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Journal of Family and Economic
Issues
ISSN 1058-0476
J Fam Econ Iss
DOI 10.1007/s10834-015-9464-1
Relations Between Economic Well-Being,
Family Support, Community Attachment,
and Life Satisfaction Among LGBQ Adults
Vanja Lazarevic, Elizabeth G.Holman,
Ramona Faith Oswald & Karen
Z.Kramer

1 23
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Relations Between Economic Well-Being, Family Support,
Community Attachment, and Life Satisfaction Among LGBQ
Adults
Vanja Lazarevic
1
•Elizabeth G. Holman
2
•Ramona Faith Oswald
2
•
Karen Z. Kramer
2
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract While studies with the general population
indicate that one’s life satisfaction is related to economic
well-being and social support, much less is known about
these constructs among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer
(LGBQ) populations. The current study examines the
relationship between economic well-being and life satis-
faction in a sample of 458 LGBQ individuals. Further, the
direct and moderating effects of family and community
support are examined. As hypothesized, perceived financial
stress and proximal family support each had a significant
main effect on life satisfaction. Household income (ad-
justed by number of individuals living in the household)
had a non-linear effect on life satisfaction. Community
support for LGBQ individuals was not associated with life
satisfaction, and the moderating hypotheses were not sup-
ported. The findings and the implications for future
research are discussed.
Keywords Economic well-being Family of origin Life
satisfaction Minority stress theory Quality of life 
Sexual minority
Introduction
Life satisfaction, as a component of subjective well-being,
indicates the extent to which an individual believes that the
quality of their life meets their personal criteria for success
(Diener et al. 1985). The self-evaluation inherent in life
satisfaction provides valuable insight into the perceived
adequacy of one’s social and material circumstances.
Although life satisfaction has been widely studied among
the general population (e.g., Diener and Diener 1995;
Morrison et al. 2011; Oishi et al. 1999), it has remained
largely unexplored in research on sexual minorities,
specifically lesbian, gay, bisexual and queer-identified
(LGBQ) individuals.
1
Given the prejudice and discrimi-
nation faced by LGBQ people (e.g., Herek 2009), and the
health and wealth disparities that may result from sexual
orientation inequality (Baumle and Poston 2011; Meyer
2003; Prokos and Keene 2010), it is important to under-
stand how LGBQ people evaluate the quality of their own
lives. Toward this goal, the current study used minority
stress theory (Meyer 2003) to assess whether life satis-
faction is associated with economic well-being, family
support, and community attachment. Further, based on
elements of the minority stress model (Meyer 2003), we
examined the moderating effects of support on the rela-
tionship between life satisfaction and economic well-being
among LGBQ adults who live in non-metro areas of the
state of Illinois. The non-metropolitan area of the state
excludