mode of expression em-
ployed by an artist in interpreting pictorial content. Several re-
searchers have concluded that children prefer realistic art styles.
>Abstract art styles, Cartoon style, Expressionistic style, Photo-
graphic style, Realistic art styles, Representational style.
Pictorial superiority effect. Our memory for a picture-word
combination is superior to our memory for words alone, or our
memory for pictures alone. >Dual-coding memory model.
Picture analysis. Various tests can be carried out to determine
whether or not an information disseminator’s intentions are ac-
curately realized. Results of these tests can be used for revision
of the picture description that, in turn, could result in even more
effective informative material. A picture analysis can comprise a
description and, possibly, a rating of picture language, contents,
execution, context, format, medium, distribution method,
sender, receiver, objectives, etc.
Picture analysis — aims. Why has the picture been produced?
Has the picture been produced for advertising or propaganda?
Are “hidden” intentions imbedded in the image?
Picture analysis — content. What is (are) the subject(s) in the
visual? Is (are) the subject(s) easy to understand? What are the

342
relationships of the different subjects? Is one part of the picture
dominant over the others and why? Is the picture a typical or a
non-typical example of the subject? What is the degree of realism
and detail? What is the degree of credibility? How are motion,
time, sound and emotions expressed?
Picture analysis — context. What is the context? Is there a
caption, texts, other pictures, or sound in connection with the
picture? How is the layout done?
Picture analysis — distribution. How is the distribution or-
ganized?
Picture analysis — execution. What type of visual is it? Is the
subject large and clear? What is the shape, size, colour and con-
trast? How is the composition in terms of organization, centres
of interest and balance? What is the depth, picture angle and pic-
ture height? What is the technical quality like? Does the picture
have symbols and explanatory words?
Picture analysis — impact. Is the picture likely to have an ef-
fect on learning, human feelings, attitudes, or opinions? What
impact is it likely to have?
Picture analysis — medium. In which medium is the picture
used? Is the picture used in mass-media, in group-media, or in
personal media?
Picture analysis — picture readability. What is the picture
readability index?
Picture analysis — receiver. Who is (are) the receiver(s)? Do
the receivers form a homogeneous group? Is the group small or
large?
Picture analysis — sender. Who is (are) the sender(s)? Who
is (are) the producer(s)? Are the views of the sender important to
the use of the picture?

343
Picture analysis — visual language. Is the visual language
clear and distinct? Is the visual language adopted to the culture
and to the audience? Is the picture’s “meaning nucleus” obvious?
Does the picture contain a lot of insignificant information?
Picture area index is the average percentage of the text-face
utilized for all pictures in a document. A book without any pic-
tures will obviously have a picture area index of 0 (zero). When
the index is 50 half of the total text-face in the book is covered
with pictures. A picture area index of 100 leaves no room at all
for any text (except for texts printed inside the actual pictures).
Picture circle is an attempt to provide a simple graphic de-
scription of the relationship between different types of pictures.
We have symbols, schematic pictures, realistic pictures and sug-
gestive pictures. The spot in the centre represents scribble, which
is the same all over the world and our first attempt to make pic-
tures. Scribble is followed by hand-crafted visuals and then and
technically crafted visuals.
This is the picture circle. We have symbols, schematic pictures,
realistic pictures, and suggestive pictures. The border between
realistic and suggestive pictures is indistinct. Scribble (the red
spot) is followed by handcrafted visuals and technically crafted
visuals. Visuals that are used in materials for information or in-
struction are very often schematic and/or realistic pictures.

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Picture dictionary, pictorial dictionary, is an illustrated dic-
tionary where definitions of words are explained with drawings
or photographs. It can be a printed book or an online service.
These books are often organized by themes. >Visual dictionary.
Picture editing. There is often a need for cropping and/or
changing the scale of selected pictures. Normally it is ok to
change the scale, but not to crop the picture. We need to get per-
mission from the copyright holder to do any manipulation with
pictures.
Picture effect. Visual presentation support is persuasive. There
is a picture facilitating effect. Presentations using visual aids
were more persuasive than unaided presentations. Research in
the area of reading indicates that the type of pictures that are
used is an important variable in reading comprehension. How-
ever, unfortunately this becomes less important in reality since
most students do not attend to the visuals at all. Many pictures
in textbooks obviously remain “unseen.” Neither teachers, nor
students attend to these pictures. Pictures can also have a nega-
tive effect on learning.
Picture elements. >Image morphology.
Picture format index is a format index to compare pictures.
>Format index.
Picture index is the average number of pictures for 100 pages
of a document.
Picture manipulation dimension. >Pictorial dimensions.
Picture perception and interpretation. How we actually
create meaning is an area where much research still is needed. It
can be concluded that:

345
• Captions heavily influence our interpretation of image con-
tent. To a large degree readers >what they are told to >in an
image.
• Design of a picture can be changed a great deal without any
major impact on the perception of the image contents.
• Different assignments may cause perception and image inter-
pretation on different cognitive levels.
• Perceived image content is different from intended image
content.
• There seems to be no major difference between gender in in-
terpretation of image contents.
Picture placement. Several authors have noted that in materi-
als for information a picture should be located as close to the rel-
evant text passage as possible. It is usually a good idea to put pic-
tures between paragraphs. Pictures within a paragraph will dis-
turb the reading of the text. Above the picture, there should be at
least one blank line, if, of course, the picture is not uppermost on
the page, in which case the upper margin will provide sufficient
empty space.
Picture plane is a flat surface of a two dimensional design. It
has height and width, but no depth.
Picture quality is important for the credibility of a message. In
many situations, it may be better not to have any pictures at all
than employing pictures with poor quality. Good picture quality
can be defined as the degree of coincidence between the sender’s
and receiver’s subjective perception of the picture and the reality
(external or internal) represented by the picture.
Picture readability indexes measure the readability of pic-
tures used in textbooks. >BLIX, PRI.
Picture size index is the percentage of an average page in a
document occupied by illustrations.
Picture stone. >Image stones.

346
Picture style, or pictorial style. When people flip through 15-
20 TV-channels in less than a minute to decide which pro-
gramme they want to >they don’t have the time to actually listen
to the sound. Decisions are based on the pictorial style and con-
tent. When we receive a verbal and visual message we are rather
quick to form a mental pre-understanding which influences our
later perception of the message.
Picture tube. A picture tube or a cathode ray tube is the unit
that produces and shows the picture on a television-receiver,
computer, or terminal screen. The picture tube consists of an air-
less glass-tube. Its rear end contains a device that emits elec-
tronic rays, while the front part forms the screen. The back of the
screen is illuminated when hit by the electrons. A picture is built
up by steering the ray over the screen. The additive combinations
of a limited amount of radiation can produce range of colours.
The additive colour combination starts in dark adding light to
produce colour. The size of the screen is measured diagonally in
inches. A colour television screen has a shadow mask with many
apertures in it. A computer screen has instead vertical slits that
give better resolution and a more stable picture.
Pie chart map is a schematic picture. >Maps.
Pie chart or circle graph, is a schematic picture. This group in-
cludes: 1) Pie chart. 2) Segmented pie chart or exploded pie chart.
3) Polar area diagram. 4) Wind rose chart. 5) Ring chart of disk,
or multilevel pie chart. >Diagrams, Minard, Playfair.
Pieces in a jigsaw puzzle is a schematic picture. >Metaphor-
ical pictures.
Pioneer. In my books, I have used the word pioneer for people
who we know by their names. These individuals were working as
architects, artists, engineers, graphic designers, mathematicians,
painters, photographers, printers, sculptors, statistics, teachers,

347
type designers, typographers and writers. Many of them had sev-
eral professions or skills. >Predecessor.
Pisistratus, the first public library, was founded more than
2,500 years ago in Athens. The first bookstore was opened, also
in Athens, 140 years later.
Pixel is a minute rectangular picture element used in “building
blocks,” defined by raster coordinates in digital images. The pixel
can vary with respect to colour.
Pixel image, or bit-mapped image, consists of a large number
of small pixels or picture elements, e.g., small squares. These pix-
els have either a colour (usually black, but they may also be e.g.
green or blue, depending on the design of the screen) or no colour
at all. All pixels have the same size. Bit-mapped graphics can be
modified, stretched, condensed, inverted, rotated and outlined.
Paint-programs are effective multi-purpose drawing tools.
Placement of captions. Illustrations in textbooks are often
“forgotten” by students as well as teachers. Therefore, it is im-
portant for editors and information designer to clearly instruct
the learners to make use of the pictures. Several authors have
noted that a picture should be located as close to the relevant text
passage as possible in information and learning materials. It is
usually a good idea to put pictures between the appropriate par-
agraphs in the text to get maximum impact. Pictures that are put
within a paragraph will interfere with the reading of the text.
Above the picture, there should be at least one blank line, unless,
of course, the picture is not at the top of the page, in which case
the upper margin will provide sufficient empty space.
Placement of pictures. People who have not learned to read
or write do not necessarily look at pictures in the order that has
been intended by the designer. Therefore, it often proves helpful,
as messages are being tested, to ask several groups of people to
arrange the individual message into a sequence that seems most

348
logical to them. This is a way to better get to know the intended
audience.
Plagiarism is copying ideas or work by another person, without
a reference to the source. Counterfeit and plagiarism occur in ar-
chitecture, art, design, literature, research, technology and more.
Plain language is clear and succinct writing designed to ensure
that the intended readers understand the contents completely
and quickly.
Planned communication, persuasive communication, com-
prises studies on advertising, propaganda, and other carefully
planned information activities. The goal is related to change in
behaviour of the receivers. Typically, receivers are asked to do
something, buy a special service or a special product. While ad-
vertising presents positive images, propaganda often creates
negative images. In order to influence others, the senders must
exchange information, accurately transmit their message and in-
tentions and identify and understand the habits of the receivers.
Planned graphics is the designation for information graphics
that the editors of news graphics may have a few days to produce.
This time provide the editors with opportunities for checking all
the facts.
Plano graphic processes. In a pantographic process, or li-
thography, the image and non-image areas are on the same plane
and are distinguished by making use of the principle that grease
and water do not mix. There are two different pantographic
printing processes. >Lithography, Offset lithography.
Plasma screens are flat screens with a network of anodes and
cathodes. When the points are made live, a neon-like gas starts
glowing. Plasma screens are sharper but require more energy
than LCD-screens.
Playfair, William. >William Playfair.

349
Playing-card perspective, cropping perspective, or overlap-
ping perspective. When objects are placed in front of other ob-
jects this will enhance the impression of depth in a picture. This
perspective was quite common in European mediaeval art.
Plotter. A plotter works with one or more exchangeable pens
that draw lines, graphs, diagrams, drawings, or pictures in ink in
several colours directly on paper or film in different formats. The
resolution is normally 50-100 dots per inch. The highest known
resolution produced by a plotter is 300 dots per inch. In a flatbed
plotter, the paper is placed on a plane surface. The prints can of-
ten be carried out in large formats. Professional graphic repro-
duction systems sometimes use so called laser plotters with the
possibility of exposing both film and plates in large formats and
high resolution, like 2,000 lines per inch.
Pocket-TV. The Japanese electronics company Matsushita in
1983 developed a very compact “pocket television” without a pic-
ture tube. The image is 2.4 inches diagonally and built up by liq-
uid crystals. In August 1984 Seiko introduced a pocket colour-
television. The image’s diagonal is 2 inches. The set weighs 450
g. The screen consists of a thin film with a transistor in 52,800
individual pixels. The television-image has 32,000 pixels. During
1989 Philips introduced a battery operated 3" colour-television.
The screen is built on LCD-technology and has 264 x 384, that is,
101,376 pixels.
Podcast, or pod-cast, is an audio blog that one can listen to ra-
ther than read.
Podcasting is a method of distributing udio or video programs,
over the Internet.
Point. 1) A point is a location, defined by the crossing of two very
thin lines. 2) A point is the smallest unit of measure in typogra-
phy. It is used for measuring font size, leading, and other items
on a printed page. However, there are different systems in

350
different parts of the world. One Pica point is .035 cm. 3) The
mathematical point is often represented by a printed dot.
Pointillism is a style of painting with dots. From a distance the
dots merge to produce secondary colours, similar to images on a
television screen.
Point size, type size, is the vertical space allowed for any char-
acter of a typeface. >x-height.
Pointers. If the lines used as pointers to elements in a picture
are heavier than the lines in the picture itself this will create noise
and clutter in the illustration. Pointers should be light in com-
parison with the lines in a picture.
Polar area diagram is a schematic picture. >Pie charts.
Political literacy is a set of abilities necessary for citizens to
participate in a society’s government. It includes an understand-
ing of how government works and of the important issues facing
society, as well as the critical thinking skills to evaluate different
points of view.
Political literacy is a set of abilities necessary for citizens to
participate in a society’s government. It includes an understand-
ing of how government works and of the important issues facing
society, as well as the critical thinking skills to evaluate different
points of view.
Polygon chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Pons in the brain stem, the lower region of the brain, contains
circuits for basic movements.
Poor information quality. In the USA, there is an increasing
incidence of lawsuits being brought against manufacturers.
These lawsuits claim damages as a result of accidents occurring,
or products breaking because of poor quality in the language of

351
instruction manuals. The courts are demanding that technical
manuals, brochures, information sheets and labels be written in
comprehensible language and that descriptions and instructions
be readable and legible.
Poor legibility. Good legibility is probably always economically
advantageous, whereas poor legibility may be a costly business
for all parts involved. >Legibility, Legibility of pictures, Legibil-
ity of text.
Poor picture. >Poor visual.
Poor readability. Good readability is probably always econom-
ically advantageous, whereas poor readability may be a costly
business for all parts involved. >Readability, Readability of pic-
tures, Readability of text.
Poor visual. A “poor” visual has a low level of picture quality. It
is indistinct and difficult to read. It displays poor legibility and
poor reading value. It conveys information poorly, is seldom aes-
thetically pleasing and often ambiguous. All kinds of visuals
should contain essential information and have a good contrast
between figure and ground.
Portable art, mobiliary art. In archaeology the terms portable
art and mobiliary art both refer to human-made small examples
of prehistoric art, like carved figurines, that ancient people could
carry from one place to another place.
Portmanteau is a word blending the sounds and combining the
meanings of two other words, for example the words information
and commercial are used to form the word infomercial.
Position of sound. People have a natural ability to isolate
sounds in relationship to their approximate positions; behind,
above, below, to the sides, or in front of the head.

352
Positional perspective is based on the fact that objects seem
smaller and less distinct the further they are from the viewer. Re-
gardless of distance there is constancy in the perception of the
size of known objects (size constancy).
Positive and redundant. A positive and redundant caption
will influence our perception of the content in the picture in a
positive way
Positive space or active space in a visual is the part represent-
ing different objects. Negative space or passive space is the part
that is not filled with picture elements. The negative space is usu-
ally the background. Space has no meaning in itself, but it may
be used to separate or bring together different picture elements.
Post literacy, Post literacy education, is a concept used in adult
and continuing education programs, especially in developing
countries. Unlike Continuing education these programs provide
skills that otherwise might be provided in primary education.
Post modernism relates to conditions of capitalism and media
saturation of Western societies.
Post-industrial relates to an economy that no longer relies on
heavy industry or mechanical production.
Post-structuralism, or post-structural reader theories, em-
phasizes the instability of meaning. It developed as a negative re-
action against structuralism and structural analysis.
Postscript is a page-description language used to describe how
a page is built up of copy, lines, images, and so on, for output to
laser printers and high-resolution imagesetters.
Poster. The term poster was originally used (about 1838) in
England for a printed sheet of paper that combined text and il-
lustration. Posters were displayed in public places as announce-
ments, advertisements for everyday articles, or for propaganda.

353
Today, we remember the posters at the end of the 19th century,
made by Jules Chéret, Toulouse-Lautrec and other artists. The
poster became a medium for propaganda during World War II.
Today posters are printed with silk-screen or offset techniques,
which makes it possible to use photographs as well.
Poster breakthrough. The breakthrough of posters took place
in the 1830s. This was a consequence of the development of the
lithographic printing technique. Well-known artists created the
black-and-white pictorial posters of the Romantics. At the same
time, purely typographical posters were developed, where the de-
sign of letters, words and texts became very important. The de-
velopment of chromolithography established the poster as an ad-
vertisement medium in the 1840s.
Poster objectives. We can distinguish between 1) Advertising
posters, 2) Propaganda posters and 3) Educational posters. The
main objective of advertising and propaganda posters are to de-
liver messages. A successful poster (1–2) instantly grasps your
attention, and maintain it until the message has been conveyed.
The main objective of an educational poster (3) is to aid learning.
PostScript is a page description language. >Laser printers.
Postulate is something fundamental that is assumed without
proof as a basis for reasoning.
Posture is a variable that will influence our perception of indi-
viduals in photographs. Individuals are viewed more positively if
they are shown walking, running or moving. People standing are
viewed more positively than if they are motionless.
PowerPoint, PP, or Microsoft PowerPoint, is the name of a
commercial slide manager and presentation program developed
by Microsoft. It was introduced in 1990. It is a competent system
for data-projection of text and pictures. In the original

354
PowerPoint the height-to-width ratio was 1:1.328. The size of the
image can be adjusted to the screen. >Legibility of projected
texts.
PowerPoint presentation, PPP. Many business presenters
and teachers have replaced their series of overhead transparen-
cies and slides with PP documents, or with similar systems. All
illustrations are stored in the Power Point program and projected
with a data-projector. >Legibility of projected texts.
PP. >PowerPoint.
PPI, pixels per inch, measure the number of pixels that are dis-
played horizontally and vertically in each square inch of a digital
image.
PPP. >Power Point Presentation.
PQRST. One of the best-known techniques for improving
memory from reading is called the PQRST-method (Preview,
Question, Read, Self-Recitation and Test). The PQRST method
relies on three basic principles for improving memory: 1) Organ-
izing the material. 2) Elaborating the material. 3) Practising re-
trieval.
Practical component. >Combined disciplines.
Practical disciplines. In practical disciplines students need to
develop practical experience and vocationally oriented skills and
craftsmanship. They need to work with practical exercises and
learn how to execute different tasks in the best economical, prac-
tical and safe way. This expertise is often referred as “tacit know-
ing.”
Practical experience. >Combined disciplines.
Practical theory. >Combined disciplines.

355
Practice includes all the intellectual and practical work with de-
sign. The information designer has to identify the communica-
tion and information problems and create plans, with schemes
and specifications, to solve the problems.
Practice and theory. >Applied research, Combined disci-
plines.
Practice and use. During the 1990s there was a change in re-
ception analysis from a focus on interpretation and decoding to
a greater concern with practice and use. We can >the sender as
an “information provider.” In each case the designer may have
clear intentions and objectives. However, it is up to the individ-
ual “information interpreter” to actively conceive or misconceive
the information, to use or not use it, to use or misuse it. This view
is especially valid for information sets that people make available
to an unknown audience, e.g. on the Internet. Here it is usually
not possible to know much about the people who search for and
use the information.
Pragmatic emphasis. Various instructions may influence our
perception of the image. This aspect also includes special inter-
ests of viewers.
Pragmatic location. The experience of the viewer is needed to
resolve ambiguous details.
Pragmatic text parallels. The interpretation of the message
by the viewer.
Pragmatic unity. The characteristics of the viewer can work for
or against recognition of an image. >Unity.
Pragmatics. 1) In linguistics pragmatics is the study of relations
between words, and how we express ourselves. 2) In semiotics
pragmatics is the study of relations between signs and their ef-
fects on people.

356
Pre-attentive processing. A great deal of perceptual organi-
zation occurs pre-attentively, not under cognitive control. The
way a message is organized, therefore, will have an important ef-
fect on the way the perceptual system structures what it detects
and, in ways that the perceiver will not be aware of, on how that
information is interpreted. The features that are pre-attentively
processed can be organised into categories based on colour,
form, motion and spatial position.
Pre-attentively. >Pre-attentive processing.
Pre-understanding is vitally important to our perception of
any message. The language we choose to use in any given situa-
tion is in itself a device conveying pre-understanding. It may be
rather hard to bypass pre-understandings and reach to the real
or true understanding of a message. When we >a realistic picture
on a cover we expect to find an informative real world story con-
tent. When we >a carton on a cover we expect to find a narrative
text and an imaginative content.
Precious Images. Commissioned by the Director’s Guild in
honour of its 50th anniversary in 1986, the film Precious Images
was a gift to the American movie audiences. This short consists
of a 6.5-minute assemblage of classic moments from 469 favour-
ite movies. Some moments linger for a few seconds but many are
as short as eight frames (1/3 of a second), averaging 20 frames
(less than a second). It is a strange experience to >this film. The
carefully chosen images retain their meaning and emotional im-
pact and trigger your memory. However, in my view you need to
>the film several times in order to fully appreciate it.
Precise. Choose your words carefully. Avoid vague and impre-
cise words. Prefer the direct and concrete to the indirect and ab-
stract. Do not use an abstract noun when a straightforward active
verb is better. Do not pile up adjectives or words you want to use

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adjectivally, in front of a single noun. Avoid three or more nouns
in a row.
Predecessor. In my own books I have used the term “predeces-
sor” for people who are unknown to us today. In these cases we
still have access to the results of some of their work. It may be a
painting on the ceiling as well as the walls in a church. >Pioneer.
Predicate modifies and provides an idea of the subject, such as
what it does. The predicate must contain a verb, and it must agree
in number with the subject.
Preference for a particular visual format does not necessarily
result in increased learning or increased understanding. Yet, in
the absence of more substantial data, information based on stu-
dent preference has a meaningful role to play in affecting inter-
pretation and learning from information materials and instruc-
tional texts. All other things being equal, we should provide for-
mats that are preferred by the viewer, thus making the text more
attractive and hopefully more motivating.
Prehistory is the period before written history. By studying
carvings, drawings, paintings, pottery, sculptures and other arte-
facts, archaeologists may recover some information even in the
absence of written records. Since the Neolithic period (approxi-
mately 10,000–2,000 BC) people have communicated not only
through gestures and sounds, but also by means of visual lan-
guage. Worldwide, hunters and gatherers and later early farmers
made use of information systems to advertise services and prod-
ucts. >Rock art.
Preliminary messages are physical outlines or sketches used
by the originator to explain and demonstrate her or his mental
images for the information designer.
Preliminary terms. >Terminology, Terminology work.

358
Preparation, is the second sub-process in the actual writing of
a text. The different steps include the making of a preliminary
writing plan, study of the subject matter, selection and structur-
ing of all material and planning for the use of pictures. >Message
design processes, Writing and drawing processes.
Prepositions are words connecting nouns, noun phrases and
pronouns to other words. They are locators in place and time.
Prepositions form a closed word class.
Prepress production is the reproduction processes that occur
between design and printing.
Prerequisites. The readability, legibility and reading value of a
graphic message are of decisive importance to the receiver’s abil-
ity to understand the content. Moreover, these factors–besides
being influenced by the writing process–are all prerequisites for
the reading process. The reading value of a message is the re-
ceiver’s subjective evaluation of the contents of the text and pic-
tures. Another can deem that what is interesting to one person
dull. We must therefore adapt text and pictures to be palatable to
any given target group. >Audibility, Distinctness, Legibility, Lis-
tening value, Readability and Reading value.
Presbyopia. At about age 40 the tissues of the eyes get stiffer.
It makes it harder for us to shift the distance of our focus.
Presentation design. >Information design genus.
Presentation graphics depict facts and are often used for dif-
ferent types of statistical tabulations in “business presentations.”
They are often called business graphics.
PRI, Photograph readability index, is an index that are used to
evaluate photos in textbooks, based on how a viewer perceives a
photograph. >Photograph readability index.
Priestley, Joseph >Joseph Priestley.

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Primary colours are red, yellow and blue. All other colours can
be mixed from these.
Primary supporting sciences are 1) Design disciplines, 2)
Communication disciplines and 3) Information disciplines.
>Secondary supporting sciences.
Information Design (centre)
receives contributions from six
groups of established disciplines
and professions. The received
contributions may be facts,
influences, methods, practices,
principles, processes, strategies,
theoretical approaches, and tools.
New applications develop within
Information Design (A1), between
ID and existing disciplines and
professions (A2). In addition,
new applications also develop
within other disciplines and
professions (A3).
Principle. A principle is based on research findings and cannot
be further derived. It is the basis, the origin and the fundamental
source for development of normative guidelines. >Guidelines,
Message design principles.
Principle of area See. Area principle.
Principle of boundary. >Common region principle.
Principle of closed forms. >Common region principle.

360
Principle of good continuation. >Continuity principle.
Principle of good form. >Good form principle.
Principles for design of business graphics. Graphical in-
formation is good at conveying a survey of a situation. Compari-
sons of lengths give the best results. When parts of a whole are
presented, comparisons of areas can be used as well. Most avail-
able patterns are less good. Patterns should be subdued and not
disturbing. People like blue, red and green, but they do not im-
prove our possibility of reading the message accurately. Different
parts in graphic figures should have about the same luminance
and radiance. The true differences between areas can be hard to
>when shaded differently. When accuracy is needed, graphical
information should be combined with actual figures.
Principles for design of symbols. A specific message may be
communicated to the receiver/s or interpreter/s with several dif-
ferent symbols. A specific symbol may be used to communicate
several different messages. People can usually not guess the
meaning of symbols. People have to learn the meaning of all the
important symbols within their own society. A good symbol is
clear and simple and has good contrast in colour, dimension and
form. It can be used in many contexts and in many situations.
Graphical symbols may convey generalities of the same order of
abstractness as verbal terms.
Principles for design of warnings. All warnings should con-
tain certain elements: A signal word such as “Danger” or “Cau-
tion.” A description of the hazard, e.g. in the case of a no diving
sign, a statement such as “Shallow water.” A description of con-
sequences that could occur if the person fails to obey the warn-
ing’s directions, e.g. “You can be permanently paralysed.” The di-
rections or instructions, i.e., the specific actions that should or
should not be done, e.g. “No diving.”

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Principles for interface design. Whenever possible the in-
terface should compensate for human limitations. Physical com-
ponents should be ergonomically designed. The interface should
be consistent. Direct manipulation and menus are preferable to
command languages. Error messages be concise and simple. It
should be possible to “undo” any action. Perform usability testing
early in the design process.
Principles for screen displays. Employ general design rules.
A screen display may vary with respect to spatial organization
like headings, length of lines, justification, spacing, number of
columns, number of colours at the same “page,” and directive
cues like colour coding, twinkling characters or words and scroll-
ing text. Colour as well as blank space on a visual display are es-
sentially free and might be used to increase legibility and reada-
bility. The best text colour is black, which causes good contrast
to most background colours.
Principles for typographic decision-making. We should
use typographic space in a consistent way in order to convey the
structure of the information. We should use standard page sizes
and grids for pre-planning of pages.
Print literacy. Traditional literacy is sometimes referred to as
print literacy. >Literacy.
Printers. Several types of printers can print digital computer
pictures. >Colour bubble-jet printers, Dot matrix printers, Ink-
jet printers, Laser printers, Phototypesetters, Plotters, Telefax,
Telephoto, Thermal printers.
Printing is the process of producing multiple copies of an orig-
inal using a printing press. A printing press consists of some
means for feeding the paper (or some other material) in contact
with an inked image carrier and a system for delivering of the
copies. There are four major categories of printing processes: re-
lief, intaglio, the plano graphic process and screen-printing. In

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all systems text and pictures are reversed in the printing forms
that transfer the printing ink onto the paper, where it appears in
the correct position. >Electro-press, Relief printing, Intaglio,
Plano graphic processes, Screen-printing.
Printing images. >Technology for words.
Printing technology. When Gutenberg died in 1468 ten print-
ers where active in Europe. Then the new printing technology
spread rapidly across Europe. Punches and copper matrices be-
came standardized. At the turn of 1500, there were more than
one thousand printers in Europe. It became easy to produce texts
at relatively low costs and therefore more books were sold than
ever before. >Johann Gutenberg, Technology for pictures, Tech-
nology for words.
Printing text. >Technology for words.
Problem solving theory. The human abilities to think and to
learn have evolved as all the other capacities. Intelligence is cre-
ative and flexible. Learning comes about as a result of our doing
and experiencing, as we successfully solve real and meaningful
problems.
Procedural memory, or implicit memory, is the memory for
skills that are automatic, like driving a car. It is our unconscious
memory that is capable of controlling rather complex behav-
iours. Procedural memory probably develops earlier in life than
declarative memory. >Memory.
Process camera is a large graphic arts camera used to make
film negatives and positives for platemaking.
Process colours are cyan, magenta, yellow and black. These
are the inks used in four-colour process printing. >CMYK.
Processing is a collective designation for the different pro-
cesses in which we process information into knowledge with

363
reference to our earlier experiences and memories (internal con-
text). The information must be internalized and made our prop-
erty, as part of our memory.
Processing fluency is the subjective experience of ease with
which people process of information.
Processing of colour. In order to facilitate processing of col-
our the information designer should: 1) Use colour coding in a
consistent way. 2) Limit the number of colour codes. 3) Find out
likes or dislikes of colour.
Processing of layout. In order to facilitate processing of layout
the information designer should: 1) Use illustrations that are rel-
evant to the content in the text. 2) Make close connections be-
tween verbal and visual representations. 3) Avoid inconsistent
use of typography.
Processing of pictures. In order to facilitate processing of pic-
tures the information designer should: 1) Use line drawings when
study time is limited. 2) Provide more realistic versions of art-
work when unlimited study time is allowed. 3) Use graphics in a
consistent way.
Processing of text. In order to facilitate processing of text the
information designer should: 1) Design text to facilitate mental
processing. 2) Use a variety of examples and non-examples. 3)
Provide the time that is necessary for the receivers to read, inter-
pret and understand the message in the text.
Product design is a systematic way to create ideas and develop
new products. Product designers will use digital tools to analyse,
design and visualize the new products.
Product photography is intended to promote and sell a prod-
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Product visualisation, or product visualization, involves soft-
ware technology for manipulation of 3D models, simulations,
technical drawings and other kinds of documentation. Images
have high levels of photorealism and can be used in design, mar-
keting and sales. >Technical visualisation, Visualisation.
Production of draft starts with an idea, and a basis of a first
raw draft. Establish a system for control of versions of the doc-
uments. Create and use standard templates. Draw sketches with
explanations for drawings and photographs. Organize interplay
between text and pictures. Prepare work with typography and
layout. Bring any last-minute ideas into the process. A subject
matter review will ensure that the content is correct, and rele-
vant for the intended audience. A pedagogical review will ensure
that the material is well structured and comprehensible. Invite
some intended users to review the draft.
Production of message starts with an idea or with the need to
convey information to a given target group. When an outline is
ready, the generation of text, draft sketches, editing, graphic de-
sign, the production of originals, masters and, ultimately, a given
quantity then begin. The sender produces a representation of re-
ality. A representation is a medium with specific contents, i.e. a
message. Other tasks for the sender are stock keeping, distribu-
tion, marketing, advertising, selling, billing, bookkeeping etc.
Regardless of the specific objectives it is important to secure
quality in any information and learning material. This must be
included in the processes for production.
Production of original and master. Before the original can
be confirmed as the master, where the text and the visuals finally
are brought together, there should be an overall final check ac-
cording to the following steps: 1) Versions. Make sure that the
final versions of the various parts of the documents are used for
the originals. 2) Text. Check the quality of the technical produc-
tion. 3) Drawings. Check the quality of the technical production.

365
4) Photographs. Check the quality of the technical production. 5)
Graphic design. Check the quality of the technical production. 6)
Corrections. Correct any errors. >Message design processes.
Production of script. We can note the following steps: 1) Ver-
sions. Control the versions of the document. 2) Text. Edit the
manuscript into its final version. 3) Drawings. Order or produce
the originals based on previous sketches. 4) Photographs. Pro-
duce prints that are suitable for reproduction in accordance with
previously made sketches or test shots. 5) Graphic design. Work
with typography and layout. 6) Reviews. Review the verbal and
visual materials. 7) Copyright. Check copyright clearance for all
materials before the technical production may start. This may
save a lot of trouble later on. >Message design processes.
Production processes. The sender’s production processes are
influenced by production principles and are performed with var-
ious tools for production. Production principles can be seen as a
set of guidelines for production of any message. All processes
should include suitable quality reviews and quality controls.
Production techniques refer to the manner in which different
kinds of information materials and information products are
produced. Historical aspects and the evolution from rather prim-
itive methods to more advanced production techniques can be
studied for most groups of information materials. Production
techniques are closely related to media. Production techniques
have made rapid advances in recent years. Computers are being
used to an ever increasing degree in conjunction with the pro-
duction of different media. Once data have been stored in digital
form, they can be easily presented in a manner tailored to the
optimum conditions for different media.
Products. Traditionally publishers and booksellers have been
working with books. Regardless of the content, fiction or non-fic-
tion, the book is a physical product. Products are gradually

366
replaced by “content-services,” services to give people the enter-
tainment, the information, the knowledge, or the news they want
to have in different situations. The constant development of new
technology and new media presents producers with exciting new
options. To be successful the sender has to know about various
media and their unique possibilities. The information designer
has to utilize media advantages and avoid media disadvantages.
Professional communication is an umbrella term for the
creative activities that adults engage in as they compose purpose-
driven communications on the job. It encompasses the range of
advanced writing and visual design activity in workplace settings
and includes information, instructions, manuals, presentations
and proposals, reports etcetera.
Professional communicators have rich schematic and tacit
knowledge about all practical aspects of information design.
>Cultural skills, Rhetorical skills, Social skills.
Professional markets have restricted and selective applica-
tions and specialized subject areas. Services are likely to grow out
of existing requirements in answer to specific needs and will in-
clude provisions of specialist information and data, fast updat-
ing, current awareness, software packages, complex information
retrieval and research dissemination. The services may be pro-
vided by commercial umbrella information providers, profes-
sional organizations, or commercial publishers and are likely to
be mounted on host computers accessible via telecommunication
networks or supplied on portable machine-readable files.
Professional roles. An information designer is to a large ex-
tent a project manager who coordinates work on text, images and
graphic design. >Occupational roles.
Profile rules involves the organisation’s a carefully thought-out
programme for its graphic profile, including name and logo, ad-
dress, number of pages, the date, the type of document, the

367
author, the approving party, the examiner, the version, the de-
gree of confidentiality and the subject. Ready-to-use templates
save considerable time and contribute to the creation of a distinct
and uniform structure for documentation and to a uniform iden-
tity for an organisation.
Program of Systematic Evaluation, PSE, was initiated in
1965 by professor Francis Dwyer at Penn State University in the
US. More than 50,000 high school, college and adult learners
participated in more than 200 visual research studies. Continuity
was maintained by utilizing the same 2,000-word instructional
unit on the human heart. The visuals ranged from simple line
drawings to realistic photographs. Booklets, television and slide-
audiotape presentations were used. Test formats exist in both
verbal and visual versions. Students’ knowledge was measured
with several different tests. Visual testing is a valid strategy for
assessing students’ learning from visualized instruction.
Programmed learning involves gradually increasing the level
of difficulty while continuously reinforcing correct responses and
extinguishing incorrect responses. Programmed learning has
demonstrated its effectiveness in education, although it has not
lived up to its early promise.
Progressive rhythm is when a repeated element changes reg-
ularly in a design.
Prohibitions is a term for a group of information materials in
the category Brief messages. A prohibition is a regulation stipu-
lating something that must not occur or be done, often because
of the risk of injury to people or property damage. A prohibition
may be impressed or printed on different products, such as ma-
chinery, signs and fences, in the form of words, letters or sym-
bols. Trespassing on private property, diving from a trampoline,
entering a construction site, camping, various activities in traffic
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368
Project manager is responsible for the project budget, for co-
ordinating and controlling the whole project and for reporting to
the management and to other control groups. The project man-
ager may be a skilled information designer, an infographer.
Project secretary is responsible for maintaining continuous
contact between the different sub-projects, for writing minutes
from meetings and for the final delivery of the completed infor-
mation material.
Project website. The most important function of a website
place for a project is the file archive. It enables all members of the
project to share and access important information and research
results. Since the file archive is most important it has shown to
be a good solution to make that the central part of the project
place website. Additional features can then be designed as com-
plements to this central feature.
Projected typography. In audio-visual instruction and in au-
dio-visual materials, such as overhead transparencies, slides,
filmstrips and computer-based presentations, lettering must be
considered carefully in order to improve legibility. Type must be
large as well as bold enough to see. In verbal presentations, many
of the projected images consist only of text. In written documen-
tation, this type of information should be worked into the body
of text instead.
Promotional literacy is the aspect of advertising literacy that
helps consumers weigh and evaluate the commercial forms,
functions and objectives of media in general.
Pronouns are words used instead of nouns or noun phrases.
There are indefinite pronouns (such as anybody), personal pro-
nouns (you), possessive pronouns (your), and reflexive pro-
nouns (yourself). Pronouns form a closed word class.

369
Propaganda usually takes a stand for something or someone
and against someone or something else.
Propaganda objectives. The objective of propaganda is to dis-
seminate an idea, an opinion or a philosophy. The idea is for the
receiver to imitate, emulate or mimic and intentionally try to re-
semble someone else, become convinced of something, behave in
a particular way, adopt a particular attitude or buy a product or
an idea. Propaganda often creates negative images and reinforces
our prejudices and feelings regarding events, groups of people,
or products.
Properties of verbal language. Verbal languages have digital
coding using combinations of letters (including numerals) to rep-
resent content. There is no direct correspondence between
groups of letters, words and reality. Each meaning is defined and
must be learned. Verbal languages have varying levels of mean-
ing: 1) phonemes (without meaning), 2) morphemes (with mean-
ing), 3) syntagms, sub-meanings and 4) complete meanings. A
written text can convey information, contain analyses and de-
scribe feelings and facts. It is more likely that graphically com-
plex texts will be read than “plain” texts. It takes less time to read
a graphically complex text than a “plain” text. To describe the
properties of text, linguists works with advanced text analysis.
Over 200 readability formulas exist.
Properties of visual language. Variables in visual language
have functional as well as suggestive properties. The functional
properties are related to cognitive factual information in content,
execution, context and format. The suggestive properties are re-
lated to emotions, conceptions, aesthetic perception, tension,
fright, etc. >Functional properties, Suggestive properties.
Proportion is the relationship in size of one component to an-
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370
Proportionally spaced type. Most typefaces are proportion-
ally spaced. Different letters have different spacing in accordance
with their individual sizes and shapes. However, on most type-
writers and some printers the typefaces are mono-spaced. In
such typefaces, all the letters have the same amount of space. The
letter “i” takes the same space as the letter “m”. Proportionally
spaced type is usually easier to read than mono-spaced type.
Prose literacy refers to the ability to read linear text.
Protocol is a set of rules that regulates how hardware and soft-
ware can communicate.
Proto-writing. The early writing systems were based on earlier
traditions called proto-writing. These systems used ideograms,
pictograms and other early mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing
systems emerged about nine thousand years ago. It is generally
argued that proto-writing lacked the ability to express ideas and
thoughts.
Providing clarity. The legibility of a graphic message is deter-
mined by the technical design of texts and pictures, that is, their
clarity.
Providing emphasis. The most important elements in infor-
mation material may be emphasized to enhance attention and
perception. Emphasis may be used to attract, direct and to keep
attention.
Providing simplicity. Readability is determined by how well
the presentation of a message is adapted to the readers. It in-
volves the reader’s ability to understand the style of text, the pic-
tures and graphic form. The choice of words, symbols and picture
elements creates the style.
Providing structure. A clear and obvious structure will facili-
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371
memory of the message content. Clear headings make the subject
matter readily apparent and aid comprehension of the text.
Providing theory for ID is an external theory with influences
from design disciplines.
Providing unity. Information materials should have unity, an
“overall coherence and togetherness.” Inconsistencies may con-
fuse the receivers. Use style and terminology in a consistent way
in each specific information material. Use pictures, layout and
typography in a consistent way. Use accenting techniques in a
consistent way.
Proximity principle, the law of proximity. We perceptually
group events and objects on the basis of their proximity to one
another. All other things being equal elements that are close to-
gether “belong together”, are grouped and processed together.
The need to process large numbers of small stimuli is reduced
and perception is faster. Elements that are far apart are perceived
as separate objects. Spatial proximity is one of the most powerful
organizing principles and one of the most useful in information
design for facilitating perceptual organisation of data. We can
use space to group graphic components. Related data should be
put in close proximity to each other in lists, and in tables.
Spatial proximity is a powerful cue for perceptual organisation
of data. There are eight individual black squares in this illustra-
tion, but we perceive them as four pairs of black squares. Spa-
tial proximity was one of the first observations made by the Ge-
stalt psychologists.
Prägnanz. >Good form principle.
PSE. >Program of Systematic Evaluation.

372
Psycho-pleasure is our pleasure gained from the satisfying ex-
perience when we have successfully finished a task.
Psychological information theory is the designation for one
of the main branches of cognitive psychology. It refers to the
study of man’s mental information processing of text, pictures
and other representations. A major principle is that man organ-
izes impressions and knowledge into meaningful units. This pro-
cess starts with attention and perception. Psychological infor-
mation theory describes the cognitive processes in the brain as a
flow of information between different memory functions.
Psychological perspectives are visualisations of psychologi-
cal and subjective sets of values and illusionistic effects. This
group includes imaginary perspective, simultaneous perspec-
tive, and value perspective.
Psychomotor skill. >Perceptual motor-skill.
pts. Pica points. >Size of type.
Public literacy. Traditional literacy is sometimes referred to as
public literacy. >Literacy.
Publishing. Transmitting a message from an author to the
readers requires people such as text and picture editors, graphic
designers, typesetters, repro technicians, printers, bookbinders,
stockroom staff, salespersons, order takers, bookstore employ-
ees, librarians, buyers and administrators. The different steps in-
volved in publishing are still time-consuming and jointly repre-
sent a major expense. About ten percent of the price of a book,
not including tax, usually goes to the author. Electronic publish-
ing may change this situation to some extent. That would reduce
the distance between authors and readers. New opportunities for
a dialogue might then develop in some instances.
Punctuation makes it easier for readers to understand the con-
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373
punctuation provides information about single words and sen-
tences This shall help clarify logical contexts and the thoughts
behind it. The clearer and simpler we manage to formulate a
thought, the less important is our use of punctuation.
Purpose. The purpose of an intended message may be advertis-
ing of a product or a service, providing a business proposal;
providing education, entertainment, information, instruction,
learning, training, establishing a change of behaviour, making a
decision, performing an action of any kind, or any combination
of these and many other examples.
Purpose of graphic design. The purpose of work with graphic
design is to find a suitable presentation of the message with re-
spect to the intended receiver, medium and economic situation.
A well-designed book appears as a “unified whole.” All design el-
ements serve to enhance the content.
Purposes of illustrations. >Image functions.
Purpose of photo is a variable that will influence our percep-
tion of individuals in photographs. The purpose of a photo is im-
portant for our perception of the person depicted.
Purpose of reading. We read in different ways, depending on
the purpose of our reading. We read intensively, every word and
line, when our purpose demands it. We skim if we only wish to
quickly get some idea of the material. We read to orient ourselves
if we want to know where some particular information is to be
found in a text. We read to inform ourselves when we need cer-
tain limited information. In each of these cases, we leave out an-
ything that does not satisfy the purpose of our reading directly.
Different reading objectives or purposes attached to reading give
rise, therefore, to different reading purposes. These purposes dif-
fer in terms of the level of text on which the reader focuses and
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Q
Quadtone is a tonal image printed with four different tones.
Densities of black give a fuller depth than a traditional halftone.
Quality. A good information material has a distinct structure, is
legible, readable and relevant for the intended audience. In in-
formation design the content of the message is more important
than its context, execution and format. >Information quality,
Technical quality.
Quality of language. The way in which good quality of lan-
guage is defined is, to some extent, dependent upon the purpose
of the text. Technical writers, for example, are more consciously
concentrated on getting results than other writers. Because tech-
nical language must be capable of effectively conveying as much
information as possible to a certain group of readers, it is char-
acterised in its ideal form by brevity, clarity and precision. To de-
scribe the properties of text, the linguist works with advanced
text analysis. However, it is relatively easy to describe a text’s
readability by using a readability index, a character index and a
nominal quotient. There are several different subheadings under
the general heading “quality of language,” among them, phonol-
ogy, morphology, syntax, style, pragmatics and infology.
Quality of papers. The quality of individual papers in infor-
mation design may be quite different. Since everything is new
there are no systems for peer reviews. As a result, some of the
papers may only have a very limited value. But, again, not many
people will be able to read these papers. When a group of people
with similar research interests meet, one of them may come up
with the idea of organizing a meeting, a seminar or even a con-
ference. This may be the beginning of a “special interest group,”
a “SIG,” within an already existing organization. It may also, in
fact, be the beginning of a new organization. When this group of
people decide to study a common theme and present their

375
findings at a future meeting they suddenly introduce a very
strong way to boost research in this specific and selected area.
Quantitative data should be made to stand out from the sup-
porting information (like grids) by ensuring that the different
items on a graph can be easily distinguished visually.
Quantitative literacy is the ability to understand simple arith-
metic, such as percentages.
Quantitative perception. The reader must be able to deter-
mine the amount of difference between ordered visual elements.
It is easy to estimate the difference in length between lines. How-
ever, it is hard to compare areas and even more difficult to com-
pare volumes.
Quantity diagrams are a kind of diagram with totality and sub-
sets. >Diagrams.
Question mark (?) is a punctuation mark in written English. It
is usually used to indicate an interrogative clause or phrase.
There are several kinds of question marks in some other lan-
guages.
Questions. Trying to answer questions like: How? What?
When? Where? Who? and Why? improve learning. An active
reader adds structure to the text and summarizes the text with
keywords. The fifth step, the test, takes place after finishing the
work with the chapter. The PQRST method relies on three basic
principles for improving memory: 1) Organizing the material. 2)
Elaborating the material. 3) Practising retrieval.
Quotation marks. The American English favour double quota-
tion marks (“abc”) for primary quotations and use single quota-
tion marks (‘def’) for quotes within a quote. British English may
use either single or double quotation marks for primary quota-
tions. Exclamation marks (!) and question marks (?) are placed
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whether they apply to the whole sentence or only to the actual
quot. In British English, commas and periods are usually treated
in the same way. In American English, commas and periods are
usually placed inside the quotation marks regardless. Guillemets
(« ») are another form of quotation mark. These are sometimes
called French quotation marks.
Quotations. Sometimes quotations are included in a text. Short
quotations can be integrated into the body text, but long quota-
tions should be distinctly separated from the rest of the text.
Quotations are often indented, sometimes also on the right side.
Any quotation that is used must have the source of reference
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R
Radial symmetry concern equal proportions around a central
point. The spokes in a wheel is a good example.
Radiance is a radiometric measure of light emitted by a surface
(watt/steradian/sq.m). Different parts in graphic figures should
have about the same radiance. The true differences between ar-
eas can be hard to >when shaded differently.
Radio listeners sometimes have great difficulties in compre-
hending broadcasted news.
Rag is the ragged shape that is formed by the outer edge of an
unjustified text on a page.
Ragged left is an unjustified column of type where lines of var-
ying lengths are aligned on the left side.
Ragged right is an unjustified column of type where lines of
varying lengths are aligned on the right side.
Raised initial letters. >Initial letters.
RAM is Random Access Memory.
Raster-dots are employed in the printing of pictures. The num-
ber of raster-dots will define the quality of the final printed im-
age. The photos we see in books and newspapers are collections
of small printed dots.
Raster graphics are computer graphics comprised of bitmaps
that create a grid of individual picture elements (pixels).
Raster Image Processing, RIP, is converting data into a form
that can be output by a high-resolution imagesetter for use in
commercial printing.

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Rayograph is a photographic image made by placing an object
on a photo-sensitive surface and then exposing it to light and
then moving the object for additional exposures. >Photogram.
RBD, Research-Based Design, uses research techniques to pro-
duce designs. >DBIR, DBR, DBRC.
Readability of a message involves the reader’s ability to under-
stand style of graphic form, pictures and text. What makes a mes-
sage difficult to read is not as often the subject matter as the style.
Readability–colour. When colours of equal intensity are com-
pared the most visible hues are white, yellow and green. The least
visible hues are red, blue and violet. Yellow is a powerful colour
because of its luminosity. It is especially powerful when com-
bined with black. >Anomalies of colour vision.
Readability–colour coding. Colurs coding improves atten-
tion, learner motivation and memory. Subjects dislike the use of
more than three or four text colours on the same page, screen, or
slide. For some learners and for some educational objectives, col-
our improves the achievement of the learners. However, in some
cases the added cost of colour may not be justified.
Readability–gender. Female and male subjects show no dif-
ferences in reading efforts of different colour combinations.
Graphic symbols often have bright colours to intensify their
meaning. Here common hues are pure yellow, red, blue, green,
white and black, or combinations of these. Complementary col-
ours contrast and provide a warm–cool effect. Unfortunately, red
and green are quite often used as discriminating colours in sym-
bols and in warning signs. Many colour-blind people perceive red
and green as grey. Colour may be combined with shape and po-
sition, or with both, which is often seen in traffic signs.
Readability–layout. The style of the graphic form is decided
by the specific choices of typefaces for headings, running text,

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captions and the use of justification, number and placement of
columns, number and placement of pictures and tables, the use
of colour cues, et cetera. All informative layouts must have good
readability.
Readability–maps. Symbols are of special importance and
value in maps. They have to be learned. The way in which visual
variables are combined has greater importance than how the var-
iables are comprehended. Using too many visual variables at the
same time makes map reading more difficult. When several var-
iables are used simultaneously the hierarchy of visibility is im-
portant. The largest symbols are perceived first.
Readability–numerical data. We can present numerical data
in tables and in graphs. Within columns items should be grouped
and separated from other groups either by white space or by rules
(lines). Use no more than five items in each group. Avoid redun-
dant abbreviations of units (although they should be included in
the column or row headings). Arrange columns so that the target
entries are to the left of the answers. Use no more than two sig-
nificant figures. Provide averages of rows and columns (as appro-
priate) to facilitate comparisons of individual cell entries. Put the
most important comparisons into columns (rather than rows).
Arrange numbers in rows or columns in some meaningful order
whenever possible (e.g., increasing or decreasing).
Readability–pictures is the ability to understand visual mes-
sages. The style of illustration is decided by the choice of draw-
ings, photographs, schematic pictures, as well as consistency, ex-
pressions, picture elements and symbols. A drawing style that in-
cludes different kinds of lines, patterns, shadings, and incon-
sistent use of symbols may obstruct the reading and understand-
ing of the picture content. Instructional illustrations have good
readability when the subject matter and the pictorial conventions
are familiar to the audience and depicted in a realistic manner.

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Readability–print media. Active, affirmative, clear, declara-
tive, essential and short words in simple, short and precise sen-
tences are the most readable. Readers prefer small text para-
graphs to big ones. Often it is quite easy to divide the text in hi-
erarchic and natural parts, portions, or sections. Natural breaks
emphasized by typography are helpful. Providing “white space”
between portions of the text provides cues to the learners that a
new section or a new type of activity follows. The end of a sen-
tence should be determined by syntax rather than by a set width
of a line. The structure of text should be as clear as possible.
Readability–projected texts. Many speakers mainly use text
transparencies, or “word visuals,” containing key words in at-
tempting to supply an overview, clarify, reinforce and summarize
complicated arguments. Text must be bold enough and large
enough. We should not display frames longer than it takes to ex-
plain the contents. Always restrict the number of words. Text
transparencies are useful for the speaker but may be very boring
to the audience. It is also very boring when there simply are too
many spelling mistakes. Check the spelling once more. It is a
good idea to put the necessary identifications data on each trans-
parency, each slide and each computer file.
Readability–research has been directed towards finding the
characteristics that make texts easy or difficult to understand.
Long words and long sentences make a text difficult to read. The
number of words in a sentence appears to exert the strongest ef-
fect on reading rate and reading comprehension.
Readability–symbols are culturally biased and thus arbitrary
to those from other cultures. People have to learn the meaning of
the important symbols within their own society. A good symbol
is designed so it can be used in many different situations and in
many contexts.

381
Readability–text on screens follow general design rules for
readability of text on wall charts and readability of projected
texts. Design may vary with respect to headings, length of lines,
justification, spacing and number of columns. Colour as well as
blank space on a visual display are essentially free and might be
used to increase legibility and readability. All capital letters are
harder to read than a “normal” combination of upper and lower-
case letters. Words become difficult to read which will reduce the
speed of reading.
Readability–text on wall charts. A wall chart must have
good readability. General design rules should be employed also
in the design of text on wall charts. These guidelines are similar
to those for readability of text on screens and readability of pro-
jected texts. Wall charts used to be a fine complement to text-
books. During the 20th century filmstrips, slides, overhead
transparencies superseded wall charts. Later computer assisted
presentations superseded these AV-media. Compared with tra-
ditional graphic presentations, a presentation of information on
wall charts is very limited. Usually people are not willing to read
long text passages. >Readability.
Readability–text refers to the ease of understanding due to the
construction of the text, including the length of words, sentences,
paragraphs and the style of writing. For text the linguistic usage
as well as the style should be correct to avoid distracting the read-
ers. The style of text is decided by the specific choice of words,
consistency and expressions. Simple, active, affirmative and de-
clarative sentences are the most readable. Abstract words, jar-
gon, long and complex sentences, passive constructions and
stilted language may obstruct reading and understanding of the
text content. Readability refers to the reader’s reading skill and
interest and how easy it is to read long passages of text.
Reader slides, word visuals. Many speakers use projected im-
ages containing key words in attempting to supply an overview,

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clarify, reinforce and summarize complicated arguments. >Legi-
bility of projected texts, Overhead transparencies, PowerPoint
presentations.
Reader-response criticism argues that a text has no meaning
before a reader reads it and interprets the message in the text.
Reader-response theory focused, in the late 1960s, on the re-
action of the reader (audience) to a particular text.
Reader’s text is different from the writer’s text. >Text struc-
tures.
Reading. Most people read instructional materials selectively.
Usually we use a combination of browsing, reading headings,
looking at illustrations, reading captions, reading certain parts
carefully, skimming others, and avoiding some parts completely.
Reading acuity is the smallest possible size of a text that we can
read.
Reading objectives. Reading is an important means of learn-
ing. The more a person reads, the more the reading skills im-
prove. Depending on the purpose, we can read a text in several
ways. An active reader makes good use of the structure embed-
ded in the book and in the text. The preface, the table of contents,
the headings, as well as the captions and the illustrations provide
an overview of the content in the whole book.
Reading session. We best remember what we read at the be-
ginning and at the end of a reading session. The optimum time
for learning from reading seems to be 20-40 minutes. We will
forget most of what we learn if we do not rehearse the material.
After finishing reading, it is time for the first rehearsal, reading
keywords and notes. It is a good idea to repeat this after a day,
after a week and after a month.
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383
Reading value. A message should be well worth reading for the
intended audience. However, what is interesting to one person
may be dull to another. Each reader has personal preferences.
Realism. A visual should usually possess a selected degree of re-
alism. Too little or too much can interfere with communication
and learning processes. A visual should contain details that are
essential in communicating an intended message. Too many de-
tails reduce the interest for the content. Too few details make it
impossible to understand the picture. A series of slides could be
a better choice than a film in a learning situation. Learners ex-
posed to “new” information may profit optimally from simple
line drawings. Learners who are familiar with the area may profit
more from photographs. Critical attributes should show as little
variation and be as obvious and typical as possible.
Realism theories. The “realism theories” include the iconicity
theory, the cone of experience and the sign similarity orientation
theory. The basic assumption from each of these theories is that
learning will be more complete as the number of cues in the
learning situation increases.
Realistic art styles are photographic style and representa-
tional style. Children equate highly realistic art styles (photo-
graphic and representational) with text content that depict real-
ity and real-life situations.
Realistic pictures. Pictures are related in some way to reality,
but must never be confused with reality. Objective documenta-
tion is often necessary. These pictures are frequently realistic
and simulate reality in ways unique to each documentation pro-
cess. Apparently objective documentation can occasionally be ex-
tremely subjective and suggestive when the choice of images, the
cropping, layout and contents of captions are overtly selective.
Receiver. The receiver of an intended message may be business
partners, colleagues, dentists, employees, course participants,

384
ministers, students, teachers, veterinary surgeons, retired pro-
fessors, teenage girls, teenage boys, or a “general” audience–just
to mention a few. There are of course many more groups of re-
ceivers. It is obvious that a person may belong to several groups
of receivers, or “target groups.” There are always individual dif-
ferences among members of any group. >Receiver activities, Re-
ceiver groups, Receiver principles, Receiver processes, Receiver
response processes, Receiver selection processes.
Receiver activities. In the receiving of a verbal and visual mes-
sage, the receiver will use several processes and reception tools.
The processes are influenced by reception principles. All receiver
processes are influenced by prior experience in relation to age
and gender, as well as by cultural, economic, historical, political,
religious and social factors. Such experiences will influence the
selection processes, the mental processes and the response pro-
cesses. The influence of these factors has a major impact on how
receivers relate to messages of different kinds and on how mean-
ing is constructed.
Receiver groups are expected to understand and make use of
provided information. They are sometimes referred to as audi-
ences, demographic groups, information interpreters, target
groups, target populations and users. In extreme instances,
some intended groups of receivers only consist of one or two in-
dividuals. Other groups, like a “general audience,” may encom-
pass millions of people. However, most target groups are some-
where in between these extremes, but certainly a lot closer to the
lower end of the continuum. The smaller a group of receivers is,
the greater our ability is to describe it in a reasonable fashion.
More individual characteristics are manifested in large groups.
Receiver principles. There are thousands of possible groups
of receivers. Therefore, it is important for the information de-
signer to: 1) Carefully define the group of intended receivers. 2)
Collect data about age, culture, gender and socio-economic

385
factors. 3) When possible, consider any feedback that may be ex-
pressed by any previous receivers.
Receiver processes include search and selection of infor-
mation, and mental processing of information. When a message
is internalized the receiver has got new emotions, new experi-
ences, new feelings, and new knowledge.
Receiver response principles include etical guidelines,
rules, standards, and values.
Receiver response processes include application of know-
ledge, change of behaviour, change of emotional status such as
anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. In some
situations, it may be possible for the receivers to provide the
sender with feedback. This feedback may be of great value for the
sender when updating the information material. However, in
many situations, it is not at all possible for an individual to give
any feedback to the sender. Response tools include body lan-
guage, verbal language, and visual language.
Receiver selection processes. Selection principles include
areas such as a critical view and a natural suspiciousness with
respect to the sender and the purpose of the message, an under-
standing of the role of media in society, available time, costs,
credibility, cultural factors, ease of use, individual interests, lan-
guage, personal needs, reading value and socio-economic factors.
The receiver should always be keen to question what the artist,
author, editorial staff, photographer, intends with a message.
Reception theory is a theory that the meaning of something is
created by the object and the reader and not by the inherent qual-
ities of the actual communication.
Recipes is a term for a group of information materials in the
category Instructions. An increasing number of raw materials
and semi-manufactured products are supplied with information

386
on the contents inside packaging and ways to prepare those con-
tents. This obviously applies to directions on preparing various
dishes but also includes different kinds of chemical products,
such as commercial fertiliser and insecticides. Recipes and in-
structions on how to prepare food are frequent features in week-
lies, cookery-books and TV shows.
Recognition of words in continuous speech is far superior to
our ability to recognize them when they have been isolated. We
use contextual information in recognizing what we hear.
Rectilinear decorations of Neolithic rock carvings are
straight: 1) chevrons (inverted V-shaped patterns) or zigzags, 2)
lozenges or diamonds, 3) offsets or comb-devices, 4) parallel
lines and 5) radials or star shapes.
Recto is the right-hand page of any spread in a book.
Reduction through successive refinement is the best way to
reach clarity. To create an elegant solution, anything that is not
essential to the communication task has to be removed.
Redundancy/information line. A picture creator who is very
familiar with her/his target group can easily ensure that redun-
dancy/information in a picture is on a level relevant to the pic-
ture’s aim. The redundancy factor provides the picture creator
with an opportunity to relate viewer perceptions to picture con-
tents.
Redundant relationships may be used in instructional mes-
sage design. When subtitles are added in a television programme,
the action displayed on the screen is described in words. This
greatly enhances the educational impact of the programme. The
justification for using redundant information in print is to pro-
vide the learner with the opportunity to receive information al-
ternatively from either channel, and to help the person short-cir-
cuit any dependence on printed or on oral instruction (or both).

387
Properly used educational technology can drastically reduce the
time it takes to create meaningful knowledge out of information.
Reference book graphics is a term for information graphics
in reference books.
Reference list. References to cited works are usually put in a
reference list, or a bibliography, at the end of a chapter or at the
end of a book. Write references in accordance with one of the in-
ternational conventions. Reference lists are often voluminous
and may take up a great deal of space. Since the reader will usu-
ally peruse such a list to find only certain entries, they should be
made easy to find. Therefore, the text should be distinct even
though it is relatively compact.
Reference table, look-up table, is a table used for display of
specific information, such as bus schedules.
Referent is an abstract or a concrete object linked to a specific
concept, explained by a definition, and has a specific term.
Reflective design deals with our ability to fore>a future impact
of a product on our lives. How do we feel about the product?
Registered trademark ® is a symbol, and not an enclosed R.
Trademark symbols have been registered with a national trade-
mark office.
Registration is: 1) The placement of two or more images on the
same paper in exact alignment. 2) The degree to which the dif-
ferent printing plates align correctly in order to reproduce a de-
sign in an accurate way.
Regulated search. Regulated and restricted search was the
first type of search to be used in any database system. One clas-
sical example is databases containing bibliographic information
about articles and books). These systems require the use of pre-
cisely stated search strings. A search string may be the name of

388
author, the title of book, the name of publisher, an address, etc.
If we search for one of my books and write my name as “Rune
Pettersson” we will not be able to find books listed as “Pettersson,
Rune.” Here the order of the names is important. Usually, there
are also severe limitations on the number of fields which can be
searched for and also the number of characters in each field.
Each search object has to be specified exactly in the correct field.
Relationships between elements in information material can
be contradictory, irrelevant, redundant and relevant. Compari-
sons between lengths give the best results.
Relative measurements are defined by a series of measure-
ments. As an example, a type set at 70pt has a 70pt em.
Relevant relationship. The information presented via a text
or sound supplements the information supplied in the visual.
Visuals with relevant relationships to a spoken or printed text
can greatly enhance the text’s informative effect and vice versa.
Relief printing. In relief printing the printing areas are raised
above the nonprinting areas and the impression is made directly
from the inked raised surface to the paper. There are several re-
lief printing technologies. >Flexography, Letterpress, Wood en-
graving, Woodcut.
Renaissance. In European history, the Renaissance represents
a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th cen-
turies. It was a cultural movement beginning in Italy and slowly
spreading to the rest of Europe. The main theme of the Renais-
sance was the renewal of antiquity. Several pioneers made re-
markable achievements related to verbal and visual information.
>Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi,
Renaissance perspective is a one-point perspective. All lines
vanish in a single point in the picture. Renaissance perspective is
the same as central perspective and one-point perspective.

389
Rendering technologies aim to give screen text the clarity of
printed text.
Reports are information materials in the category Factual in-
formation. The purpose is often to absorb conceptual concepts
and form an understanding. Reports are formal accounts of stud-
ies and completed assignments. Examples are: conference re-
ports, final reports, financial reports, such as final accounts, fore-
casts, annual reports etc., inspection reports, interim reports, po-
sition reports, reports issued by experts, scientific reports, tech-
nical reports, test reports, traffic reports, weather reports.
Representamen. In semiotics a representamen represents the
denoted object.
Representation is a medium with a specific message. It may be
a chart, graph, map, table, text, visual, etc. Sometimes a repre-
sentation is called “information set,” or “material.” Together with
the medium the message is the link between the sender or the
designer and the intended receiver. I distinguish between two
main categories of representations: 1) Figurative representations
and 2) Non-figurative representations. Figurative representa-
tions include two groups, visuals and graphic symbols. Visuals
include three-dimensional images, photographs, realistic draw-
ings and schematic drawings. Graphic symbols include pictorial
symbols, abstract symbols and arbitrary symbols. Non-figurative
representations or verbal symbols include verbal descriptions,
nouns or labels and letters and characters.

390
Here, in this book, this picture is a representation of one of my
photographs, which is a representation of a situation in which
an artist in Paris (left) is producing a representation (a large
painting) of a young girl. Here we have a chain of different rep-
resentations.
The sender successfully transfers the message to the receivers
with the help of a medium. A medium with a specific message
constitutes a representation.
Representational style is a pictorial artistic style, an artist’s
rendition of the subject that conforms to the subject in its true
form.

391
Research. Message design and information design has a practi-
cal as well as a theoretical component. It is a difficult challenge
to find a good balance between practical and theoretical work.
Research methods. The researcher selects the most suitable
methods depending on the project characteristics such as re-
search question, knowledge areas and purpose. This aspect calls
on flexibility in mind and handling. >Applied research.
Research on texts, their language, style, meaning and social
meaning has a long history. In contrast to the extensive research
on text processing and text design, there has been far less re-
search on visuals printed in textbooks and used in other media.
Research process. A process for research in information de-
sign always starts with an analysis of the problem or the situa-
tion. This is followed by project planning, study of literature, col-
lection of data, analysis of data, interpretation and discussion
and publishing of the final report. The research activity is crea-
tive in several aspects. The greatest influence of a creative ap-
proach seems to occur mostly in the beginning of the project. The
amount of influence seems to decrease as the project evolves.
Analysis and performance are woven together but does not occur
at the same time.
Research reports. Information design is a young discipline
and a new area of knowledge. Existing scientific journals often
hesitate to publish results generated by design researchers, scat-
tered around the globe. It is hard to distribute new findings and
it will take a long time to build a common body of knowledge.
Resizing is changing the size of an image. with correct propor-
tions.
Resolution is the amount of data contained in a digital image.
The resolution can be measured in dots per inch (DPI), lines per
inch (LPI) and pixels per inch (PPI).

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Response principles. Often people respond very differently to
the same message. We differ in our ability, motivation, and read-
iness to respond to a message. Reinforcement is helpful.
Restrictions. To be able to produce a verbal message in any me-
dium, it is important to understand the possibilities and the re-
strictions of verbal language. We need to know how oral and writ-
ten verbal languages are constructed and perceived by various
audiences and individuals. Major characteristics of verbal lan-
guage are listed below in the form of short summary statements.
Retail advertising is sponsored by retail establishments.
Reusability is the ability to use the same resource multiple
times in multiple ways and in multiple contexts.
Reusable design is a design solution that may be used multiple
times in multiple ways and in multiple contexts.
Reuse of existing information elements have been used in many
areas, like architecture, art, design, furniture design, engineer-
ing, music, publishing, and sculpture. A classic example of exten-
sive reuse is the Nuremberg Chronicle (Liber Chronicarum),
which was published in 1493. This illustrated world history is one
of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text. The
600 pages include 1 809 illustrations. However, these illustra-
tions are printed from only 645 woodcuts. At that time, a single
(and expensive) woodcut could be used to illustrate a number of
different persons or a number of different cities.
Reversal in graphic design is a change to opposite tonal values,
for example when black type is changed to white type.
Reversed line perspective is a group of perspectives in the
category Line-based positional perspectives. The foreground
seems to be smaller than the background. The straight lines con-
verge in the direction of the viewer. This perspective is frequent

393
in Japanese and Chinese art, which seeks to draw the viewer into
the picture to take an active part in the events depicted.
Reversible is a “Figure/Ground Relationship” in which it is
likely that we can equally focus on figure and on ground.
Reviews. The intended audience should have the final say about
the content, illustrations and sequences in any information ma-
terial. Administrators and others indirectly connected with a
project usually will have an abundance of suggestions for revi-
sion, or state that they do not understand the message. But, the
materials were not designed for this group. The documentation
must be re-edited and re-edited again until it receives the appro-
priate approval. It is a good principle in the production of infor-
mation and learning materials to spend enough time and effort
on editing text and pictures for better comprehensibility.
RGB, red, green, and blue are the primary colours of the additive
colour model. This system is used on the Web.
Rhetoric is art and study of effective and persuasive language.
Rhetorical literacy is the ability to understand the means of
persuasion used in advertising and marketing communications
in general. It is an awareness of who is being targeted in a certain
advertisement.
Rhetorical skills. Professional communicators are verbally
and visually fluent. They have a large repertory of semiotic re-
sources (images, numbers, sounds, words). They focus on “what
meets the needs of the stakeholders”. When they work with de-
sign they can coordinate their representations of personal
knowledge, what they have produced so far, the needs of the
stakeholders and the context. They are able to fuse disparate
items of content into a coherent whole. Expert communicators
strive to provide the “right” content at an appropriate level of de-
tail in the most suitable media for the audience.

394
Rhodopsin. In the eye, the retina’s receptors are excited by light
and respond by chemically converting a pigment, rhodopsin (vis-
ual purple). This conversion triggers impulses that are transmit-
ted along the optic nerve and the thalamus to the brain’s primary
visual cortex. This takes only a few milliseconds. In the visual
cortex, the impulses are translated into a sensation of vision.
Riis. The Danish American journalist and photographer Jacob
August Riis (1849–1914) used his talents to help the impover-
ished in New York City. In his book How the Other Half Lives:
Studies among the Tenements of New York (1890) he docu-
mented the lives of poor people in New York.
Ring chart of disk is a schematic picture. >Pie charts.
RIP is Raster Image Processing, converting data into a form
that can be output by a high-resolution imagesetter for use in
commercial printing.
Ripa. >Cesare Ripa.
Risk management. >Information assurance.
Rivers of empty (white) space are formed over successive lines
on a page when text is printed in justified text blocks.
Rodin. >Auguste Rodin.
Rock art, parietal art, is an archaeological term used to refer to
human-made drawings, engravings, markings, and paintings on
immobile, natural surfaces, typically vertical stone surfaces.
Rock art is found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica. It is
a form of landscape art. Prehistoric rock art include images that
are carved, engraved, or painted on cave walls and ceilings and
on open-air boulder and cliff faces, rocks or exposed glaciated
pavements and slabs and engraved into the ground. Rock art is
found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica. >Prehistory.

395
Rock art audiences. There were different audiences for the
messages of the rock carvings. The first target group was the
higher, spiritual powers. The second group was people within
their close circle, as the tribe, family, or group. The third group
was strangers. Archaeologists also suggest that at least some con-
temporary people could understand the messages. However, to-
day we lack the relevant codes. We cannot understand the images
and not understand how ancient people thought.
Rock art craftsmen. An entirely new social system, supported
by new gods and new religions developed during the Bronze Age.
A new elite of skilled craftsmen and specialists developed. Many
rock carvings are designed in a conscious way. It is obvious that
the individual images are thoughtful and the results of very con-
scious efforts. Some interpretations suggest that there were spe-
cial people with special skills who carried out the work to make
the visual figurative carvings. A few people may have done com-
plete carvings.
Rock art graphic design. Many rock carvings are placed in re-
lation to each other in panels on the rocks. There is probably of-
ten a deliberate graphic design that takes into account the natu-
ral conditions. Rock carvings are often placed on the sloping rock
outcrops. We don’t know if the rock carvings were stained from
the beginning.
Rock art messages. Previous interpretations of the purposes
of the messages of the rock carvings were often related to trade
contacts and hunting magic. Later interpretations may relate to
people’s view of the world and the creation myth. Rock carvings
have relatively few motifs. It is above all clear depictions of ani-
mals, objects and people. Several rock carvings contain inten-
tionally designed message.
Rock art motifs are pretty stereotypical. One group includes
circular shapes, carved footprints, cup marks, hands, wheels and

396
wheel crosses. These images correspond to abstract nouns, which
today are difficult to understand. Several images correspond to
concrete nouns, such as “horse.” When a scene is showing how a
man is driving a chariot with horses the pictures may correspond
to a complete sentence. Among the mammals we can recognize
bear, cattle, dog, horse, moose, pig, red deer, reindeer, seals and
whales. Most pictures show men, rarely women and never chil-
dren. The most common motif is ships. >Prehistory.
Rock art oral tradition. Today both rock paintings and rock
carvings lack words. However, oral traditions were strong and
expressed ideological communication during the Bronze Age.
Some ceremonies involved regulated religious rituals. Rock carv-
ings were part of various ceremonies. In addition to words some-
times even fire was used and different form of dance and perhaps
music and other sounds.
Rock art petroglyphs, are carved or engraved into the rock
surface. In some places rock carvings may be 40 000 years old.
In Scandinavia rock carvings were produced over a long period
of time, perhaps 5,000 years. Rock carvings are results of delib-
erate work with words, images and graphical form. I consider the
several thousand-year-old panels with rock carvings as interest-
ing predecessors of the kind of artefacts that are the result of
work with information design today. The people who carved pic-
tures in rocks probably worked on behalf of specific clients. They
worked in a systematic way to plan and carry out the work with
the help of the methods, tools and procedures that were available
at the time of each assignment.
Rock art terminology. Many terms are used for discussions
about prehistoric rock art in the published literature, such as:
petro glyphs
,
rock carvings, rock drawings, rock engravings,
rock images, rock inscriptions, rock paintings, rock pictures,
rock records and rock sculptures. Archaeologists studying these
artworks often believe that they had some kind of magical-

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religious significance. The available knowledge about rock art is
increasing rapidly as this subject becomes a more acceptable and
respected field of study within the social sciences. >Prehistory.
Rock paintings. There are rock paintings, or pictographs, in
Africa, Mexico, North America, Siberia and Scandinavia. Rock
paintings were made on vertical cliffs. An overhang has often
protected paintings against rain and winds. Some rock paintings
are found on major stone blocks. Places with rock paintings may
be close to lakes or small and tranquil waterways and also in
places with good views over water. Rock paintings are often
dated to around 4,000 years ago. Rock paintings were often
made with red, black and white mineral earths and other natural
compounds.
Rodin, Auguste. >Auguste Rodin.
Roger Bacon, (maybe 1219–1292) was a medieval Franciscan
friar, philosopher and natural scientist. He formulated a set of
interrelated laws of nature and stated that we know everything
through vision. Perspective is the science of vision, and visual
theory. According to Bacon paintings in churches should be illus-
trative in a natural style, and tell us about the holy texts in a
clear way. Light and vision was significant for human under-
standing of the world. Bacon’s science of vision became histori-
cally important. It remained the standard account of visual the-
ory until the work of Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). Bacon had a
strong influence on Giotto.
Role schemas organise our expectations in persons with par-
ticular roles and positions in society and their behaviour in dif-
ferent situations. >Long-term memory.
ROM, Read-Only Memory, is a memory in a chip on the moth-
erboard. It can be read from, but cannot be written to.

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Roman is the standard characters of a font in which the charac-
ters are upright, and not boldface.
Roman type style includes most of the typefaces used in mod-
ern printing. These typefaces have serifs, finishing strokes nor-
mally at the top and at the bottom of the main strokes of letters.
Serif typefaces are often considered to make it easier to follow
text lines and thus be easier to read than sans serif typefaces, ex-
cept for small letter sizes. Common examples of serif typefaces
are Baskerville, Berling, Bodoni, Bookman, Caslon, Century Old
Style, Garamond, New Century Schoolbook, Palatino and Times
New Roman. >Serifs.
Roots. >Information design genus.
Rotogravure. >Gravure.
Rough is a layout plan, after preliminary thumbnails. A rough
may be half size, or full size.
Roundness is the most common form in nature. When ink, wa-
ter, or any other liquid material is dropped on a surface, it as-
sumes a rounded form. >Areas.
Royalty. The steps involved in publishing are time-consuming
and jointly represent a major expense. About ten percent of the
price of a book, not including tax, usually goes to the author.
Electronic publishing could change this situation to some extent.
It reduces the distance between writers and readers. New oppor-
tunities for a dialogue may develop.
Rubin, Edgar John. >Edgar John Rubin.
Rule. The only information design rule is: “Respect copyright
and other laws and regulations related to information.” >Foun-
dation.

399
Rule of speaking. The most important rule of speaking is: “Re-
spect your audience.”
Rule of thirds is an old system to create dynamic layouts and
photographic compositions. Superimposing a simple 3 x 3 grid
over a page, creates four “hotspots” where the grid lines intersect.
Visual elements placed around these hotspots all draw attention.
Rules are horizontal and vertical straight lines are used in layout
and typography. Horizontal lines can be used to separate sections
in a text and rows in a table. Vertical lines can be used to separate
columns of text on a page or columns in a table. It is, however,
often better to use white space as a separating device. Rules that
are wider than 12 points are called bars and bands. Sometimes
horizontal bars have type in them. Rules may be in colour.
Run-arounds are words that are “wrapped around” irregularly
sized illustrations. We should usually avoid “run-arounds”.
Rune stones are flat, raised stones, with preserved runic in-
scriptions. Most rune stones are located in Scandinavia. Runic
inscriptions still convey messages to us from people living during
the period 400–1100. Most of the rune stones were carved and
erected during the last century of the Viking Age. Common pur-
poses of rune stones were to mark territory, to explain inher-
itance, to boast about constructions, to tell of important events.
Many of the rune stones were probably erected as memorial
stones to bring glory to deceased men.
Runes. In Scandinavia, our earliest known carved characters are
called runes. The earliest runic inscription in Sweden is dated to
around AD 200. This inscription is on the tip of a spear, found in
the province of Gotland. >Runic inscriptions.
Runic alphabets, Futharks, are early carved characters, runes,
that were used in the Germanic languages before the adoption of
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400
Runic inscriptions. Runes and runic inscriptions were used in
the Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alpha-
bet, with its letters. People designed runes to be cut out in items
made of wood. However, such items are rarely preserved and not
present in archaeological finds. Runic inscriptions are preserved
on flat, raised stones, but also on boulders, on bedrock and on
items like spears and buckles. >Rune stones.
Running head, header, or top margin, is the space above the
text-face at the top of a page. Headers provide information that
will help the reader navigate in a document. Like footers, headers
may carry page numbers.

401
S
Salience concerns the creation of a hierarchy of importance be-
tween the represented elements. Some elements are more im-
portant, and worthy of more attention than others.
Sans serif type style has no serifs on the characters. These
typefaces provide uniform weight when there are less-than-opti-
mal reading conditions. They are often used for headings, labels
in pictures, diagrams, captions and tables. Sans serif type can be
used successfully for the body text in books, pamphlets and re-
ports. Subjects perceive san serif fonts as clean, modern and
technical. Common examples are Avant Garde, Futura, Geneva,
Gill, Helvetica, Optima, Univers, Venus and Verdana. Sans serif
type is seen as clean, modern and technical. Helvetica typefaces
may be the most widely used among the sans serif typefaces in
the world today. >Serifs.
Satire is often used in cartoons to point out a special situation,
an occurrence, or an event. Usually satire should be totally
avoided in materials for information and learning.
Saturation, sometimes called chroma and intensity, is most
closely related to the number of wavelengths contributing to a
colour sensation. It is the apparent purity, or lack of greyness of
a colour. Saturated colours are often considered to be aggressive,
bold, daring, vibrant and they may grab our attention. Unsatu-
rated colours may be perceived as boring, dull, peaceful, restful,
soft, weak and they may sometimes be depressing. In relation to
hue it is a measure of the amount of grey, purity, or strength. At
maximum saturation a colour contains no grey. Such colours are
described as bright, or vivid.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. >Ferdinand de Saussure.
Scale describes the relative size of a given design element in re-
lation to other elements and to the design as a whole.

402
Scan line is one single traversal of an electronic beam across the
picture in a monitor to a raster-scan computer.
Scanners. There are several types of scanners, from equipment
designed for amateurs to equipment for professional use. >Desk-
top digitizers, Drum scanners, Flatbed scanners.
Scarification. Scars in the skin form designs. There are several
methods of scarification. Methods include branding, burning,
cutting, etching and scratching into the skin. >Body art.
Scatter graph is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Scatter plot is a schematic picture. >Graphs-
Scatter plot graph is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Scattergram is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Schemata include relationships, operations, and variables.
Each schema have “slots” for new knowledge, and are constantly
refreshed and restructured. Elements of knowledge consist of
concepts, episodes, heuristics, procedures, production rules, and
propositions. New concepts are built on the foundations of older
ones and new propositions are formed with concepts already
possessed by the learner. Processing of this kind is essential for
experience, expectations, and understanding.
Schemata theory postulates that we have different partial im-
pressions, such as general knowledge about different types of text
and different whole impressions of reality. Our schemata influ-
ence our deeper understanding of a text. In “normal reading,” we
direct our attention towards how we shall interpret the meaning
of a sentence. Studying the syntax becomes subordinate to ori-
enting our thoughts amid the semantic and pragmatic relation-
ships that form the text’s warp and woof. When we read long con-
tinuous texts, we process separate sentences with an eye to their
integration into the material’s entirety. This takes place

403
gradually, with the text that we have already read providing the
framework. The connection makes sense of the text.
Schematic pictures. We often need to use schematic pictures
such as blueprints, charts, engineering drawings, graphs, maps,
etc. Schematic pictures are representations of reality, but they
are often non-iconic and may lack any resemblance with reality.
Avoid use of more than five colours, grey tones, or screen pat-
terns in schematic pictures. Appropriate scales might be: 1)
white–grey–black; and 2) white–light grey–grey–dark grey–
black. When the final production is made with copying machines
we should usually use only the first of these two scales. >Sche-
matic pictures–classification, Schematic pictures–creation.
Schematic pictures–classification. There are several ways
to classify schematic pictures. We can study how schematic pic-
tures are executed, how and when they are used and of what the
content consists. This is an attempt to classify schematic pictures
with respect to their type of illustration and their purpose: 1)
Word visuals. 2) Graphs. 3) Diagrams. 4) Matrices. 5) Plans. 6)
Maps. 7) Metaphorical pictures. 8) Drawings. 9) Integrating text
and pictures. 10) Integrating drawings and photographs
Schematic pictures–creation. Within large organisations it
is a good idea to use standard image elements and standard sym-
bols in schematic pictures. It is very cost-effective and makes it
far easier for all readers to understand the intended messages.
The readability of schematic pictures is increased. A large variety
of personal image elements and symbols makes it hard for read-
ers to understand the messages. Technical documentation must
be easy to comprehend. Thus, it is important to be consistent and
to use the same symbols in different schematic pictures.
Schwabacher, the black-letter type in the Gutenberg Bible.

404
Science is traditionally seen as a systematic enterprise that
builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explana-
tions and predictions about the universe.
Science of design is the scientific analysis of the design activi-
ties performed via scientific methods.
Science of vision. >Roger Bacon.
Scientific design has its foundation in industrial design, and
deals with methods, intuitive and non-intuitive, in modern de-
sign practice.
Scientific language must be capable of effectively conveying
as much information as possible to a certain group of readers. It
is characterised in its ideal form by brevity, clarity and precision.
>Comprehensibility.
Scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding of sci-
entific concepts and processes required for personal decision
making, participation in civic and cultural affairs and economic
productivity. A scientifically literate person is able to describe,
explain and predict natural phenomena.
Scientific visualisation, is the selection and transformation of
data from experiments or simulations into animations or
graphics. It is then easier to analyse and understand the data.
Important areas are astrophysical visualisation, chemical visual-
isation and medical visualisation. >Visualisation.
Scotch rule is a double line in graphic design. It is often used in
newspapers to divide different sections.
Screen displays. General design rules are employed in design
of screen displays. Material should be arranged and displayed so
that it is easy to read, from top to bottom and from left to right.
The design may vary with respect to spatial organization like
headings, length of lines, justification, spacing, number of

405
columns, number of colours at the same “page,” and directive
cues like colour coding, twinkling characters or words and scroll-
ing text. When text is shown on a visual display, there is no easily
read colour combination. The best text colour is black, which
causes good contrast to most background colours. The best com-
bination is black text on a white or yellow background.
Screen font is low-resolution bitmaps of type characters on a
computer screen.
Screen literacy, multimedia literacy, new media literacy, is
the ability to cope with the numerous media in use today.
Screen page, for example in an E-book, is designed to fit on a
screen. It can usually be printed.
Screen typography. Compared with traditional graphic
presentations, a presentation of information on visual displays
such as television sets and computer terminals is very limited.
Still, information may be presented in many different ways.
>Colour displays, Interface design, Visual displays.
Screen-printing, or silk-screen-printing, has a printing form
with a fine-meshed screen, mounted over a frame. For many
years it was a hand process used for making banners, personal
greeting cards, posters and signs. In the 1950s techniques for
making screen stencils photo mechanically were developed. Ink
is spread over the screen and pushed through the open mesh ar-
eas with a rubber- or plastic-bladed squeegee to produce a print.
Screen-printing is used for printing advertisements, placards
and posters on foil, glass, metal, paper, plastic, textile fabrics and
wood. Silk-screen-printing is also used for many other industrial
applications, e.g., for printing of electronic circuit cards.
Scribbling. When small children are scribbling they make dots,
lines and endless open circular movements. Already three-year
old kids may draw solid circles, triangles and squares. In my view

406
we perceive circles, triangles and squares on a low cognitive level
without any special analysis.
Script fonts are seen as elegant, formal, organic and personal.
Script type style looks somewhat like modern handwriting that
is carefully executed with a brush dipped in India ink. The indi-
vidual characters are joined together. It is not possible to use
script type for whole words in upper-case, or capital letters. Ex-
amples are Constance, Palace Script and Zaph Chancery
Sculpture is the branch of visual arts that operates in three di-
mensions. It has been defined as the art and practice of design-
ing, planning, and constructing three-dimensional pieces of fine
artwork, especially by carving stone or wood, or by casting metal.
Sculptures are primarily used as media of expression.
SECAM. France, Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and
Saudi Arabia use SECAM, Sequential Couleur à Mémoire.
SECAM is so similar to PAL that it is possible to receive a
SECAM-program in a PAL television-receiver, but the colour sig-
nals are produced in a different way. In a digital television or
video camera there is a CCD-plate with normally more than
400,000 pixels.
Secondary colour is a colour created from a combination of
two primary colours. Modern printing press secondary colours
are magenta, yellow and cyan.
Secondary subjects are variables that will influence our per-
ception of individuals in photographs. Other people in a photo-
graph, the context of the individual, may influence how people
view a photograph.
Secondary supporting sciences are 1) Language disciplines,
2) Cognitive disciplines and 3) Art and aesthetic disciplines.
>Primary supporting sciences.

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Section sign (§), or silcrow, is a typographical character that
usually refer to a particular section of a document, such as a legal
code.
Securing quality. In information design the content of the
message is more important than its context, execution and for-
mat. Data and facts must be correct and also relevant to the situ-
ation. The information designer must make reviews during the
production process and correct as many mistakes as possible.
>Archive pictures, Good information material, Good picture,
High credibility, Poor picture, Quality.
Security is one of the key factors to handle in the information
age. If a Chief Information Officer doesn’t create a relevant secu-
rity structure for the organisation, he will fail in his responsibili-
ties. The information age demands organizations to have high in-
formation assurance.
Segmented bar is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
Segmented graph is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Segmented pie chart is a schematic picture. >Pie charts.
Segmented volume is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Selection. Normally, information-providers and other writers
have to make a selection. This can be more or less subjective. The
selection is seldom, or perhaps never, objective. This is difficult
or even impossible. You need to have access to all the information
to be presented before you can decide on the mix of words and
pictures. This decision depends on the most appropriate form of
representation in every individual instance. The different media
have completely different abilities to convey information. For ex-
ample, reading texts on a television screen is difficult.
Selection of information. Conveying redundant information
through linguistic and iconic symbols facilitates information

408
processing, reduces error and information loss and increases the
amount of information that learners can recall. Linguistic and
iconic symbols make it possible for the learners to alternate be-
tween functionally independent, though interconnected and
complementary cognitive processing systems. In the production
of information or learning materials this is not always the case.
Selection of pictures. Every published picture has been se-
lected, not only once but usually several times. First the picture
creator, the photographer, and/or the artist makes a selection of
the subject matter. The photographer makes the initial decision
as to how much or how little of a situation will be on the film. In
any given situation, a lot of different pictures may be produced.
Then the editor, art director, and/or the designer make a selec-
tion among various pictures in a collection or in a picture archive.
In instructional materials, a picture should never be used just be-
cause it is pretty. Every picture should have some information to
convey–if it doesn’t, it should be left out.
Selection of typefaces. The decision of which typeface to se-
lect should rest largely on the purpose of, and on the intended
audience for a document. Using the correct typeface is based on
solving a problem and meeting a need. Private documents may
invite the use of ornate and stylish looking fonts. Professional
documents require maximum legibility. Advertisements must be
noticed. Therefore, it is important to choose a graphical form that
arouses interest. When it comes to information materials, the
graphical form should basically be simple and “transparent” and
not arouse any special interest or attention for its own part.
Selective perception. The reader isolates instances of a spe-
cific category from other visual elements.
Self-schemas organise our considerations of ourselves as per-
sons. The image of the self is important to us. People’s mental

409
schemas are continuously developing and every day we meet re-
ality with a somewhat different view than the day before.
Semantic emphasis. The human face is of universal interest
and attracts attention.
Semantic information theory refers to the information sup-
plied by a proposition in terms of the proposition’s probability
and specifies the principles for measuring information.
Semantic location. Known size of an object can indicate depth.
Semantic memories consist of conceptual information such
as our knowledge of the names of birds and flowers. The infor-
mation that passes the “register” can proceed in different ways.
Semantic text parallels refer to distinguishing features of an
object that serve to identify that object correctly. Here images
and words are matched.
Semantic unity is the possibility to identify an image.
Semantics is the study of the meaning of verbal expressions
(lexical semantics), and the implications of fixed word combina-
tions (phraseology), and how these form meanings of sentences.
Semi-linear structure. In a hypertext system, the text is orga-
nized into a web of nodes connected with links. Each node con-
tains text, structured in layers with definitions, explanations, etc.
The nodes may also have animations, images, sound, and video.
Navigation in hypermedia systems is less regulated than naviga-
tion in hypertext systems. Still, navigation is restricted to the pre-
defined structure of nodes and links. Experience can be relatively
free and associative if the systems are well designed. To some ex-
tent it is possible to browse through hypermedia systems and
look for images. However, any computer based search is based
on alphanumeric characters and not on iconic signs.

410
Semicolon (;) joins two grammatically complete, independent
clauses to form a single, compound sentence.
Semiology. Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) used the term
semiology in his study of meaning of signs. According to him a
sign is composed of two parts, the signifier and the signified.
Semiotic object. In semiotics the semiotic object, object, or ref-
erent is that which the sign represents.
Semiotics, semiotic studies, refers to study of meaning of signs.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) used the term semiotics in
his study of meaning of signs. According to Peirce a sign is com-
posed of three semiotic elements in a three-part relationship,
representamen, semiotic object and interpretand. Meanings are
culturally dependent. It is related to linguistics.
Sender. Generally speaking, a sender may be an advertiser, an
artist, a businessperson, an instructor, a subject matter expert, a
teacher, a writer, a film or television producer, or anyone who
wants to convey an intended message to one or more receivers or
information providers.
Sender activities. In the production and distribution of a ver-
bal and visual message, the sender will use creative processes,
production processes and distribution processes.
Sennefer was “Mayor of Thebes” in Egypt during the reign of
Amenhotep II. He was buried in the small, richly decorated
tomb. Several lines with pictographic verbal expressions are
combined with interesting pictures to tell the stories in scenes on
the walls and on the four pillars. Scenes show the funeral proces-
sion, the offerings and the worshipping of the gods. The realistic
grapevine design of the entire undulating ceiling has given way
to a colourful geometric pattern representing decorative textiles.
This is very early information design.

411
Senses. With our sense organs, we observe and record the world
outside our own bodies. We are capable of successfully feeling,
hearing, seeing, smelling and tasting things at the same time. We
are also capable of simultaneously hearing different stimuli in ei-
ther ear. However, we are probably incapable of simultaneously
perceiving different stimuli aimed at the right and the left eye,
respectively. The same kind of stimulus may easily be perceived
in different ways at different times. >Attention.
Sensorial design is the employment of all the disciplines, me-
dia, and techniques we use to communicate to others through our
senses.
Sensory memory, immediate memory, is the first step in
memory functions. It carries out the storage of stimulus infor-
mation at the peripheral level and transfers it to the short-term
memory. Hearing a sentence, a word, or even a syllable requires
the listener to integrate a changing pattern of stimulation. This
integration demands some form of short, temporary buffer stor-
age. Another example is the biochemical processes in the eye.
The visual cells there possess some inertia and, therefore, func-
tion as a kind of memory. The sensory memory normally stores
information for half a second to one second.
Sensory-motor-skill. >Perceptual motor-skill.
Sentence is a group of words with one or more finite clauses.
Complex sentences may contain multiple clauses. In many lan-
guages a sentence starts with a capital letter, and ends with a full
stop. An explicit sentence contains a predicate and a subject.
Sentence-case. In sentence case the first letter of the first word
of a heading or a title, and of any subheading or subtitle is capi-
talized. Furthermore, the first letter of any proper nouns and cer-
tain other types of words are capitalized. Lowercase letters are
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412
Separation. Use of separation devices such as bullets, numbers
and letters facilitate recall of information in list form.
Sepia is a dark-brown pigment. A sepia tint can be digitally ap-
plied in a photography.
Sequence. People who have not learned to read or write do not
necessarily look at pictures in the order that has been intended
by the designer. Therefore, it often proves helpful, as messages
are being tested, to ask several groups of people to arrange the
individual message into a sequence that seems most logical to
them.
Sequential Couleur à Mémoire. >SECAM.
Serif is a small terminal stroke, normally at the top and bottom
of the main strokes of letters in the Roman type style. Serifs help
us distinguish between characters and make it easier to follow
the horizontal lines with text. Bracketed serifs have small and
thin supporting brackets. Bracketed slab serifs are supported by
subtle curved brackets. Hairline serifs are thin and tiny without
brackets. Slur serifs are rounded. Unbracketed serifs are serifs
without brackets. Unbracketed slab serifs are serifs without
brackets on heavy slabs. Wedge serifs are shaped like wedges.
Serif-evolution system is a classification scheme of type
styles. There are eight main classes: 1) Venetian, 2) Old Style
(Dutch-English and French), 3) Transitional, 4) Modern, 5) Con-
temporary (sans serif and square serifs), 6) Black letter, 7)
Scripts and 8) Decorative letters.
Serigraph is a colour print that is made by serigraphy.
Serigraphy is an adaptation of the silk-screen process. Here the
stencils are hand-cut by artists for the production of screen prints
as a fine art, serigraphs. >Silk-screen.

413
Service mark symbol ℠ is a symbol for service, not yet offi-
cially registered with a national trademark office.
Service sector. A number of measures aimed at making the ser-
vice sector more efficient have been implemented. For purely
economic reasons, the same efficiency measures will also be in-
troduced in the information sector. The number of people em-
ployed here will not continue to rise as quickly in the future. Nor
will we be able to increase our information consumption very
much in the future. The information must be more effective.
Shade is a base colour with black pigment added.
Shaded letters, shadow letters, have strong three-dimensional
quality by use of heavy shadows on one side of main stroke.
>Emphasis in text.
Shadow is an area without light from a light source. Without
shadows, it may be hard to make out the basic contour of an ob-
ject. Shadows define space. The attached shadow is on the actual
object. It helps to reveal the basic form and dimensions of that
object. The cast shadow is frequently observed as being inde-
pendent of the object that caused it. Depending on the angle of
the light source, the cast shadow may reveal the basic shape and
location of the object that caused it. The surface appears to be
curved when the light falls off gradually. A highly directional
(hard) light produces fast fall-off. Thus, a curved surface is em-
phasised. >Acoustic shadow.
Shadow perspective. Projected shadows, or drop shadows,
are sharply accentuated as a means of displaying the location of
different objects and their spatial relations to each other. Cast
shadows may create confusion and they may actually impair leg-
ibility and communication. Even some of the old rock paintings
in caves reveal attempts at producing an impression of depth, by
the suggestion of simple cast shadows.

414
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication is a
mathematical theory of communication. It was originally devel-
oped in the 1940s for studies of telecommunications and other
technical systems. However, it has also been used as a model for
communications between people. There are six key concepts:
sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver. >Infor-
mation theory.
Shannon, Claude Elwood >Claude Elwood Shannon.
Shape. Irregular and unpredictable shapes dominate over basic
and regular shapes. These shapes attract more attention than
basic and regular shapes. Most people can easily perceive the
basic shapes and there is a large degree of perceptual constancy.
The picture area in drawing, painting and still photography can
have any shape and orientation. Most pictures, though, are
cropped and published in square or rectangular formats.
Shape constancy is our tendency to judge shapes as the same
despite changes in distance, viewing angle and illumination. This
is one of the reasons that circles, ovals, rectangles, squares and
triangles often are used in symbols and icons. >Perceptual con-
stancy.
Shapes. The basic elements form shapes that form visual syn-
tagms, or sub-meanings. These components interact to form
complete meanings.
Shiner, bouncer, is a method of printing colour, where black is
seen as darker.
Short-term memory, STM, operative memory, or working
memory. After being processed in the iconic memory and the
echoic memory, some information is passed on to the STM where
it is only retained briefly. A number of complex operations are
carried out here during problem solving. But the STM has severe
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415
is older than about a second. Information that has entered the
short-term memory can proceed through a filter that selects the
information to be passed on to the long-term memory.
Showscan uses 70-mm film and is projected with 60 pictures
per second on a curved, very large screen. The fast projection and
the six-channel sound, makes it possible to produce very realistic
fast events, like car hunts, etc. As in IMAX and OMAX the audi-
ence sits high up in a slanting auditorium, with a shorter distance
to the screen. The system is overwhelming because of the large
screen, which goes all the way from the floor to the ceiling.
SIG, Special Interest Group. >ID SIG.
Sign. In semiotics, a sign is “something that stands for some-
thing.” It is a discrete unit of meaning and includes all of the ways
in which a message can be communicated. According to Charles
Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) a sign is composed of three semiotic
elements in a three-part relationship: representamen, semiotic
object and interpretand. Peirce used the term semiotics. Accord-
ing to Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) a sign is composed of
two parts, the signifier and the signified. Saussure used the term
semiology.
Sign–interpretand. In semiotics an interpretand, or interpre-
tant sign, is the meaning of the sign that is decoded or inter-
preted by the viewer.
Sign–representamen. In semiotics a representamen repre-
sents the denoted object.
Sign–semiotic object. In semiotics the semiotic object, object,
or referent is that which the sign represents.
Sign–signified. In semiology the word signified is the concept,
the meaning, the thing that is indicated by the signifier. It is a
referent to which the signifier refers.

416
Sign–signifier. In semiology the word signifier represents the
denoted object.
Sign language. There are many examples of sign languages. We
can >examples of “formal” signs almost every day. Deaf people
are often very skilled in using their highly developed and struc-
tured visual verbal sign language. Other less sophisticated kinds
of sign languages are used by, e.g., umpires in sporting events,
traffic policemen, people directing airplanes on the ground, etc.
Further examples are the sign languages used in the production
of radio and television programs and movies.
Sign learning. Learning new vocabularies, new terms and con-
ventions, as well as mathematical, chemical and geographic sym-
bols all involve some degree of conditioning. To some extent it is
a simple instance of stimulus learning. In knowing the sign for
something, a person makes a response to the sign, similar to what
he or she would make to the real object. This is called sign learn-
ing.
Sign similarity. According to the sign similarity orientation
theory learning will be more complete as the number of cues in
the learning situation increases.
Signal graphics are small-scale graphics used to add impact
and visual relief to a text.
Signified. >Sign.
Signifier. >Sign.
Signs are visual graphics that display information, typically on
how to find various places inside and outside of buildings. >Way-
finding, Wayshowing.
Signs and symbols. A special area of emphasis is the design of
signs and symbols. Warning signs must have a high contrast rel-
ative to their background. Informative words shall be used for

417
signals such as “Danger”; for descriptions of a hazard such as
“Shallow water”; and for specific actions that should or should
not be performed, such as “No diving.” A number of simple signs
and symbols can make writing more efficient and readable. Here
are some examples: ¶ (alinea sign), % (percent sign), § (section
sign), & (logogram for “and”), © (copyright symbol),
Signs and words. Our ability to communicate was greatly en-
hanced when we began to store data and information with the aid
of simple pictures and, subsequently, symbolic characters a few
thousand years ago. Pictograms became increasingly stylized and
evolved into simple symbols or characters. Each character was
equivalent to one or more concepts and came to represent a
word. Written languages, composed of individual letters, provide
the bases for storage of information and for communications be-
tween people at a great distance from one another in terms of
both time and space.
Silk-screen-printing. >Screen-printing.
Similarity is the visual grouping of images with similar colour,
shape, and size.
Similarity principle, law of similarity, theory of similarity. We
group our impressions on the basis of their similarity into per-
ceptual units. Events, objects and units that look alike, resemble
each other and share similar characteristics and properties be-
long together. It can be qualities like brightness, colour, dark-
ness, orientation, pattern, shape, size, texture, value, or other
qualities. We group them. Elements that are different are not
part of the group. The similarity principle is one of the most pow-
erful organizing principles and one of the most useful in infor-
mation design for facilitating perceptual organisation of data.
We see two groups of dots, one with
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418
Simple indexing. Pictures may be indexed according to cate-
gory, motif and subject. Geographic area and name of persons
may be other classification concepts. Commercial photo agencies
often permit direct, manual and visual perusal of originals or
copies in each category. Institutional photo archives, as used in
education and research, are often unable to manage without cat-
aloguing. Many indexing systems are based on hierarchic classi-
fication of picture subjects according to a pre-determined code
or on systematic catalogues in which every index word has a cor-
responding alphabetical or alpha-numerical designation.
Simple instructions is a term for a group of information ma-
terials in the category Brief messages. An instruction is explana-
tory information on an appropriate procedure in a given situa-
tion. Distinct and short instructions are involved. The instruc-
tions may be impressed or printed on different products, such as
doors and signs, in the form of letters, symbols or words. Distin-
guishing between “push’ and “pull’ may be appropriate when we
open a door. In traffic, many road signs provide instructions on
how people should drive. Instructions can also be conveyed with
signals. This may be the case e.g. in a football match.
Simplicity. Providing simplicity in text, illustrations and
graphic form is probably one of the most important principles in
information design.
Simplicity principle. Since our mind perceives everything in
its simplest form we better interpret abstract and complex infor-
mation when it is presented in the simplest form possible. The
principle of simplicity is about helping the eye find “comfortable”
figures.
Simultaneous perspective, was used in Europe during medi-
eval time. It is a spatial dimension in paintings. By fragmenting
the image architectural structures looked both flat and three-di-
mensional. Several manifestations of the same character or

419
person may be seen in one picture. The allegories, icons, and
symbols that are used determine to a large degree the interpreta-
tion of medieval images.
Single scale is a kind of graph. >Graphs.
Single-loop learning exists when errors are found and can be
corrected without changing policies or goals. Single-loop learn-
ing deals with acceptance without questions. Single-loop learn-
ing is equal with activities that give an increased knowledge base,
competence and routines without changing the fundamental na-
ture of activities.
Situated learning. Normally learning is a function of the activ-
ity, context and culture in which it occurs. Learning is situated.
Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning–
learners become involved in a “community of practice.” This con-
trasts with most classroom learning activities which involve
knowledge which is abstract and out of context.
Size. It is easier for us to distinguish between lines than between
areas or volumes. When we judge the size of objects, e.g., areas,
we are apparently most influenced by the length of horizontal
lines or horizontal distances. In most contexts the differences in
the sizes of circles, squares, triangles, ellipses and other two-di-
mensional symbols are underestimated.
Size and depth. The perception of size is related to perceived
distance and the perception of distance is reciprocally related to
perceived size. Regardless of distance there is constancy in the
perception of the size of known objects. This is called size con-
stancy.
Size constancy is our tendency to judge sizes as the same de-
spite changes in distance, viewing angle and illumination.
Size of illustrations can be calculated according to the per-
centage of the page occupied by the illustrations. Illustrated

420
pages are mentally divided into quarters and each illustration
coded as occupying up to 25% of the page, 26–50% of the page,
51–75% of the page, or more than 75% of the page.
Size of subjects. The most important part of the subject must
be large and clear, take up a large proportion of the image area
and be perceivable as an entirety. Large visual elements in a pic-
ture attract the attention of the reader. The perception of size is
influenced by colour, context and grey scale. Open and light
forms are perceived as being larger than closed and darker forms
of the same shapes. A line can be considered long when it is com-
pared with a shorter line, but considered short when it is com-
pared with a longer line. There can be no large without small and
no small without large. It is usually a good idea to include some
familiar object, like a person, a tree, or a car to supply the scale
for judging the size of an unfamiliar object.
Size of type. There are different systems in Europe and USA for
measuring size in typography. In the Pica system 12 points =
4.2333 mm. In the Didot system 12 points = 4.511 mm. In the
Mediaan system 12 points = 4.205 mm. The most common pro-
grams for desktop publishing use the Pica system, giving points
as “pts.” Running text in a book should be set between nine and
twelve Pica points. A line of 40–50 characters or “strokes” results
in a line length of 75–90 millimetres in a book or a paper. A text
column may be widened up to 120 millimetres to accommodate
more text and still be easy to read for an experienced reader.
Skeleton of a letter or a digit is the basic structure of a character.
Skimming. An active reader is skilled in skimming the text.
Skimming enables the reader to pick out key words and main
ideas in the text and, thereby, obtain a great deal of information.
Slash (/) has many names. In language, the slash is traditionally
used as a substitute for the two words “or,” and “per.” Since the
late 20th century, the slash is also used to permit gender-neutral

421
language, such as “he/she,” and “s/he.” A backslash (\) is a typo-
graphical mark and is the mirror image of the common slash. The
backslash is mainly used in computing.
Slide. According to the standard for 5 x 5 slides the film is 24 x
36 mm. The picture surface is 22,5 x 34,5 mm, which is a height-
to-width ratio of 1:1.533. This is quite close to the golden mean
(1:1.618). The actual frame is 5 x 5 cm. It is not enough that a slide
be well designed and has a high technical quality. It should also
be projected and used in a correct way. A room must be properly
darkened for the most advantageous projection of mounted
slides and filmstrips, unless equipment is available for back pro-
jection, i.e., projection from the rear onto a matte-glass screen. A
slide’s subject should appear against a black background. >Legi-
bility of projected texts, Slide projector.
Slide projector is a projector used to project slides. The com-
plete image should be projected on the screen, in a dark room. If
parts of the image fall on the wall, outside the screen, this may be
quite disturbing. Slide projectors used to be very common, but
framed slides and slide projectors are being superseded by sys-
tems for projection of images stored in computers. >Slides.
Slide-lecture is a lecture in which the lecturer speaks whilst an
electronic display shows a sequence of visual screens with text,
multimedia, or a combination of both.
Slur serifs are rounded. >Serif.
Small caps, small capitals, is an alternative set of capitals used
for text setting. These SMALL CAPITALS are smaller than STAND-
ARD CAPITALS. They are actually FAKE SMALL CAPITALS. Real small
capitals are drawn with proportionally correct line weights.
Smartphone is a mobile device with both modern cellular
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Snow. The English physician John Snow (1813–1858) illus-
trated the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of
1854 with a dot map. With his statistics Snow could demonstrate
the connection between the bad quality of polluted water from
the Thames and the high number of cholera cases. Snow’s study
is regarded as the founding event of the science of epidemiology.
Social context is an external context. It is the entire communi-
cation situation, i.e., the senders and the intentions of the mes-
sage, the receivers and their circumstances. >Context perspec-
tive.
Social distance refers to the nature of the relationship con-
structed between reader – represented participants and is ver-
bally realized by the use of nominalizations, the voice of the verb
and the type of relationship between clauses.
Social Information (SI) comprises studies on how citizens
know their obligations, privileges, and rights.
Social Information Processing (SIP) occurs in large-scale
networked social systems.
Social Information Processing Theory (SIPT) is an inter-
personal communication and media theory.
Social intelligence. >Interpersonal intelligence.
Social learning. The social-learning theory is concerned with
human social interaction. It has its origin in behaviouristic stud-
ies of animal learning. Already the Soviet psychologist Lev Vygot-
sky (1896–1934) stressed that much of what we learn we learn
from others in a social setting. The social-learning theory focuses
on the behaviour patterns that people develop in response to
their specific environments.
Social literacy includes the ability to acquire and develop
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423
and positive human values. A socially literate person is able to act
positively and responsibly in complex social settings.
Social skills. Professional communicators are able to read the
context and scope out social resources. They are noticing oppor-
tunities that can enable them to exert change. They possess rich
rhetorical memories about the people they have designed for—
readers, audiences, stakeholders, communities, or users. They
expect that their work will be circulated and used in various
lengths, formats and media. The same content may be distrib-
uted as printed publications, Web-pages and video. Professional
communicators embrace the dynamics of content reuse in organ-
izational settings. They are adaptive to complexity in the work-
place. They are strategic in building alliances with others who
may help them to achieve long-term goals for design processes
and products. >Professional communicators.
Socio-pleasure is our enjoyment of social interaction.
Socio-pleasure is our enjoyment of social interaction.
Software literacy is a way to understand the knowledge and
skills needed for people to be critical and creative users of soft-
ware packages and systems.
Solid user interface. The term solid user interface (SUI) was
coined in Japan to describe products with embedded micropro-
cessors, such as video cassette recorders, photocopiers and cellu-
lar phones and to distinguish them from the graphic user inter-
faces (GUI’s) of computer applications. Although products with
SUI’s play a significant part in our everyday lives and earn sub-
stantial revenue from sales in both industrial and consumer ap-
plications, SUI’s have been a neglected area in design research.
Sound is a subjective sensation of hearing, i.e., the sensory cells
in the inner ear’s hearing apparatus are stimulated. In objective
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424
acting on our hearing apparatus and thereby eliciting sound sen-
sations. Man is normally capable of perceiving sound waves at
frequencies from 16 to 20,000 Hz. Sound waves lower than 16 Hz
are referred to as infrasound and frequencies higher than 20,000
Hz are referred to as ultrasound. >Sound design.
Sound design is the process of acquiring, generating, manipu-
lating, recording, and specifying sound elements in different
kinds of audio productions.
Sound designer. The Baroque sculptor Bernini created several
“naturalistic fountains” with carefully designed sound effects of
rippling water. One of the most beautiful is Fontana del Tritone
(Fountain of the Triton) in Piazza Barberini (1642–1643). From
his shell, the sea god Triton has sprayed water through a conch
for more than 350 years. Bernini was a very conscious sound de-
signer. >Bernini.
Sound intensity, i.e., the average rate of sound energy trans-
mitted per time unit and area unit, that passes a plane perpen-
dicular to the transmission direction. It is usually measured in
w/m2 (watts per square meter). However, a psychologically
based concept is necessary in order to designate the strength of
sound waves striking our ears. The hearing range is the interval
between the lowest sound intensity we are capable of perceiving,
i.e., the auditory threshold and the highest level we are able to
tolerate, i.e., the pain threshold.
Sound media include audio tapes, firm memories, records, and
sound cards, all with different characteristics.
Sound recording ℗! is a symbol, and not an enclosed P. It is
used in a copyright notice regarding sound recording.
Soundscape. There are foreground sounds, context sounds and
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425
Source credibility. Studies on “source credibility” seems to
agree on the existence of both an expertise or a competence fac-
tor, and also a trustworthiness or a safety factor. There are obvi-
ously various levels of credibility. At least we can distinguish be-
tween high and low levels. A source with a high degree of trust-
worthiness may be described with words like agreeable, calm,
congenial, ethical, fair, forgiving, friendly, gentle, honest, hospi-
table, just, kind, nice, patient, pleasant, sociable, unselfish and
warm. The opposite words would describe a source with a low
degree of trustworthiness. A source with a high degree of exper-
tise may be described with words like able, accurate, authorita-
tive, experienced, informed, intelligent, knowledgeable, skilful
and trained. In this case the opposite words would describe a
source with a low degree of expertise.
Space is an important tool in typography. Space separates let-
ters, clauses, phrases, paragraphs, subsections and chapters
from one another. Consistent spacing in a document will help the
readers to: 1) Increase the rate of reading because they are more
able to >redundancies. 2) Access the more personally relevant
pieces of information. 3) >the structure of the document. >Space
between letters, Space between words, Spacing.
Space between letters. The amount of space between letters
varies in each line depending on the actual words and the actual
line length. Space between letters in text should not be too loose,
or too tight. Rounded and acute shapes need to be extended in
order to appear to be of equal height relative to a square. The dis-
tance between characters is sometimes too long. This is espe-
cially true for headlines in capitals. Visual alignment depends on
careful optical adjustment to compensate for differences in shape
of the element being aligned.
Space between words. Space between words varies in each
line depending on the actual words and the actual line length.
First the computer system adds word spacing and then, if the

426
space between words becomes too excessive, the system will add
letter spacing. The distance between words shall be smaller than
the distance between lines and larger than the distance between
characters. Space between elements should be used as a legibility
tool. The distance between words should be relatively small.
When the text has optimal spacing we can keep the reading
rhythm constant. >Space, Space between letters, Spacing.
Spacing. Visual design should be based on perceptual, rather
than on physical phenomena. Compensation for shortcomings of
our human vision is often required. Visual alignment depends on
careful optical adjustment to compensate for differences in shape
of the element being aligned. Text with a generous amount of
space within it is rated as “easier” and “more interesting” than
text that has a more solid appearance. For comfortable reading,
it must be easy to distinguish between words.
Spatial concentration principle. We perceptually group re-
gions of similar element density. Thus, a visual element may be-
long to one group even if it is as close to another group.
We group regions of similar element density. The x-dot is a bit
closer to the a-group, but it may still be perceived as a part of
the b-group.
Spatial design crosses the boundaries of many traditional de-
sign areas. One focus is on the flow of people between interior
and exterior environments. Another focus is on visualisation and
virtual environments.
Spatial intelligence, visual intelligence, is the ability to paint,
take great photographs and create sculptures. People with visual

427
intelligence create mental images, use metaphors and have a
sense of gestalt. They like to engage in drawing, painting and
sculpting. These people can easily read maps, charts and dia-
grams. This is the kind of ability used by architects, sculptors,
painters, navigators, chess players, naturalists and pilots.
Spatial perspectives include Line-based positional perspec-
tives, Area-based positional perspectives and Other positional
perspectives.
Spatial proximity. >Proximity principle.
Speaking and writing are language-related activities per-
formed by the sender. These activities are influenced by the
sender’s earlier observations and by the terminology and the lan-
guage he or she uses. Besides being active, the sender is in charge
of encoding the message, that is, its production and distribution.
Special designs. Astronomical, chemical, mathematical and
medical signs are examples of groups of special designs, im-
portant for use in these areas.
Species. >Design science.
Speech. An anterior zone in the left frontal cortex, Broca’s area,
is thought to articulate speech. A posterior zone, Wernicke’s area,
is thought to be the repository for the ideas to be articulated. The
two areas are connected so that expression of ideas through
speech can take place.
Speech and body language. The speaker must constantly
strive to maintain close contact with individual listeners in order
to insure that they understand the information. Listeners cannot
back up and review oral information in the same way that they
can with printed information. Every presentation should com-
mence with an overview of the content to be discussed and con-
clude with a summary. This will enable listeners to obtain the

428
best possible grasp of the total message. Including time for ques-
tions is also appropriate.
Speech and moving pictures. Interactive video programs
make it possible to combine sound and moving pictures. They
can arouse considerable activity and commitment in the user and
function well as a conveyor of information and as a teaching aid.
When people flip through 15 to 20 television channels in less than
a minute to decide which programme they want to see, they do
not take the time to actually listen to the sound. Decisions are
based on the pictorial style of content.
Speech and stills. Whenever visuals are displayed, the speaker
always runs the risk of losing contact with the audience. Sugges-
tive visuals can easily create a number of associations that deflect
the audience’s thoughts away from the subject of the presenta-
tion. However, the speaker can pave the way for improved audi-
ence comprehension of a subsequent visual by disclosing in ad-
vance what the visual depicts. The audience will then find it eas-
ier to identify important picture content and select a relevant in-
terpretation. When a picture is shown, viewers need some time
to interpret and understand its contents.
Spelling. For me and for other non-native English speakers, it
is often hard to distinguish between British and American Eng-
lish. There is a variety of usage between the suffixes -ise and -ize
in verbs (and in nouns that end with -isation or -ization). The
source of the suffix is Greek (-izo), a suffix that has been added
to Greek, Latin, French and English words. The American con-
vention is to use -ize; in Britain both spellings prevail.
Spirals showing circular continuity are schematic pictures.
>Metaphorical pictures.
Split complementary is a colour scheme based on one hue and
the two hues on either side of its complement on a colour wheel.

429
Spoken languages. The term “spoken language” is almost al-
ways taken to mean direct, informal verbal language. A sender
and a receiver share a highly interactive communications situa-
tion. This situation offers immediate feedback and opportunities
for explanations and corrections. As is the case for the written
language, the language of broadcast media is edited so a wide
range of listeners/viewers, with widely varying backgrounds, will
be able to understand the content. >Verbal languages.
Spoken messages. It is important that the listeners under-
stand the words in oral presentations. In the spoken message dis-
tinctness is comparable to readability in the written message. A
widespread use of visuals in oral presentations is evident, as is
the need to improve the quality of such presentations in a variety
of dimensions.
Spreads are two facing pages in books, etc.
Stacked area graph is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Stacked bar is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
Stacked curve is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Staffage is a denomination for anonymous accessory items, like
animals, human figures, objects, and various kinds of patterns
that enrich an image, and make it more interesting, more vivid
and more believable.
Staircase leading to a target is a schematic picture. >Metaphor-
ical pictures.
Standard paper. In Europe, the standard paper size is A4 (210
x 297 millimetre), whereas in the USA, Letter (216 x 279.5 milli-
metre) is the standard. It is possible to deal with these differences
by varying the margins on the page. It should be possible to print
a document and insert the pages directly into a loose-leaf binder.
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430
same appearance, basically a right-hand page layout. >External
access.
Standards. In organisations with worldwide activities technical
documentation may be produced at one place and distributed
over Internet to many other places. In such cases the typefaces
that are used must be available as standard selections in comput-
ers and in laser printers in all these countries. Even so, printouts
made by different printers will not be identical in appearance.
Typography and layout should produce good results on standard
paper. It should be possible to print a document and insert the
pages directly into a loose-leaf binder. This means that right-
hand and left-hand pages should have the same appearance, ba-
sically a right-hand page layout.
Stanley Morison, (1889–1967) was a British typographer. He
was one of the most influential type designers of the 20th cen-
tury. Commissioned by the British newspaper The Times he, and
Victor Lardent (1905–1968) designed the serif typeface Times
New Roman (1932).
Static infographics is a term used for the most common type
of infographics, without any moving elements.
Statistical literacy is a term used to describe the ability to un-
derstand statistics and relationships of numerical information. It
is necessary for citizens to be able to critically evaluate and un-
derstand numeric information presented in different media such
as Internet, newspapers and television. >Numeracy.
Steel-die engraving. >Copperplate engraving.
STEM is often short for “Science, Technology, Engineering and
Medicine,” for “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathe-
matics,” and also for many other terms.

431
STEM education integrates concepts that are usually taught as
separate subjects in different classes and emphasizes the appli-
cation of knowledge to real-life situations.
Stencil is a device made of a thin and tough cardboard, metal,
or resistant paper where open areas, that represent a design, im-
age, or text, are cut away. >Stencil printing.
Stencil printing is a method of transferring a pattern by forc-
ing dye, ink or paint through the open areas of a stencil onto a
surface. It has been used for decoration of ceilings and walls, fur-
niture, leather, pottery and textiles. >Stencil.
Steyner. >Alciato.
Still pictures. Visuals are perceived much more rapidly and
readily than text. Visual messages are a powerful form of com-
munication. >Image functions–communication, Image func-
tions–information design, Image functions–learning.
Stimuli. Among the thousands of stimuli in the external context
we only see, hear, smell, feel, taste, or “pay attention to” one at a
time. Attention is sudden, direct and distinct. The sequential flow
of attention to the parts of a message is determined by the se-
quence in which information is presented to us. There are always
far more stimuli than we can ever notice at any given situation.
To us most stimuli remain unknown, unseen and unheard of.
Smell, taste and feeling are important senses in natural life, but
not yet important factors when we use traditional media.
STM. >Short-term memory.
Stock images. >Stock photography.
Stock photography, stock images, is a collection of photo-
graphs that can be licensed for use in various creative assign-
ments. Usually the cost is lower than hiring a photographer. Im-
ages are often searchable in online databases.

432
Stone circles. Over 900 ancient stone circles found throughout
Britain and Ireland were positioned with reference to the move-
ments of the sun. Mankind has used circles, triangles and squares
as important symbols for thousands of years. >Newgrange.
Stonehenge is a huge prehistoric circular monument of large
standing stones in Wiltshire, close to Salisbury in the southern
part of England. There are many theories but nobody knows why
Stonehenge was built, or how it was continuously used for almost
1,600 years. Several archaeologists believe that Stonehenge was
constructed in three phases anywhere from 3,100 BC to 2,000
BC. Some believe that Stonehenge is a very advanced solar cal-
endar that was used mainly to make advanced and intricate as-
tronomical observations in order to predict eclipse, equinox, sol-
stice and other celestial events important to a contemporary re-
ligion. Others reject this theory and believe that Stonehenge
mainly was a site of religious significance and a place for ances-
tor worship. There are also several other theories.
Story board is a series of sketches showing each shot of a scene
or of a film in the correct order.
Straight line graph is a schematic picture. >Graphs.
Stress is the distribution of weight through the thinnest part of
a letterform.
Strategic learning. >Double-loop learning.
Structural complexity. The simplest form of a “one-dimen-
sional” representation is a simple acoustic signal, such as a baby’s
cry. A higher degree of complexity is found in texts and music.
Music is always structurally more complex than text but can, of
course, sometimes be “simple” in content. The greater the degree
of structural complexity, the closer the representation ap-
proaches reality at a given time, a given place and a given context.

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Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm in anthropology, lin-
guistics, literary theory, semiotics, and sociology. Elements of
human culture must be understood in terms of their relation-
ships to a larger structure or system.
Structure of content. Normally the structure of an instruc-
tional message is built to be continuous, to form a connected
whole that presents the message clearly to learners. A well-de-
fined structure of content facilitates understanding and learning.
Structure of visual language is formed by image variables
that influence our interpretation of images.
Structure-dimension is based on the actual organization of
the information. There are several hybrids of linear and non-lin-
ear organization of information. Videotex, videodiscs, hypertext,
papers, hypermedia, interactive multimedia systems and expert
systems can be used for illustrating the “Structure-dimension.”
Structure. A well-structured printed information material is di-
vided into chapters and sections that work well together as a
whole. A well laid-out table of contents gives the reader a quick
and thorough idea of the whole document. A well worked-
through index and clear page numbering make it easier for the
reader to find the information. In a document stored in a com-
puter it is possible to use automatic search functions. In some
documents, it is possible to use hypertext links for quick jumps
between different parts of the material and even between differ-
ent documents.
Study perspectives. We can study each individual information
document from various perspectives in order to obtain multifar-
ious information and, therefore, be in a position to develop
greater knowledge in the field. Some examples of perspectives
are target groups, themes, media, production techniques, modes
of presentation, occupational roles and objectives.

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Style is the way of expressing thoughts in speaking and writing
by arranging words for clarity, effectiveness and ease of listening
and reading. The choice of words, symbols, and picture elements
creates the style.
Style guides. Style of text is dependent on the specific choice of
consistency, expressions and words. There are a vast number of
style guides and publication manuals available.
Style of graphic form is dependent on the specific choices of
typefaces for headings, running text, captions and also the use of
justification, number and placement of columns, number and
placement of pictures and tables, the use of colour cues, etcetera.
Style of illustration is dependent on the specific choice of
drawings, photographs, schematic pictures and other kinds of
pictures, as well as consistency, expressions, picture elements
and symbols. A drawing style that includes many different kinds
of lines, patterns, shadings and inconsistent use of symbols may
obstruct the reading and understanding of the picture content. A
schematic picture has good readability when it is easy for the
reader to understand the message.
Style of text is dependent on the specific choice of consistency,
expressions and words. Abstract words, jargon, long and com-
plex sentences, passive constructions and stilted language may
obstruct reading and understanding of the text content. The
choice of words, expressions, symbols and picture elements cre-
ates the style. A writing style that includes abstract words, long
and complex sentences, stilted language, jargon and passive con-
structions may obstruct the reading of the text. A drawing style
that includes many different kinds of patterns, shadings and
lines and inconsistent use of symbols may obstruct the reading
of the pictures.
Stylistic variation of type. With respect to line thickness, in-
clination and width characters in a typeface can be drawn in

435
many different versions. The major examples of stylistic varia-
tion of regular text are bold, italic and bold italic. The visual
weight and visual impression varies a lot. It may be compared
with physical weight. A small and extra bold and expanded char-
acter may be seen as heavier than a large, light and condensed
character.
Stylistics is a sub-field in linguistics that focus on the study of
linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse
in context.
Stylized drawing is a schematic picture. >Drawings.
Sub-project leaders are responsible for their respective infor-
mation materials and are ultimately responsible for making sure
that their documents are ready on time. The subproject leaders
have continuous contact with all parties involved in the whole
process. One important aspect is copyright clearance for all ma-
terials; audio, text and visuals, brought into the design process.
Subject. In traditional grammar, subject refers to the part of a
sentence that gives information about the subject.
Subject field is a field of human knowledge to which a termi-
nological record is assigned.
Subject index. A well-constructed subject index is often an in-
dispensable tool for quickly finding information in books. As is
the case with bibliographies, the readers are usually looking only
for certain information when they refer to a list of this kind.
Subject matter experts produce the very first, “raw” draft
with the necessary subject matter facts and information: both
text and pictures. Because it is important to secure the quality the
subject matter experts may also take part in the reviews of the
information or learning material. >Instructional technologist.

436
Subject matter manager may be responsible for outlining the
subject matter contents in the whole project and dividing the
parts between the different information materials. In large pro-
jects, there may be several subject matter managers involved.
Subject matter reviewers review the subject matter contents
in both text and pictures. It is very important that information
and information materials are technically correct and relevant to
the situation. Today, patents and other intellectual property mat-
ters are an increasingly important source of income for many
commercial organisations.
Subliminal messages. In 1957 an advertising expert claimed
that he had inserted subliminal visual messages in showing a
popular film. The messages said “Eat Popcorn” and “Drink Coke”
supposedly caused people to rush to the refreshment stand and
purchase these items. This story received much attention and a
lot of publicity and it is often cited in the literature. However,
several years later, the advertising expert admitted that he had
invented the whole story in order to get favourable publicity for
his advertising business. No subliminal visual messages were
used and no customers rushed out to buy popcorn and Coke.
Subliminal reception may be defined as the individual’s abil-
ity to perceive and respond to stimuli that are below the “limen”
or level of consciousness. Above it stimuli are called supralimi-
nal. It seems apparent that the phenomenon of subliminal recep-
tion is a scientifically demonstrated phenomenon.
Subscript is a character set lower than the body of text, like the
figure 2 in x2. >Superscript.
Subtractive colour. Looking at a picture printed in colour we
experience a subtractive colour combination. The inks, dyes and
pigments function like filters for the white light and present col-
our to the eye by reflection. The wavelengths of light are absorbed
(subtracted) in different ways. When printing on white paper,

437
magenta and yellow (a red-purple colour) produce red. Cyan and
yellow (a blue-green colour) create green. Cyan and magenta give
blue. A mix of all three primary colours will become black. The
black ink gives the picture a distinct sharpness and more solid
dark elements. Using the primary colours painters can mix paints
of other hues. >Additive colour.
Subtractive colour combination, the dyes, inks and pig-
ments printed on paper function like filters for the white light
and present colour to the eye by reflection. The wavelengths of
light are absorbed (subtracted) in different ways.
Subtractive primaries are cyan, magenta, and yellow. These
are the colours left after subtracting one additive primary from
white light.
Successful learning. Information literacy is central to all suc-
cessful learning and by extension to all successful living. All of us
face an information-rich future in which change will be one of the
few constants of our life experience. The ability to adapt and fulfil
our individual potentials will require us to be life-long learners
and independent decision-makers.
Successful messages must fulfil several requirements. The
messages must: reach the decoders, be powerful, have sufficient
time, be perceptible, be possible to decode, have proper hierar-
chy, have decoder prepared, have integrity, be properly crafted,
be credible, have congruity and be exiting.
Suger of Nola (1081–1151) was an Abbot who argued that the
Latin texts in scrolls on the walls in the churches served as clari-
fication of the messages in the pictures in the churches.
Suggestive pictures. The borderline between realistic and sug-
gestive pictures is indistinct. Some visuals may be considered as
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438
another context. Ambiguous pictures, which often express
moods and emotions, are often referred to as suggestive pictures.
Suggestive properties are more important than functional
properties in “artistic pictures.” Art is not primarily a question of
objects. It is more a visual language for dissemination of ideas
and experiences that are difficult to put across in words. Irre-
spective of the sender’s intentions, different receivers may re-
spond in an emotional manner to a picture with mainly func-
tional properties. In the corresponding manner, some viewers
may respond unemotional and functional to pictures with pre-
dominantly suggestive properties.
Sullivan, Peter (1932–1996) was a British graphic designer. He
worked at The Sunday Times, and was a pioneer in design and
use of information graphics.
Summaries. Important messages like summaries can be boxed-
in to gain special attention. If the lines are shorter, the effect is
even more obvious. Boxes usually have thin lines. Boxes may
sometimes be filled with a background colour.
Superficial knowledge. We can easily learn a little about a
great many subjects. However, this kind of learning leaves us
with little more than a broad base of superficial knowledge. We
need to learn to locate, access, evaluate, process, understand and
use information.
Superscript is a character set higher than the body of text, like
the figure 2 in x2. >Subscript.
Supplementation dimension. >Pictorial dimensions.
Supporting sciences contribute to other areas or fields with
facts, influences, methods, practices, principles, processes, strat-
egies, theoretical approaches, and tools.

439
Supraliminal is above the level of consciousness. >Subliminal
messages, Subliminal reception.
Surface chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Surprint is line art superimposed over a screened area of the
same colour.
Surrealism is an early twentieth century avant-garde move-
ment in art and literature. The Spanish artist Salvador Dal
wanted to release the creative potential of the unconscious mind.
Syllabary correlates a symbol to a syllable. Here groups of pho-
nemes form words. Syllabaries may have 80–100 symbols. There
are also other categories of writing systems.
Symbols. Various symbols can be used to aid communication.
An example is a mark for continuation (>). A good symbol is de-
signed so it can be used in many different situations and in many
contexts. A good symbol is simple, clear, has optimal size, good
contrast in form, dimension and colour. There are cultural as well
as individual differences in interpreting the meanings of sym-
bols. Few people share the same understanding of any given sym-
bol. People can usually not guess the meaning of symbols. Sym-
bols should be used in a consistent way. A symbol must always
have the same meaning within a specified context. >Graphic
symbols, Symbol colours, Symbols and message.
Symbol colours. Unfortunately, red and green are quite often
used as discriminating colours in symbols and in warning signs.
Since many colour-blind people perceive red and green as grey,
colour can only be used to code the information redundantly.
Colour may be combined with shape and position, or with both,
which is often seen in traffic signs. Complementary colours con-
trast and they provide a warm–cool effect.
Symbolism. There is often a major difference between the de-
notation, the literal meaning and the various connotations,

440
associative meanings and private associations. Many visuals
have a symbolic content and meaning. To every person the flag
of her or his nation is a symbol that means “my country.” A lion
is the symbol for courage, a lamb suggests gentleness and the
dove with an olive branch symbolizes peace. Sometimes symbolic
pictures are simplified to symbols.
Symbols and message. In accordance with international con-
ventions and national legislations on road signs and signals,
most road signs have a similar design. Warning signs are trian-
gular. Information or instructional signs are rectangular or
rhombic. Prohibitory signs and mandatory signs are round, but
with different colours. A specific message may be communicated
to the receiver/s or interpreter/s with several different symbols.
People have to learn the meaning of all the important symbols
within their own society. Symbols need explanations. A specific
symbol may be used to communicate several different messages.
Symbols as language. >Graphic symbols.
Symmetrical layout. By tradition page layout is based on sym-
metrical page design. Centred as well as justified texts are exam-
ples of symmetrical layout. Symmetry is axial balance. It is logical
and simple to design. Symmetrical page design is static and may
be perceived as boring. Symmetrical as well as asymmetrical lay-
outs can have a good balance.
Symmetry. The Greeks introduced the concept of symmetry in
the fifth century. This was based on their observations about the
natural world. Roman artists developed symmetric arrange-
ments of letters and graphic elements. For centuries monks pro-
duced hand-drawn manuscripts in their monasteries. They paid
careful attention to the selection and placement of each graphic
element and they tried to maintain a consistent style throughout
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441
Symmetry principle is also known as the law of symmetry. We
tend to group symmetrical components together. Our minds per-
ceptually connect unconnected elements to form coherent
shapes. Regions that are enclosed by symmetrical borders tend
to be perceived as coherent figures.
Synchronous communication is communication in which
the sender and the receiver may be separated by distance, but not
separated by time.
Synchrony principle states that visual events that occur at the
same time will tend to be perceived as going on together.
Synecdoche is a substitution of a more inclusive term for a less
inclusive one.
Synopsis. A subject matter expert or a work group produces the
synopsis, an overview of the forthcoming information or learning
material. It is important, already at this stage, to decide on a suit-
able structure of the material.
Syntactic emphasis refers to the use of cues for attracting and
directing the attention of the viewer.
Syntactic location refers to depiction of depth with the use of
converging lines, etc.
Syntactic text parallels refer to the physical/spatial relation-
ship between pictorial and verbal signs.
Syntactic unity is an acknowledgement that an image exists. A
minimum requirement is that the bounds of each image should
be discernible. >Unity.
Syntactics is the study of relations among different signs in for-
mal structures.
Syntagm. 1) In verbal language a syntagm, or a sub-meaning, is
a word, a phrase, a sentence, or a complete text, formed by

442
combined morphemes. 2) In visual language syntagms, or sub-
meanings, form shapes that form visual syntagms, or sub-mean-
ings. These components interact to form complete meanings.
Here a key syntagm is the “meaning nucleus” of the visual.
Syntagmatic meaning refers to the meaning that is assigned
based on syntax or based on the relationships among signs. Par-
adigmatic meaning is derived from other systems or codes.
Syntax. 1) The actual principles, processes, and rules that gov-
ern the structure of sentences in a given language. This is espe-
cially important for word order. Each language has its own syn-
tax. 2) The study of the governing principles, processes, and rules
that govern the structure of sentences in a given language.
Systematic catalogues. >Inconclass, Outline.
Systems visualisation, or systems visualization, integrates
existing visualisation methodologies to find new ways to visual-
ise complex systems. The goal is to provide the ability for the au-
dience to understand systems complexity. >Visualisation.

443
T
Table is a set of facts or figures that are displayed in a systematic
way, usually in columns and rows. >Tables.
Table of contents. There are many ways to make a table of con-
tents. Justified or unjustified text may be used. The important
thing is that the structure of the content is visible. The references
to page numbers must be clear. If a table of contents is extensive,
it may be rendered in two columns. References to page numbers
are often shown for heading levels 1 to 2, or 1 to 3, with indents
for each successive level. Heading levels 4 and 5 are usually not
shown in the table of contents. This would impair the possibility
to get an overview and understanding of the overall structure.
Tables. Readers prefer vertically oriented tables where it is easy
to >the entries and quickly find the data in the table cells to the
right. Horizontally oriented tables are harder to use and more
difficult to understand. In tables printed in documents the type
should not be smaller than 8-point and not larger than 12-point.
Tablet, or tablet computer, is a mobile device. Tablets often
have touchscreen displays, and they resemble smartphones. But
tablets are larger, and they may not support access to cellular
networks.
Tabloid. The most commonly used paper sizes in North America
are called Ledger, Legal, Letter and Tabloid. A Tabloid size pa-
per is 279 x 432 mm (11 × 17 in).
Tacit knowledge is knowledge that we cannot adequately ar-
ticulate verbally. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed
through practice.
Tactile modality. >Kinaesthetic modality.

444
Tagged Image File Format, TIFF, is a widely used file format
for saving scanned, bitmapped images.
Tapestry is a pictorial design woven into a textile.
Target groups. >Receiver groups.
Target images are the mental image a person forms about
her/his future in life. Dreams, visions, hopes, or fears are decisive
to a person’s involvement in preparations for her/his future.
Target populations. >Receiver groups.
Tattoo. A tattoo is form of body modification, a drawing on the
skin that is formed of carvings or engravings with sharp objects,
often inlaid with durable colours that are darker than the skin.
Tattooing has been practiced for centuries all parts of the world,
especially in Japan, Polynesia and Southeast Asia. Various cul-
tures have had their own tattoo traditions. >Body art.
Teaching aids is a term for a category of information materials.
Teaching aids are pedagogic adjuncts for direct use in training,
instruction and education. The objective is for the receiver to
learn an intended subject, i.e. acquire new knowledge and new
experience. In time, the receiver may become familiar with the
subject matter, gain insight and learning and, ultimately,
knowledge in one or more subjects.
Technacy is the ability to understand, apply and communicate
creative and balanced technological solutions that are based on
understanding the contextual factors involved.
Technical communication is any form of factual communi-
cation about technical processes, products and services. Any me-
dia can be used technical communication. It can be data sheets,
documents, forms, online help, journal articles, patents, user
manuals, specifications and videos. The goal is to create easily
accessible information. >Technical communicators.

445
Technical communicators work with technical communica-
tion intended for specific audiences. >Technical communication,
Technical writers.
Technical documentation. In organisations with worldwide
activities technical documentation may be produced at one place
and distributed over the Internet to many other places. In such
cases the typefaces that are used must be available as standard
selections in computers and in laser printers in all these coun-
tries. Nevertheless, printouts made by different printers will not
be identical in appearance. Typography and layout should pro-
duce good results on standard paper. >External access.
Technical editors. >Technical writers.
Technical expert. >Instructional technologist.
Technical factors, programming factors, language factors and
contextual factors all influence the viewer’s ability of perception,
learning and memory with respect to the function of the brain
and the sensory organs. To achieve “good quality” man-machine
interaction, we have to consider all these factors in a kind of
“wholeness-perspective.” To learn we must be able to hear, >and
also understand the message. In my view, it is no use to develop
new, advanced systems and forget the aspects of the human fac-
tors. Such systems will never be successful in the long run. In a
printed material, such as a book, the table of contents and the
index make it easier to find information according to one’s
wishes. When a person has read a page in a book, he or she may
easily proceed to additional information by turning the page.
Technical illustrations are diagrams and drawings of man-
made materials, constructions and objects, sometimes including
the situations, in which they are used and the processes and sys-
tems in which they are incorporated. The main purpose is to de-
scribe or explain these objects and constructions to a more or less

446
non-technical audience. Images need to be clear and provide an
overall impression of what an object is or what it does.
Technical language must be capable of effectively conveying
as much information as possible to a certain group of readers. It
is characterised in its ideal form by brevity, clarity and precision.
Technical quality. The technical quality of a visual should be
“good” and tailored to the specific medium. A printed picture
should be matte and distinct, not blurred, overly glossy, or daz-
zling. Resolution should be sufficient for the reproduction of the
desired details. Fine details in the texture of a visual disappear in
the dot screen structure of the printed image. Even more detail is
lost in a television image, or on a computer visual display. Poor
technical quality is far too common in information materials. The
result of most of the previous work on visualisation and making
originals can easily be destroyed by a single error in the making
of the master or in the actual production of the copies.
Technical visualisation, or technical visualization, is often
performed with computer-aided design, CAD and may some-
times render 3-D models. It is an important aspect of product
development. >Product visualisation, Visualisation.
Technical writers, technical editors, technical communica-
tors and information designers work on the materials delivered
by the subject matter experts and by the information brokers and
they produce a finished text. This work encompasses the whole
spectrum from simple editing of well-written text, to completely
rewriting of text to convey the intentions of the subject matter
experts to the readers. If there are many contributors to a partic-
ular section, it is important to bring a uniformity of linguistic us-
age and writing style across the complete information or learning
material. Linguistic consultants may do this. In certain cases, it
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447
Technically crafted visuals can be made in a brief period of
time and easily reach a wide public. A TV camera can take live
pictures viewed simultaneously by millions of people in different
countries. In this way, we can “attend” various happenings, such
as sporting events, no matter where they occur. The ease with
which news pictures can be produced and distributed may influ-
ence the selection of pictures. Sensational events, such as a dis-
aster, may be assigned a relatively large amount of space in the
mass media because pictures such as these attract widespread in-
terest. Here, the mass media bear an enormous responsibility in
their editing and selection of pictures. >Picture circle, Realistic
pictures, Schematic pictures, Suggestive pictures, Symbols.
Technological competency is the ability to create, repair, or
operate specific technologies.
Technological literacy has a variety of meanings worldwide
from skilled use of computers, to the ability to assess, know,
manage, understand and use the technical language for a techno-
logical genre. It complements technological competency.
Technology includes the systematic study of technique as well
as the application of science to the solution of practical problems.
Technology for pictures. In the earliest printed books images
where printed from woodcuts. During the 1600s and 1700s cop-
perplates dominated. This meant that the technical quality of
printed images increased significantly, but there was a great dis-
tance to the text. In the 1800s, lithography dominated. It became
possible to print pictures in colour, but the technology meant
that it was no longer possible to print continuous texts and im-
ages in the same printing presses. Thus, words and pictures were
irretrievably separated from each other for a long time. Develop-
ment of the offset and other printing methods during the 1900s
laid the foundation for a real change. The previous technical

448
barriers are now eliminated with the help of computer-aided pro-
duction of graphical products. >Technology for words.
Technology for words. Before Gutenberg’s time, it was a “nat-
ural relationship” between words, images and graphical form. All
expressions were gathered in the same hand-written page or
printed from the same block of wood. However, the production
of images was equally demanding and time-consuming as before
with complicated handwork. In the earliest printed books images
where printed from woodcuts. >Gutenberg Bible, Printing tech-
nology, Technology for pictures.
Technology of instruction is the application of our scientific
knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teach-
ing and learning.
TEL, Technology-enhanced learning, is a kind of E-learning.
>E-learning.
Telecommunications media, tele media, are able to transmit
a variety of data. These media include answering service, datel,
datex, facsimile, Internet, Intranet, teleconferencing, telegraphy,
telepak, telephone calls, teletex, telex, videoconferencing, video-
tex, viewphones and voicemail.
Telefax. The telefax is used to send text and image information
via the telephone network. The area of the paper is often divided
into approximately two million pixels: 50 dots per inch horizon-
tally and 90-385 dots per inch vertically. The very best resolution
divides an A4-paper into 6 million pixels. It is common that tele-
fax machines work thermally with heat sensitive paper in rolls of
approximately 100 meters. There are, however, also fax ma-
chines built on laser printers. Many telefax machines can be con-
nected to personal computers and then can be used both as scan-
ners and printers.

449
Telephoto, photo fax, is a special kind of telefax equipment
used for sending and receiving pictures in a full grey scale. There
is also a system for colour pictures that transmits the pictures
colour-separated. The transmission is done over the radio or the
telephone network. Telephoto pictures are mostly used by news-
papers and by some television stations. A thermal printer can be
used to print the pictures.
Television. The word “television” comes from the Greek word
téle, distant and from the Latin word vidére, to see. Television,
or TV, is a tele technical system for transmission of sound and
images, stills, as well as motion pictures in black and white, and
in colour.
Television– analogue pictures. Usually the analogue picture
is divided into picture elements by the electron beam moving in
slightly inclined lines building up a so called television-raster. At
transmission, the light information is transmitted from one pic-
ture element at a time. These are projected reversed on the tele-
vision-receiver’s picture tubes. The television-image is built up,
or “put together”, in the same way as it was divided into picture
elements earlier. The inertia of the eye makes us perceive the dif-
ferent picture elements as individual whole images or as motion
pictures.
Television–analogue. In an analogue television camera, the
rays of light are projected as an optical picture on a “picture
plate.” By optic-electrical conversion the light variations are
transformed into a low-frequency image signal, a so-called video
signal. A focused electron beam moving across the picture ac-
cording to a set pattern scans the image on the picture plate, dif-
ferent brands working in different ways.
Television–aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of the classical tele-
vision systems NTSC, PAL, SECAM is 4:3. This was a logical

450
choice since that was the aspect ratio of movie film at the time
when television developed.
Television–digital pictures. In a digital television camera,
the rays of light are divided into a large number of pixels. The
pixels are then building the television-images.
Television–literacy, critical television viewing skills, includes
factors that enable persons to distinguish among a wide range of
programme elements so they can make judicious use of their
viewing time. The term television literacy has been widely used
in recent years, both by researchers and by educators. Television
has its own conventions, its own grammar; the success of a tele-
vision production depends on how carefully it is crafted.
Television–narratives convey a number of implicit and ex-
plicit ideological messages; these messages suggest what and
who is important and are generally representative of the values
held by the dominant groups in society. Television viewers some-
times have great difficulties in comprehending broadcasted
news.
Television–printing. There are several systems for printing
television and video images on paper. Some video printers use
thermal copying, others use plotters and some employ ink-jet
printers or laser printers
Television–programs are judged by the size of the audience
they generate and by the market they offer to the advertisers.
Television–receivers. There are television-receivers in a
number of types and sizes. The image size is measured diagonally
in inches. The most common sizes are 18–27 inches for domestic
use and 28–38 inches for public use. >Jumbotron, Multivision,
Pocket-TV, Third generation-television, Wrist-TV.
Television–systems. >NTSC, PAL, SECAM.

451
Templates. >Cost effective typography.
Temporal lobes on each side of the cerebral cortex in the brain
process hearing.
Term, technical expression, is the linguistic representation of a
concept in a given subject field, in which it has a specific and
carefully determined meaning. The term is often a single word,
but the term may also consist of a few words. A term can be re-
garded as a “label.”
Terminal mark. Sometimes terminal marks appear after the
last paragraph in texts in magazines and other periodical publi-
cations. A terminal mark is often a circle or a square, filled or
unfilled. Sometimes the terminal mark is the initials or the sig-
nature of the writer.
Terminology is a structured set of concepts and the terms that
are used to represent them in a specific subject field. This is par-
ticularly important in pioneering technologies A terminology is
also the study of the relationships between concepts and terms.
Terminology administration is responsible for the organisa-
tion of terminology work within an organisation. The administ-
ration successively produces a list of terms, or a combined glos-
sary.
Terminology committees. The terminology coordinators
may organise one or more temporary or permanent “terminology
committees.”
Terminology coordinators continuously collect new terms
and concepts related to their own field of activities and expertise
and compile their department or project glossaries.
Terminology council discusses problems of common interest
in the work with new terminology, and then make all the neces-
sary decisions.

452
Terminology experts may review the information and learn-
ing materials with respect to the use of consistent terminology.
Terminology process. To make information exchange effi-
cient, all the staff members in any major R&D project must un-
derstand new concepts and use terms that are not misunder-
stood. In order to ensure good quality of glossaries, encyclopae-
dias, and other information materials it may be a good idea to
follow a standardized process for terminology work. Without a
defined process, it is always a major risk that some important as-
pects are forgotten from time to time.
This is an example of a terminology process, from definition of
the needs all the way to the finished terminology.
Terminology requirements. When we develop a terminology
with concepts and terms within a specific area it is important to
set up some requirements, such as: 1) Terms should be linguisti-
cally effective. 2) Terms should be precise. 3) Definitions and de-
scriptions should be correct, easy to understand, short and have
good legibility and readability. 4) Terms should be compatible
with the language system in which they are used. 5) Terms should
be derivable and generative. 6) Terms should be “transparent.”
7) A term may be a pronounceable acronym, written with capital

453
letters. 8) People within the specific area should accept selected
terms, even internationally.
Terminology theory, a concept is an idea of something formed
by mentally combining all its characteristics or particulars, a
mental notion of a referent. A concept is not bound to any partic-
ular language.
A connection model illustrates
terminology theory and the
connections between 1) concept,
2) referent, 3) term, and 4) definition.
Terminology work involves continuous collection, review, de-
scription, definition and presentation of new concepts and terms.
Tertiary colour is a combination of three colours (primary or
secondary).
Text colour. Certain parts of a text may be printed with colours
or printed on top of backgrounds in other colours. The most leg-
ible combinations of print colours are black or dark brown text
on a light yellow background. Other combinations may attract
more attention but are less legible and, thus, require larger type.
A text can be easy to read in any colour, provided the colour of
the background is carefully selected. However, generally speak-
ing, the best text colour is black, which causes good contrast to
most background colours. In a similar way the best background
colour is black, because it has good contrast to most text colours.
People dislike the use of more than three or four text colours on
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454
Text comprehension is a constructive process, in which the
readers build their perception of the whole by integrating the text
with their own experiences.
Text design. Writers need to know as much as possible about
readers, the purpose of the writing and how the message is to be
conveyed. Good text design is direct and simple.
Text face is the part of a page with text.
Text face format index is format index to compare text-faces.
>Format index.
Text in pictures should be distinct and short. Avoid using sev-
eral lines. Use Helvetica or other sans serif typefaces.
Text layout is typographic variation to present the content in a
text in a clear way. Text must have a typography that facilitates
its legibility. Headings, sub-headings, main text, captions, boxes,
summaries, etc., must be clearly distinguished from one another.
Text on overhead transparencies. >Legibility of projected
texts, Overhead transparencies.
Text on PowerPoint. >Legibility of projected texts, Power-
Point presentations.
Text on screens. >Legibility of text on screens.
Text on slides. >Legibility of projected texts.
Text on visual displays. >Legibility of text on screens.
Text on wall charts. >Legibility of text on wall charts.
Text standards. To avoid distracting the readers, the linguistic
usage as well as the style should be correct. There are several
good books available for American and British English.

455
Text structure–DTP. Desktop publishing systems have be-
come more common. In personal publishing, the writer is re-
sponsible not only for the content of the text and pictures but also
for the editing and the graphic design. The writer’s text and the
reader’s text will be the same. The writer may very well know his
or her own subject matter but will also have to learn at least some
of the traditional skills of the editor and of the graphic designer.
Text structure–printed text. Usually printed texts vary a
great deal from their original manuscripts with respect to letter-
forms, line length, line endings, page breaks, page size, spelling,
spacing, punctuation, etc. and even in the use of words. Often the
printed text has illustrations. There may be drawings as well as
photographs in the final product.
Text structure–reader’s text. The reader’s text is different.
It betrays little of the complexity and the difficulties of the writ-
ing process.
Text structure–writer’s text. The writer’s text is different
from the reader’s text. The writer deals with a document that be-
comes progressively more formal.
Text type, body type, is type that is smaller than 14 point. It is
generally used for the main body of text in a document.
Text, picture and background. A page in a telephone direc-
tory is almost filled with text. The text may cover 90 percent of
the page. In dictionaries the text may cover 75–80 percent. In
study books the text often covers 50–60 percent of the page. In
pure literature and children’s books, the text area is often smaller
than that. We can use a “verbal and visual area diagram” to com-
pare the relationship between text area, picture area.
Textbook visuals. During the 19th century, textbook visuals
were often placed vertically to provide better use of page space.
Often, one picture was used to depict different persons or towns.

456
Visuals were often a kind of “paintings” with little or no real in-
teraction with the text. In most books, pictures served primarily
as an artistic supplement to the text. Visuals have been used in a
more intentional way in non-fiction books. As early as in the Mid-
dle Ages, some secular texts were illustrated.
Textbook. A traditional textbook is printed on paper. It is used
as a standard work for the study of a particular subject. A text-
book often includes special assignments for students, and refer-
ences to other literature.
Textualis, black-letter type style used in the Gutenberg Bible.
Texture is the visual equivalent of the sense of touch and the
feel of an object’s surface. From our experience we know that a
sweater is “soft,” a steel tube is “hard,” and that a piece of broken
glass has “sharp” edges. In our daily lives we have great use of
our perception and understanding of texture when we look at
various objects in our surroundings. Optical texture serves as a
stand-in for the qualities of actually touching the real objects.
The hypho is a hyphenated widow, leaving half a word on a line.
Theory and practice. Information design is complementary to
information technology in the same way as architecture is com-
plementary to building technology. Architecture has a practical
as well as a theoretical component. This is also true for infor-
mation design as well as for several other disciplines, such as:
dance, economics, education, engineering, fine arts, journalism,
medicine, music and theatre. Like the two faces of a coin, in-
fography and infology are the two main components or parts of
message design and also of information design.
Theory is the branch of art, design or science that deals with
methods, principles, and proposed explanations that are still
subject to experimentation. A theory illustrates how and why
something is as it is.

457
Theory of action. >Action theory.
Theory of closure. >Closure principle.
Theory of cultural evolution. The human mind is a hybrid
product of interweaving the brain with the symbolic web of cul-
ture of the time to form a distributed cognitive network.
Theory of direction. >Continuity principle.
Theory of figure and ground. >Figure and ground principle.
Theory of similarity. >Similarity principle.
Thermal printers print dot matrix characters. Small needles
point to an especially prepared, heat-sensitive paper. The needles
are heated in a pattern that corresponds to the character to be
printed and the heat-sensitive paper is affected. Thermal printers
often have a resolution of 200 dots per inch. To create colour pic-
tures, foils with yellow, magenta and cyan colour are used. By
combining these foils a great number of colours can be produced.
In desktop systems the number of colours is 256. In this system
the colour is heated over to the image paper point by point. There
are also thermal printers that heat up small ampoules inside a
special paper so that the colour spreads inside the paper.
Thermography is a print process that produces raised charac-
ters by depositing thermographic powder onto offset printed pa-
per while the ink is still wet.
Third generation-television. VLSI (Very Large Scale Integra-
tion) chips control the image quality in every individual televi-
sion-set. The television-station’s analogue signal is transformed
to digital signals and they can then be processed in different
ways. The image is cleared of shadows and noise and its defini-
tion is improved. The picture can be zoomed in and “frozen”.

458
Thomas Young (1773–1829) was a British scholar who made
many contributions to the fields of Egyptology, energy, language,
light, musical harmony, physiology, solid mechanics, and vi-
sion. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and a “person of wide
knowledge or learning”. Thomas Young has been described as
“The Last Man Who Knew Everything”. He was also called “The
founder of physiological optics”. In 1807 Thomas Young pro-
posed a tri-chromatic colour vision system. In 1924, his theory
was formalized by von Helmholz, who proposed hypothetical ex-
citation curves for three kinds of cones in the retina, sensitive for
red, green and blue.
Three-dimensional representations, like dioramas, mod-
els, sculptures and stereo pictures, may always be interpreted in
more than one way. Laser techniques make it possible to create
three-dimensional images, holograms, enabling viewers to actu-
ally >“behind” the image objects.
Three-point perspective. This perspective is usually used in
pictures of buildings seen from above or seen from below. In ad-
dition to the two regular vanishing points, there is also one below
the ground or up in the sky. Each of the three vanishing points
corresponds with one of the three axes of the scene. >Central
perspective.
Throw out is a sheet of folded paper that is bound into a publi-
cation so that it can be opened horizontally to the left or to the
right. A gatefold, is a four-panel folded sheet.
Thumbnail is a first-stage miniature plan, a collection of small-
scale images that comprise the pages in a publication.
TIFF, Tagged Image File Format, is a widely used file format for
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459
Tilde (~) is a grapheme. In English, tilde means “approxi-
mately.” In some languages, tilde is used as a diacritical mark (˜)
placed over a letter to indicate a certain change in pronunciation.
Time. Information is most useful to have at exactly the time we
need it, too early and too late is of no interest. Thus, when we
have access to information is an important factor. A daily paper
quickly becomes out-of-date.
Time available. An essential difference between the spoken
and the written messages is the time available for transmitting
and perceiving them. The speaker and his or her listeners com-
municate in real time. On the other hand, the writer and the
reader can often take all the time that they may need to produce
and to read the text respectively.
Time for decisions. When people flip through 15 to 20 televi-
sion channels in less than a minute to decide which programme
they want to see, they do not take the time to actually listen to the
sound. Thus, decisions are based on the pictorial style of content.
Time perspective is a line perspective. Using a time line makes
it easier for the viewer to >the time perspective.
Timeline is a schematic picture. It is typically a simple one-di-
mensional scale with marks for important events in chronologi-
cal order. This is often used in graphics and schematic pictures
to visualize the relationships between different historical events.
Times New Roman. Times New Roman is a common serif
typeface. It was designed for hot-metal print and the rotary let-
terpress printing. Times New Roman combines the classic ele-
gance of typefaces for books with modern demands for economy
of space. This compressed Roman serif type has high x-height
and thus good legibility even in small sizes. It became possible to
have a lot of text on each page, thus saving paper. It was designed
as a newspaper typeface. >Morison.

460
Time perspective is a line perspective. Using a time line makes
it easier for the viewer to >the time perspective.
Tint is a light value of a hue, created by adding white.
Tint screen is a flat, unmodulated light value made of evenly
dispersed dots, usually achieved by stripping a piece of halftone
film into the area on the negative that the artist has masked out.
Titian (Tiziano Vecelli, or Tiziano Vecellio) (c 1489–1576) was
an Italian Renaissance artist in Venice. In 1518 he finished his
large oil painting The Assumption of the Virgin. The painting is
690 x 360 cm. Titian used advanced light design, different
perspectives, divine division, glowing colours, and interesting
visual compositions in order to communicate the religious drama
when Mary was assumed into Heaven.
Title Case, each word begins with a capital letter. This is some-
times used in titles, and also in captions.
Title pages. A book begins with a title page with the title of the
book, the name(s) of the writer(s) and the name of the publisher.
On the second page, the imprint page, administrative infor-
mation such as the name of the document, a document number,
a security classification, revision or version number and date of
publication may be provided at the top of the page. Information
about the ISBN-, or the ISSN-number and the copyright-holder
are usually provided at the bottom of the page. There are usually
no pagination on the title pages.
Tituli, a form of captions. >Bayeux Tapestry.
Todd-AO-70 is a wide-film system with large high definition
pictures.
Tolerance ranges. There is no unambiguous verbal or visual
language. In a closed, homogeneous cultural group, “ordinary”
pictures and texts probably give rise to similar interpretations

461
and perceptions of a specific reality, single object, event, mes-
sage, or content. However, we do not know the magnitude of the
individual “tolerance ranges” in which different texts and pic-
tures generate reasonably identical perceptions. One representa-
tion may produce accurate perception of content by one person
but a completely different perception by another person.
Tonal perspective. Light tones appear to advance and dark
tones appear to recede. A light object against a dark background
will normally stand forward, with a strong sense of depth. In
practice, it is difficult to distinguish between aerial perspective,
colour perspective and tonal perspective.
Tone, value, is the apparent darkness or lightness of a colour in
anything that is visible. It ranges from black to white.
Too many lines? It is easy to interpret two lines that cross each
other as four lines. Restrict the number of lines.
We perceive the pattern to the left (1) as two lines crossing in the
middle rather than as two opposing angles joined together at
their apexes (2 and 3). It could also be four independent lines
meeting in the middle (4).
Top margin, header, or running head is the space above the
text-face at the top of a page. Headers provide information that
will help the reader navigate in a document. Like footers, headers
may carry page numbers.
Tory, Geoffroy >Geoffroy Tory.
Total information material is a multi-representational data-
base offering the user complete freedom in shifting back and
forth between audio, numeric, verbal and visual information. A

462
computer program sometimes controls film projectors, videodisc
players and other technical equipment. Total information mate-
rial offers people with all kinds of modalities to perform their
own active searches for information.
Total teaching aid is a multimedia database offering the user
complete freedom in moving back and forth between audio, nu-
merical, verbal, and visual information. This will enable learners
with all kinds of modalities, i.e., kinaesthetic, mixed, verbal, or
visual modalities, to actively seek and find information that is ac-
tively transformed into experience and knowledge.
Totals, the sums of all data in a column or in a row in a table,
provide overviews in a collection of data.
Toulouse-Lautrec. Henri-Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lau-
trec-Monfa (1864–1901) is one of the most well-known painters
of the Post-Impressionist period. He revolutionized the art of
posters and gave the commercial poster status as an independent
art form. He became “the king of posters.” He lived a bohemian
lifestyle and became the foremost portrayer of the special enter-
tainment world in Paris. The 27-year-old Toulouse-Lautrec be-
came famous over a night, when his poster Moulin Rouge: La
Goulue was put on walls and advertising pillars all over Paris in
October, 1891.
Tracking is an adjustment of space between characters in a text.
Trademark is any unique name or symbol that are used by a
corporation or a manufacturer to identify their own products and
to distinguish them from any competitors.
Trademark symbol ™ is a symbol, not yet officially registered
with a national trademark office.
Traditional literacy. Traditionally the concept of “literacy”
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463
The definition of (traditional literacy) has changed several times
during the last decades.
Traditional schools offer courses, instruction and programs
with instructors present in the same place and time, “Face-to-
Face.”
Transdisciplinary. People are creating a unity of intellectual
frameworks beyond the disciplinary perspectives. Transdiscipli-
nary knowledge moves beyond the limits of different disciplines.
Transitional, a type category that blends old and modern style.
Transliteracy is the ability to read, write and interact across a
range of platforms, tools and media from signing and orality
through handwriting, print, TV, radio and film, to digital social
networks.
Transportation diagram is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Trapping is an overlap of two colours to eliminate any gaps.
Tree diagram is a kind of diagram with organizational and hi-
erarchical structures. >Diagrams.
Tree structures. Videotex systems and other menu driven da-
tabase systems, organize information in hierarchic tree struc-
tures. The user navigates by traversing the tree. In order to
switch to a different branch one usually has to move all the way
back through the structure and then go deeper into the structure
again. The experience of the information is directed and intended
and navigation is regulated. Even though it is possible to have
simple images in videotex systems, navigation is based on alpha-
numeric characters.
Tri-chromatic colour vision system. There are many theo-
ries about how perception of colours actually works. In 1807,
Young proposed a tri-chromatic colour vision system. In 1924,

464
Young’s theory was formalized by von Helmholz, who proposed
hypothetical excitation curves for three kinds of cones in the ret-
ina, sensitive for red, green and blue. >Colour description sys-
tems.
Tri-linear chart is a schematic picture. >Diagrams.
Tritone is an image printed with three colours. It is typically a
black-and-white image, enhanced with two additional colours.
Trompe L’Oeil is a technique in art where realistic imagery cre-
ates an optical illusion. Viewers believe that a depicted object re-
ally exists in three dimensions.
Trustworthiness. A source with a high degree of trustworthi-
ness may be described with words like agreeable, calm, congen-
ial, ethical, fair, forgiving, friendly, gentle, honest, hospitable,
just, kind, nice, patient, pleasant, sociable, unselfish and warm.
The opposite words would describe a source with a low degree of
trustworthiness.
Truth. Often people believe that pictures tell the truth. At the
same time, familiarity with the depicted objects themselves is
basic to understanding. The more familiar a message is to its in-
tended audience, the more readily it is perceived.
Two-dimensional representations, like drawings and pho-
tographs, are less constrained than interpretation of a verbal
message. However, a still picture may always be interpreted in
more than one way.
Two-point perspective, angular perspective, oblique per-
spective, have lines that vanish in two directions to two different
vanishing points. All linear perspectives have exact formulas
with many and complicated geometrical and mathematical rules.
The two-point perspective can be used to draw all objects.

465
Type refers to all characters that are used in printing. >Cost ef-
fective typography, Graphic design genus, Typographic cuing,
Typographic decision-making, Typographic style.
Type family is a number of sizes and variations of a typeface.
Type measurement systems. Traditionally the vertical height
of letters is designated in typographical points. However the size
of such a point is somewhat different in various parts of the
world. There are three basic measurement systems used for tra-
ditional typesetting and one main system for desktop publishing.
>Desktop publishing systems, Didot system, Mediaan system,
Pica system.
Type of content. It is important to understand the intended
content in informative messages and information materials.
What is the meaning with informative messages? What is the in-
fluence of culture?
Type of representation. Based on how the verbal information
is presented to the receivers, we can distinguish between three
main types of verbal and visual representations. We read the
printed words in 1) lexi-visual representations, such as messages
printed in a book or messages displayed on a computer screen.
We listen to the spoken words in 2) audio-visual representations,
such as oral presentations with slides or overhead transparencies
and in television programmes. We read printed words and listen
to spoken words in combinations of lexi-visual and audio-visual
representations in 3) multi-visual representations, such as inter-
active multimedia systems. Each “type” can be further divided.
Type of search. The “Type of search-dimension” is based on
man-machine interaction and restricted by systems design, tech-
nology and computer software. Between the terminal points
“regulated and restricted search” and “unregulated and flexible
search,” there are systems which can be characterized as hybrid
systems. Bibliographic databases, hypertext systems, electronic

466
encyclopaedias on CD-ROM and CD-I, daily papers, video pro-
grams, computer games and expert systems, can be used as ex-
amples for illustrating the “Type of search-dimension.” Moving
up the scale the systems become more unregulated and flexible.
Type of signs. The “Type of signs-dimension” is a “language-
dimension” or “code-system” based on the signs used to repre-
sent the information with respect to storage, search and display.
Bibliographic databases, expert systems, hypermedia, papers,
video discs, computer games, industrial robots, film and TV,
cruise missiles and image databases can be used for illustrating
this dimension.
Type of visual. Generally speaking it is not possible to rank the
different types of visuals.
Type size, point size, is the vertical space allowed for any char-
acter of a typeface. >x-height.
Typeface. The term typeface refers to the general outline, the
face, personality and shape of the individual characters. During
the little more than 500 years of western printing history, prob-
ably more than 60,000 typefaces have been designed. It is easy
to combine them in many ways. Most of these typefaces are, how-
ever, limited in their usefulness. Differences are often subtle. It
is not always possible to >the differences without special train-
ing. The distinctive details and the explicit forms of words may
facilitate word recognition.
Typeface personalities. There are many different and subjec-
tive opinions regarding the personalities of typefaces, or per-
ceived personas. Research indicates that the presentation of texts
affects the perception of the contents of the message. Light type
has been described as delicate, gentile and feminine, as difficult
to read and unprofessional and as insubstantial and timid. Mod-
erate weight type has been regarded as professional. Bold type
has been seen as aggressive, masculine and strong, as difficult to

467
read and unprofessional, as assertive, daring, domineering, over-
bearing, solid and substantial, as daring, overbearing, stable and
substantial.
Typesetting is a composition of type, by any method.
Typogram is the use of type to express an idea visually.
Types of content perspective. It is important to understand
the intended content in informative messages and information
materials. What is the meaning with informative messages?
What is the influence of culture? A “types of content perspective”
includes 1) informative entertainment, 2) brief messages, 3) ad-
ministrative documentation, 4) factual information and 5) in-
structions. We may also include advertising and propaganda as
well as teaching aids in this group.
Typogram is the use of type to express an idea visually.
Typographic cuing, the use of bold, italic type or underlining
to signal the important ideas in a text on learning. Cuing does
work in drawing attention to the cued material. Readers are more
likely to remember cued ideas than hunched ideas. In an infor-
mation or learning material unity can be achieved by using tem-
plates for a standardized, structured and consistent typography
and layout.
Typographic decision-making. 1) Use typographic space in
a consistent way in order to convey the structure of the infor-
mation. 2) Use standard page sizes. 3) Use grids for pre-planning
of pages.
Typographic literacy, or graphic literacy, is a component of
functional literacy.
Typographic style. Characters can be designed in many differ-
ent ways. Differences between many typefaces are subtle and it
is not always possible to >the differences without special

468
training. There are more than 60 000 typefaces. A typeface may
be available as light condensed, light, light expanded, bold con-
densed, bold, bold expanded, regular condensed, regular, regular
expanded, extra bold condensed, extra bold and extra bold ex-
panded. With respect to inclination a typeface may be designed
in italic letter style versions. A typeface may also be available as
out-lined, in-lined and shadowed. The “visual weight” varies. It
may be compared with physical weight. A complete assortment
of characters of the same style and size is called a type. The deci-
sion of which type to use should rest largely on the purpose and
the audience of the document.
Typographic variation. >Graphic design genus.
Typography is the art and technique of arranging type in order
to make the message visible and it provides a large number of
possibilities to make the structure in a document clear. The
graphic designer will select typefaces, point sizes, line length and
line spacing and alter the presentation of headings, running text,
captions, lists, tables and ornaments. >Cost effective typogra-
phy, Graphic design genus, Typographic cuing, Typographic
decision-making, Typographic style.

469
U
Ultra Vision used special cinemas, built between 1966 and
1974. The system used 70-mm film copied from 65-mm nega-
tives. The film was projected on a curved screen. The resolution
is 625 pixels per square inch in the middle of the screen.
Unambiguous language. There is no unambiguous verbal or
visual language. In a closed, homogeneous cultural group, “ordi-
nary” pictures and texts probably give rise to similar interpreta-
tions and perceptions of a specific content, event, message, ob-
ject, or reality. However, we do not know the magnitude of the
individual “tolerance ranges” in which different texts and pic-
tures generate reasonably identical perceptions. One representa-
tion may produce accurate perception of content by one person
but a completely different perception by another person.
Unbracketed serifs are serifs without brackets. >Serif.
Unbracketed slab serifs are serifs without brackets on heavy
slabs. >Serif.
Underscore ___ was available on the typewriter. It was used
to underline words. A series of underscores may be used to create
a blank to be filled in on a form _____________________.
Understanding is a continuum that leads from data, through
information to knowledge and ultimately to wisdom.
Uninteresting information. >Information cone.
Unity suggests an “overall togetherness” in the information ma-
terial. In a design that lacks unity the different elements compete
for attention. It is chaos and it creates confusion for the receivers.
Univers is a common sans serif typeface.

470
Unjustified type is lines of type set in a column, with equal
word spacing, but uneven length. See, Justified text, Ragged left,
Ragged right, and Justify.
Unreadability. The aim of technical writing is to transmit in-
formation accurately, quickly and economically from one person
to another. Many scientists and engineers make their writing
heavily unreadable. Difficult texts have become a global problem
in technical and scientific documentation.
Unregulated search. Medical expert systems for diagnosis of
diseases is a category of database systems where one usually can
search for information with great flexibility. Search is unregu-
lated and flexible, allowing use of synonyms and even broad
terms and concepts. The structure of an expert system is usually
non-linear. The experience is usually directed and intended,
though in more flexible systems experience is likely to be more
free and associative. In addition, expert systems might allow the
user to search for images and various iconic signs. We can expect
rapid developments in expert systems technologies.
Uppercase, capital letters of the alphabet (A, B, C etc.).
URL, Uniform Resource Locator, is the address of a resource on
the Internet. World Wide Web URLs begin with “http://”.
Usability refers to the extent to which a product helps users to
achieve their specific goals quickly, successfully, and with satis-
faction.
Usability testing. It may often be a good idea to ask members
of the intended users to use the forthcoming product in a realistic
situation. This exercise may be video-taped for further analysis.
Test persons may be asked to explain how and why they chose to
proceed in certain ways. Results from these tests should be the
basis for revision of next generation of the information material.
Users of information products largely blame themselves when

471
faced with poor design. Thus, a push for a research-based infor-
mation design must come from the information designers.
Use of textbooks. Comparisons between old and modern text-
books often show that both the number of pictures and the space
for pictures have increased. Correspondingly the space for text
has decreased. After the Second World War the typical textbook
author is rather a teacher than a person doing research. Narrative
texts have disappeared for the benefit of abstract, descriptive and
fragmentary segments of texts. For each generation the pictures
in the textbooks have become more in number, larger, more ele-
gant and more colourful. Many colour pictures are used as a com-
petitive means in the continuous battle for more customers.
Use-centred design. Success of a specific design depends on
the coordination of the two sets of constraints: information with
the appropriate means for action and the means for action with
the appropriate information.
Usefulness. Picture readability is positively correlated with
both the aesthetic rating and perceived usefulness in teaching.
The aesthetic rating and assessed usefulness in school were also
strongly correlated.
User experience, UX, includes affective, experiential and prac-
tical aspects of human-computer interaction. What are the in-
tended audience’s attitudes, behaviours and emotions when us-
ing a specific product, service, or system? Is it efficient and easy
to use? >Chief Experience Officer.
User experience architect is an individual working with
>user experience.
User experience design is the process of enhancing user sat-
isfaction by improving accessibility, pleasure and usability pro-
vided in the interaction between the user and the product.

472
User friendly training environments help learners gain and
maintain confidence in their ability to perform, with minimal
confusion. User-unfriendly training environments do the oppo-
site, leaving learners confuse, lost, frustrated and lacking confi-
dence in their ability to perform satisfactorily.
User interfaces. Good, attractive and intuitive user interfaces
are crucial for good user experience. To gain the interest in a new
product or technology, users need to understand its advantages
or find themselves impressed or involved.
Users. >Receiver groups.
Users’ viewpoints. Is there a demand for the new medium?
Where? Why? For which categories? For which purpose is the
new medium intended? Do other media offer the same or corre-
sponding services? Which are the unique advantages of this me-
dium that other media are lacking? How is the new medium
adapted to reality? Is the medium easy enough to use? Does the
user benefit in any way from using the new medium? How? Why?
For how long will the medium serve its purpose? Will the media
soon be “old-fashioned”? Is there a rapid technical development
to be expected within the field that the medium represent? Are
the costs of the medium, when it is systematically used, higher
than the costs of other media, which provide the corresponding
information or experience? Is the cost a critical factor?
Uses and Gratifications Theory. People actively seek out the
mass media in order to satisfy their individual needs.
Utility/originality rectangle. This preview test is used for as-
sessment of advertisements according to the concepts “utility”
and “originality.” First, the extent to which the reader derived
any benefit from reading or taking a closer look at an ad is rated.
The rating scale range from “no utility” to “great utility.” The de-
gree of execution originality is then assessed. Readers usually
subsequently rate ads that are assessed with positive originality

473
and great utility as “good ads.” Publication of an ad with negative
originality and little or no utility is virtually pointless.
UX. >User experience.

474
V
Valuable ideas are appropriate, effective, helpful, and/or use-
ful.
Value, tone, is the apparent darkness or lightness of a colour in
anything that is visible. It ranges from black to white.
There are hundreds of steps in value from white to black, but we
cannot always use more than a few.
Value perspective, or social perspective. In art of more an-
cient date, and even in primitive art, there are many examples of
perspectives based on contents, meaning, and value. The signif-
icance, rank, status, or value of depicted objects is evident from
the object’s size in the picture. Geometrical and mathematical
laws are set aside. In Egyptian traditional art, the gods are larger
than Pharaoh, who is considerably larger than his subjects.
Values and attitudes. Semantic differential scales in which the
sender and/or receivers report how positively or negatively they
respond to a given picture in overall terms or with respect to in-
dividual picture variables can also be employed in measuring
how “good” or “bad” a picture is. Semantic differential scales can
comprise general attitude toward a picture (Bad–Good), aes-
thetic value (Ugly–Pretty), reading value (Uninteresting–Inter-
esting), technical quality (Poor–Good), legibility (Hard to read–
Easy to read), educational value (Slight–Great) and credibility
(False–True). The combination of verbal and numerical scale
steps makes possible statistical calculations of mean values,
standard deviations and confidence intervals. This makes the
method suitable for large groups of subjects.

475
Vanishing point. >Central perspective.
Variable is something that can change.
Variable rounding. Figures are converted to two, or three, ef-
fective digits, regardless of the size of the number.
Variety is variations on a visual theme causing contrast in a de-
sign.
Varnish is a liquid shellac, or a plastic coating added to a
printed material.
VDT is Visual Display Terminal.
Vector. A vector only has mathematical properties. It can be as-
signed basic graphic properties.
Vector graphics is a type of computer graphics were graphic
data is represented by lines drawn from coordinate point to co-
ordinate point.
Vector image, object-oriented image, is based on mathemati-
cal functions and is composed of lines and closed polygons. A co-
ordinate system holds all the information on where lines, circles,
squares, rectangles and other shapes start and stop. Shapes can
be filled with various patterns and delineated with different lines.
This means that an image can be scaled up and scaled down with-
out loss of quality. The image is re-drawn according to the speci-
fications set by the new size.
Venus is a common sans serif typeface.
Venus of Dolni Věstonice is a 11.1 cm (4.3 in.) high statuette
of a naked female figure. The 31,000–27,000 years old figurine
was found 1925 in Moravia, now located in the Czech Republic.
Venus of Willendorf is a 11.1 cm (4.3 in.) high statuette of a
naked female figure. The 25,000 years old figurine was found

476
1908 at a Palaeolithic excavation site near the village of Willen-
dorf, in eastern Austria.
Verb. A verb expresses an activity. It may be an action, an occur-
rence, or a state of being. A verb is one of the main parts of a
sentence. “Verbs” is the second largest open word class.
Verbal and visual area diagram is used to compare the rela-
tionship between text area, picture area and background area in
graphical messages. This diagram has three axes: text area, pic-
ture area and background area. The three axes are graded from
zero to 100 percent. The text and picture axis have a common
starting-point and there is a right angel (90 degrees) between
them. The background axis is situated at a 45-degree angle to
both the other axis and it is graded from the outside towards the
starting point of the other axis. Consequently, where the text and
picture areas are zero, 100 percent is background/emptiness.
>Text, picture and background.
Verbal and visual information. Combined verbal and visual
information is very important in the natural sciences. In busi-
ness, engineering and science, clear thinking is often synony-
mous with visual thinking. Albert Einstein and several other
highly valued thinkers relied on visual images. Visuals may be the
main source for information and communication in many cases
today.
Verbal communication. We know what we mean. However,
we can never be sure that other people perceive our verbal mes-
sages as we have intended. On the contrary, people perceive and
depict a given message in widely differing ways. Speech repro-
duction devices often clip higher frequencies, thereby impairing
reception conditions for the listener and conveying speech less
adequately than direct conversation. Reception conditions of the
spoken word conveyed by technical media are similar to the re-
ception conditions of the printed word.

477
Verbal information. We read text in verbal visual representa-
tions and we listen to speech in audio-visual representations (the
term audio-visual is used here in the traditional sense as a desig-
nation for sounds and visuals).
Verbal languages are spoken and written languages. Verbal
languages have varying levels of meaning: 1) Phonemes (without
meaning), 2) Morphemes (with meaning), 3) Syntagms, sub-
meanings, and 4) Complete meanings.
Verbal linguistic perspectives. The concept “perspective” is
also used figuratively and in transferred senses. In a situational
context, for example, we may say that someone “sees reality from
a child’s perspective” (viewpoint). We create a mental view of the
relative importance of relationships or aspects of a matter or
problem.
Verbal messages work well when the content of the message is
analytical, detailed, logical, narrative, theoretical and sequential.
Examples of barriers to understanding of a verbal message are:
1) You may not know the meaning of the word which is being
used. 2) There can be different meanings of the same word. 3)
There can be a misunderstanding of English grammar. 4) There
can be a misunderstanding because of context. 5) Sometimes you
do not understand the inference. 6) Personal but erroneous ex-
planations.
Verbal symbols, non-figurative representations, include ver-
bal descriptions, nouns or labels and letters and characters.
>Representation.
Verbal visual continuum is represented by seven types of vis-
uals, ranging from purely verbal to purely visual: 1) Reader
Frame (pure verbal). 2) Emphasized Reader Frame. 3) Reader
Frame with Visual Cues to Meaning. 4) Verbal/Visual Balanced
Frame. 5) Pictorial or Graphic Symbol Frame with Verbal Cues

478
to Meaning. 6) Emphasized Pictorial or Graphic Symbol Frame.
7) Pictorial or Graphic Symbol Frame (pure visual).
Verdana. The type designer Matthew Carter created Verdana
as a humanist sans-serif typeface for computer screens. It was
specifically designed for clarity. Verdana has no serifs, large x-
height as well as open and wide characters. The spacing between
characters is loose. In contrast to Helvetica similarly shaped
characters have emphasized distinctions. Thus, Verdana has
good legibility on computer screens, even at small sizes.
Verso is the left-hand page of any spread in a book.
Vertical balance is the visual balancing of the upper and lower
portions of a composition.
Vertical bar chart is a schematic picture. >Bar chart.
Vertical lines are symbols of power. They often stop eye move-
ments. Vertical lines parallel to the borders of the picture give the
impression of calm and stability. When two or more columns are
used on a page, vertical lines can be used to clearly separate the
text blocks from one another. By tradition vertical lines are thin,
usually half a point or one point.
Vertical perspective is a special kind of geometrical perspec-
tive. Here objects in a picture may be placed on a vertical line, as
steps on a ladder.
Vertical spacing is the same as Interline distance.
Vertical type has instability, lightness and an up-wards aspira-
tion.
Vesalius, Andreas >Andreas Vesalius.
Video infographics contain short videos combined with illus-
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479
Video media provide a high level of information content in a
simple-to-understand form. Major examples of video media are
videotape, video sheet, video discs and “firm” memory.
Video wall. >Multivision.
Videogram is a collective designation for video cassettes and
videodiscs, i.e. media for the storage and replay of TV programs
at an optional time and place.
Viewer completion. Experienced artists usually leave out
most details in their pictures. They have the ability to simplify
and, in the process, expose significance. They only draw the lines
that are necessary to understand the intended content. Our
minds constantly fill in missing details and complete images,
most of the time without our realizing that it has happened. The
most probable interpretation of the message is created as a
meaningful whole. However, the human imagination may be
triggered by the design to provide details that will increase view-
ers’ attention and possibly also facilitate learning. In drawings
the lines that are missing may be as important as those that ac-
tually are there. This is often seen in cartoons.
Some lines are more important than other lines. We make the
best possible interpretation of any given stimulus.
Viewpoints of the society. What is the value with the new me-
dium? To whom is it “good”? To whom is it “bad”? Why? Is the
new medium likely to inflict any laws or ethical roles? Which? To
what extent? Is it possible to introduce new taxes? When? How
much will it give? Will the new medium influence national secu-
rity? Why? How much? When?

480
Virtual classroom. The organization and the actual design of
a system for distance education can increase student’s attention,
motivation and communication. It must be easy for the students
to receive information and to communicate with other students.
New information has to be displayed when students need it. It is
possible to carry out a distance course with few students.
Virtual communities is a major concern in distance education
and distance learning. Students need to feel that they belong to a
class.
Virtual education is a kind of >E-learning.
Virtual images are created by mirrors, lenses and other optical
systems. They can be seen but not “captured” and shown on a
screen of any sort. A virtual image is located in a point from
which divergent light beams seem to start before they have
passed the optical system. Like our inner images, e.g., memories,
virtual images lack an obvious physical format.
Virtual learning environments, VLE, a kind of >E-learning.
Virtual Reality (VR) is an interactive computer-generated ex-
perience within a fully artificial digital simulated environment.
VR incorporates auditory and visual feedback, sometimes also
other types of sensory feedback. Virtual Reality replaces the real
world with the Virtual World.
Virtual schools, cyber schools, offer courses and programs via
web-based technologies, like Internet.
Visceral design deals with aesthetic aspects, the immediate
“look and feel” and the perceived quality of a product.
Visible light ranges from wavelengths of 7 700 angstroms (one
Ångström is 0.00077 millimetre), that is, dark red, to 4 000 ang-
stroms, that is, violet. In between these extremes are red (6 500

481
angstroms), orange (6 000), yellow (5 800), yellow-green
(5 700), green (5100), blue-green (5 000) and blue (4 500).
Vision, our ability to see, operates at the level of overt behaviour
that enables organisms to avoid predators, find food, find mates
and move around from one place to another in their environ-
ments. In subjective terms vision is a complex process that elicits
a sense of vision, i.e., awareness of the stimulation of the eye’s
vision perception cells. In objective terms, light consists of elec-
tromagnetic waves (light “rays”) capable of acting on our eyes
and creating sensations of light and images. Human vision is sen-
sitive within a wide wavelength range. The eye’s greatest sensi-
tivity is about 5 550 angstroms. Sensitivity decreases markedly
toward the red and violet ends of the spectrum.
Vislet. When a visual story is published on a blog or on a web
page, it becomes a Vislet, a short, visualized story. It may be used
as educational material on any computer. A vislet may also be an
interactive data visualization.
Vistavision is a system for wide-film using standard 35-mm
film in a different height-width relationship. In America 1:1.66 is
used and in Europe 1:1.85. Vistavision has a resolution of c 150
pixels per square inch in the middle of the screen.
Visuacy. It seems that rather similar concepts have been devel-
oped in different places and at different times. Diagrammatic lit-
eracy, digital visual literacy, graphicacy, graphical literacy and
visual literacy are all concerned with the ability to understand
and work with different kinds of visual representations. The term
visuacy is suggested as an umbrella term for these concepts.
>Visual literacy.
Visual acuity, our ability to discriminate small objects, peaks at
about age 22. Throughout our lives the lenses become less and
less transparent. The result of this increasing opacity is that we
require more contrast between a message and its background to

482
>any fine details in images and to read text. Usually, there is a
constancy of size, shape, colour, brightness and contrast in the
perception of known objects. This is regardless of distance, angle
and illumination.
Visual alignment depends on careful optical adjustment to
compensate for differences in shape of the element being aligned.
Visual analysis. In “visual analysis” the term “modality” means
how real a representation should be taken to be. Photographs
that bear a truthful witness to an event have got “high modality.”
These images reflect what we would have seen had we been there.
Modality can be decreased or increased. WE can apply “modality
scales” to assess the “modality configuration” for an image.
Visual analytics combines automated analysis techniques with
interactive visualizations for an effective understanding, reason-
ing and decision making on the basis of very large data sets.
Visual analytics applications, visual media offering interac-
tive diagrams and graphs. When data change, these diagrams
and graphs change immediately, and they move when displayed
on an interactive digital screen.
Visual archaeology is an archaeological method to under-
stand the past through the analysis and interpretations of visual
images. Here images are seen as architectural artefacts like pot-
tery and skeletal remains.
Visual channel. Learning is facilitated when visual, audio and
print contain the same or similar information. We should use
pictures: 1) When messages are complex. 2) When referability is
important. 3) When messages are long. 4) When environment is
noisy. 5) When arrangement is complicated. 6) When precise
spatial discrimination is important. 7) When simultaneous
presentation is desired. 8) When more dimensions are required.

483
Visual cognition focuses on object recognition and classifica-
tion and rarely presents any arguments in terms of visual images
of aesthetic richness and depth. Visually simple diagrams, repre-
senting abstract intellectual theories, are the most common form
of visual communication in the literature on visual cognition.
Visual communication. In a society that is becoming increas-
ingly visually oriented and diverse, few people appreciate the
critical role of visual literacy and visual communication. The abil-
ity for visual communication is becoming more important.
Visual content. In the design and production of visuals for in-
formation and instruction, pictures must contain the message
they are intended to convey. The visuals must be relevant to the
situation, the objectives and the user characteristics.
Visual cortex. Vision is an extremely complex process. About
half of the cerebral visual cortex may be engaged in processing of
visual information. Different parts of the visual field have their
exact counterparts in the visual cortex. The primary visual cortex
is organized into some 2,500 rectangular areas, called “tiles.”
Each tile have some 150,000 neurons. Each tile receives infor-
mation only from a small part of the retina. In the tiles neural
circuits analyse information about movement, depth, orientation
and width of lines and edges and also colour. Information from
each tile is then sent to all sub-regions of the first level of the
nearby visual association cortex.
Visual cue is a signal that our brain focuses on.
Visual cueing is adding non-content signaling devices to infor-
mation or instruction environments to direct people’s attention.
Visual culture is found in every society, in private as well as
public life. Visual culture encompasses all visual aspects of each
culture, ancient and modern. Visual culture consists of the atti-
tudes, beliefs, conceptual realms and values that are imbued in

484
artefacts and performances by people that create, present, or use
them. Critical reading of visual culture involves learning the
skills of deconstruction to more clearly understand how cultural
texts actually operate, how they signify and produce meaning and
how they influence and shape their readers. It is immensely im-
portant that we correctly interpret the images and designed ob-
jects with which we live.
Visual design theme is a visual content that unites the pages
of a layout.
Visual dictionary is composed of a series of large images illus-
trating the meaning of words. The user looks at the images to find
the names of objects as labels and also the specific parts of the
objects. Visual dictionaries are often organized by themes. The
words may be printed in one or more languages. There may be
an index of all defined words.
Visual direction is when an eye is directed in a particular di-
rection across a composition.
Visual displays. Compared with traditional graphic presenta-
tions, a presentation of information on visual displays is very lim-
ited. Still, information may be presented in many different ways.
Obviously, the use of colour is important. Different “rules of
thumb” will apply to different types of presentation. Information,
the “message content,” might be represented as text, as numeric
data, or as visuals. Visual displays can be built in many ways. A
colour television set, an advanced colour terminal, and a liquid
crystal display all have very different characteristics. A television
set is built to be watched at a distance of more than 120 centime-
tres. A computer terminal, however, is built to be used at a dis-
tance of 60 centimetres and has a much better picture quality. It
also costs a lot more.
Visual effectiveness. Effectiveness of a visual depends on the
medium, on the type of information, and on the amount of time

485
learners are permitted to interact with the material. All types of
visuals are not equally effective. Line drawings are most effective
in formats where the learner’s study time is limited. More realis-
tic versions of artwork, however, may be more effective in for-
mats where unlimited study time is allowed. The realism contin-
uum is not an effective predictor of learning efficiency for all
types of educational objectives. An increase in the amount of re-
alistic detail will not produce a corresponding increase in learn-
ing. No pictorial image gains the status of a “statement,” unless
an explicit reference is made to what it is supposed to represent.
Visual fields. Since we have two eyes, both pointing forward
and with partially overlapping visual fields, we can assess the dis-
tance, both forward and laterally, between objects.
The left schematic illustration shows the pathways from the
eyes through the optic nerve fibres to the visual cortex. Data
from each eye reaches both halves of the brain. The right sche-
matic illustration shows how our two visual fields are partially
overlapping, and form a common part. The visual fields are
shown here in a horizontal view, rather than in a vertical view.
Visual fusion. When we look at a picture our minds combine
the minute parts by blending and organizing the patterns into
correct images.

486
Visual grammar. Aristotle had formed the conceptual idea
that certain elements of visual grammar are necessary to visual
composition and appeal.
Visual graphic design has its roots in the rational, functional
aesthetics that evolved in traditional graphic design over the cen-
turies for the print media and are now used in industrial design,
as well as in architecture.
Visual instructions. Manuals and instructions have been pre-
served since the 15th century. From an instructional point of
view, there was not much development in visual instructional
language from the 15th until the 20th century. The major ad-
vance in visual instructions occurred during World War II, when
the military used pictorial language to train soldiers.
Visual intelligence. >Spatial intelligence.
Visual interface design has a role in the design and develop-
ment of all kinds of man–machine systems.
Visual languages attempt equivalence with reality. Visuals are
iconic and normally resemble the thing they represent. It may
take only a few seconds to recognize the content in an image.
Meaning is apparent on a basic level, but the visual language
must be learned for true comprehension. Unlike verbal language
systems images and visual language speak directly to us in the
same way experience speaks to us: emotionally and holistically.

487
Variables in visual language are
related to 1) Content, 2) Execution,
3) Context, 4) Format, and
5) Perception.
Every variabel is related to all the
other variabels.
Visual language abilities develop prior to and serve as the
foundation of verbal language development. Development of vis-
ual language abilities is dependent upon receiver interaction with
images, objects and also body language. Children do not pay at-
tention to factual information in advertising, but rather to pe-
ripheral cues such as colour and imagery. They tend to process
advertising not through logical assessment, but through their
emotions. The same visuals are not equally effective for receivers
with different prior knowledge. Images and visual language
speak directly to us in the same way experience speaks to us, that
is emotionally and holistically. There seem to be no major differ-
ence between genders in interpretation of image contents.
Visual language structure. The structure of visual language
is formed by image variables that jointly influence our interpre-
tation of images. Image variables can be subdivided into four
main categories: 1) Content, 2) Execution, 3) Context and 4) For-
mat. All variables in visual language will influence perception.
Visual language variables. >Visual language structure.
Visual learning. >Learning from visuals.
Visual literacy is the learned ability to interpret visual mes-
sages accurately, and to create such messages. Interpretation and
creation parallel reading and writing in print literacy.

488
Visual literacy abilities have been specified as 1) To read/de-
code/interpret visual statements, 2) To write/encode/ create vis-
ual statements, and 3) To think visually.
Visual literacy competencies are defined as reading, plan-
ning and creating visuals and combining visuals and verbal in-
formation for intentional communication.
Visual literacy definitions. A large number of definitions and
explanations of visual literacy, visualisation and understanding
of pictures have been suggested. Here is my own definition: “Vis-
ual literacy is the learned ability to interpret visual messages ac-
curately and to create such messages. Thus, interpretation and
creation in visual literacy can be said to parallel reading and writ-
ing in print literacy.”
Visual literacy objectives. A visually literate individual shall
be able to create, plan and read visuals intended for communica-
tion and also be able to combine visuals and verbal information.
Visual literacy skills range from the ability to distinguish light
from dark to the ability to read and express a sequence of body
language arranged to express a personal emotion.
Visual literacy theory is grounded on the following five con-
ceptual components: visual communication, visual language, vis-
ual learning, visual perception, and visual thinking. Every com-
ponent is related to all the other components.

489
The five areas of study in visual
literacy theory are:
1) Visual communication,
2) Visual language,
3) Visual learning,
4) Visual perception, and
5) Visual thinking, always in the
middle when we turn the three-
dimensional model around.
Visual memory is very fast. It is one thousand times faster to
view an inner image than to rehearse a word from verbal
memory. More details of a mental image of an object are remem-
bered when the object is imagined next to a smaller object. Thus,
the relative size of a part of an image may affect our ability to
remember and recognize it. >Memory.
Visual messages are a powerful form of communication and
superior to verbal messages when content is emotional, holistic,
immediate, spatial and visual. Images and visual language speak
directly to us in the same way experience speaks to us: holistically
and emotionally. Factors in visual language are related to criteria
such as the content and execution of a visual, its context and for-
mat and the subsequent perception, learning and memory. Con-
tent is more important than execution, context and format. Pic-
tures have a strong emotional impact. For complex messages
combined verbal and visual information may be the best choice.
Visual modality. Children with visual modality rely very much
on seeing things and on their internal visualisations. They learn
by seeing; they are “visual learners.” Thus, these children will re-
member faces rather than names. They must take notes and write
verbal information if they need to remember it. Visual modality
children are very quiet. They cannot listen for a long period at a
time. Visual learners have vivid imagination. They think in

490
images and visualize in components and details rather than the
whole. Visual learners are not particularly responsive to music.
Visual phonemes. A few researchers have claimed that it is
possible to build an iconic “alphabet” and identified six families
of basic graphic sign elements, which are called graphemes, e.g.,
“visual phonemes.” Each of these graphemic sign elements is
part of one of six continuum families: colour, form, grain, orien-
tation, tallness and value.
Visual presentation of information. Presentation of an in-
tended message involves a wide range of professional interest
groups concerned with its development and use. Graphic design-
ers, industrial designers and typographers are primarily con-
cerned with design but will acknowledge the importance of eval-
uation. Psychologists and ergonomists have an interest in evalu-
ating the effectiveness of displayed information and some, but
not all, will acknowledge the importance of graphic design. Ar-
chitects, planners and engineers have a professional interest in
using information as a component in the artefacts they create for
society—buildings, roads, industrial machinery and consumer
products—but many may not be prepared to acknowledge the im-
portance of design and evaluation of such information. The prob-
lem that arises is that each of these professional’s approaches in-
formation display from a different standpoint—aesthetic, empir-
ical, evaluative, quantitative, pragmatic, practical—and also to
differing degrees, depending on the relative importance that
these aspects have in relation to their own professional interest
and obligations.
Visual purple. >Rhodopsin.
Visual rhythm is the repetition of colour, shapes, textures and
values to set up an intellectual or a visual pattern.
Visual signs do not retain their meaning in the same way as
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491
Visual structures. In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s retrieval
systems were able to compare image contents, based on colour,
shape and texture. These systems have limited capabilities and
are employed in industrial robots programmed for picking com-
ponents from a conveyer belt and creating assemblies with other
components. Developments are most advanced in the military
sector, e.g., in target-seeking missiles capable of reading terrain
and comparing readings to a pre-programmed map and a prede-
termined route to the target. Searching for visual structures in a
database is still not very practical, but research in image recogni-
tion and image processing will probably make this kind of search
more common in future systems. One example is medical infor-
mation system for detection of cancer cells. Another useful appli-
cation is searching in image databases for illustrations.
Visual terms. Graphic symbols may be intended to convey gen-
eralities of the same order of abstractness as verbal terms. In
some cases we can >graphic symbols as visual terms.
Visual texture is the creation of a visual design including an
implied tactile texture.
Visual theory. >Bacon, Roger.
Visual thinking. In engineering, science and business, clear
thinking is often synonymous with visual thinking. Albert Ein-
stein and several other highly valued thinkers relied on visual im-
ages. In many cases visuals may be the main source for infor-
mation and communication today.
Visual unity is the active placement of design elements in order
to achieve a harmonious whole.
Visual variables are colour, density (or greyness), directions,
form (of symbols), granularity (or texture), position and place
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492
Visual weight is the perceived heaviness or lightness of a visual
image.
Visualisation literacy. With the widespread advent of visual-
ization techniques to convey complex data, visualization literacy,
VL, is growing in importance.
Visualisation literacy. With the widespread advent of visual-
ization techniques to convey complex data, visualization literacy,
VL, is growing in importance.
Visualisation, or visualization, is any technique for creating
animations, diagrams, images, and sketches to communicate
messages. It is used education, engineering, medicine, science,
technology, etcetera.
Visualising, or visualizing, When text and pictures are being
produced for informative purposes, it may be a good idea to start
by trying to “visualise” the information to be conveyed to the
readers. You attempt to materialize it in an effective synthesis of
words and pictures. Visualisation is usually a complex task, never
a single act on its own and it requires the collaboration of several
different parties. Here we can note the following five steps: 1) Re-
quirements. Analyse the commission and the requirements. 2)
Receivers. Define the intended receivers of the information. Con-
sider age, gender and socio-economic factors. Consider views
and any other feedback expressed by (previous) receivers. 3) Ob-
jectives. Define the objectives for the message. 4) Production. Or-
ganize the work. Select a method for framing of the verbal and
visual message. Select a suitable medium. Produce synopsis: text
and pictures. 5) Reviews. A subject matter review will ensure that
the content is relevant to the intended audience. A pedagogical
review will ensure that the material is well structured.
Visualization, or visualisation, is 1) a graphical representation
that clearly conveys complicated data or ideas, and 2) the process
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493
Visuals. Drawings and photographs are “two-dimensional” rep-
resentations. Interpretation of image content is less constrained
than interpretation of a verbal message. However, a still picture
may be interpreted in more than one way. Furthermore, diora-
mas, models, sculptures and stereo pictures have a third “dimen-
sion.” Current laser techniques make it possible to create three-
dimensional images, holograms, enabling viewers to >“behind”
image objects.
Visuals in teaching aids. It may be concluded that visuals in
teaching aids must evoke responses in the reader. To make this
possible, the reader must be able to discover the visuals, become
interested in them and read them in an active and selective way.
It may be good advice to teachers to learn about visual commu-
nication and always use pictures in an active way. In my opinion,
teachers should request quality and refuse to buy expensive
teaching aids with poor quality.
VL. The abbreviation “VL” is often used for: (1) the concept “Vis-
ual Literacy”, and it is also used for: (2) the concept “Visualisa-
tion literacy”.
VLE, Virtual learning environments, is a kind of E-learning.
>E-learning.
VLSI. >Third generation-television.
Volume in visual language. A volume has a three-dimen-
sional form. The form may be actual or simulated. In two-dimen-
sional representations of three-dimensional objects, shadows are
key cues for simulated volumes. We structure the three-dimen-
sional field into various depth planes, or grounds; a foreground,
a middle ground and a background. Like lines and areas, volumes
also have several basic properties, such as size, form, colour, sur-
face, structure, contour, direction, weight, position, material,
light, architecture, stability, balance, proportions, gravity and
context.

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Volume of information. The amount of available information
is growing every day. Research and development produce more
information than ever before. The growth of available infor-
mation can be described with a cone, the information cone,
which is growing over time. When a subject matter is new, it is
easy to have an overall view of available information. Thirty years
ago, one person could have a good grasp of topics like “optical
media” and “multimedia.” Now, it is almost impossible to know
everything that is going on within these areas. The need for new
ways of browsing and navigating will increase when the amount
of information grows and it becomes cheaper and easier to store.
von Helmholtz. >Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helm-
holtz.

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W
Wall decorations. The Egyptians were the first culture to pro-
duce illustrated manuscripts and wall decorations that combined
their writing system with illustrations. >Books of the dead.
Warnings is a term for a group of information materials in the
category Brief messages. A warning refers to the designation of a
possible hazard that can be avoided by caution and responsible
behaviour. Like other instructions, prohibitions and infor-
mation, warnings can also be impressed or printed on different
products, such as machinery in the form of words, letters or sym-
bols designating e.g. an electrical safety hazard or a high voltage.
Warnings–attention. Any warning must attract attention and
be readily understood by the intended audience, the persons who
need the information.
Warnings–messages. Complex warning messages will need a
combination of pictographs and words. Warnings of different
kinds are often printed on packaging, such as warnings for haz-
ardous substances and warnings on the use of certain drugs in
conjunction with driving (as they would make drivers less atten-
tive in traffic). Warnings can be conveyed with acoustic signals,
e.g. fire alarms and fire-drill warnings. Warnings may also be is-
sued in weather forecasts, e.g. warnings for icy roads, hail,
storms or, at worst, a tornado, things we would rather avoid. The
information designer may be responsible for the appearance of
messages in various places such as placements of signs in factory
areas, hospitals, sports grounds and other official buildings.
Warnings–signs. Warnings on signs may concern warnings
for shallow water or thin ice, warnings to car drivers, pilots, lo-
comotive drivers and machinery operators etc. The information
designer should provide warning signs with properties that are
clear and easily noticed in bad and degraded conditions such as

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fog, weak illumination and smoke. A printed message must be
legible at the appropriate distance and must often be legible
when seen for a short period of time under bad lighting condi-
tions. A driver on a highway may only have a second or two to
read a signpost. Then the message in the warning must be men-
tally processed and understood correctly. Put warning signs close
to the hazard and provide warning signs with adequate reflec-
tance and good lighting equipment.
Wayfinding is a term commonly used by designers and manu-
facturers of signs and signage systems. >Wayshowing.
Wayshowing relates to wayfinding as writing relates to reading
and as speaking relates to hearing. The purpose of wayshowing
is to facilitate wayfinding. Wayshowing is the means. Wayfinding
is the end. The introduction of the term wayshowing is an im-
portant contribution to information design.
WBT, Web-based training, is a kind of >E-learning.
Weather graphics are information graphics describing what
the weather has been like and how it is likely to be according to
available forecasts. The colour-full weather graphics in the news-
paper USA TODAY have inspired a large number of dailies to in-
troduce information graphics.
Weaver, Warren (1894–1978) was an American mathemati-
cian, scientist, and science administrator. He is recognized as one
of the pioneers of machine translation and as an important figure
in creating support for science in the United States. >Shannon
and Weaver Model of Communication.
Web-based training, WBT, is a kind of >E-learning.
Web design. The visual layout as well as the information archi-
tecture needs to be user-friendly and attractive. Many other re-
searchers have made the same recommendations. In printed ma-
terial blank space increases cost, since more paper is required.

497
Thus, it is not often used. However, colour as well as blank space
on a visual display are essentially free and might be used to in-
crease legibility and readability. The layout of a web site should
fit all standards. Despite the increased availability of articles on
the topic, one of the primary problems with approaching the con-
cept of “Good design’ is not context neutral; specific arrange-
ments that work well for one content area and audience do not
automatically work well for all other content areas and audi-
ences. Due to the relatively poor resolution on visual displays and
television sets, we should avoid typefaces with very thin lines for
texts on these screens.
Web diagram is a kind of diagram for planning and production.
Web meeting. >Web seminar.
Web seminar. In a virtual web seminar, a web meeting, a
“webinar,” or a “chat,” groups of people have direct contacts to
discuss problems.
Webinar. >Web seminar.
Wedge serifs are shaped like wedges. >Serif.
Wernicke’s area is a posterior zone in the left frontal cortex,
involved in the understanding of written and spoken language. It
is thought to be the repository for the ideas to be articulated in
speech. >Speech.
Wertheimer. >Gestalt principles, Gestalt psychology.
White space is the empty space around printed images and
texts on a page.
Wholeness perspective. The sender needs to consider age
and gender, cultural, economic, historical, political, religious and
social factors, as well as the amount of data to be used. It is nec-
essary for the sender to employ a total view of all information and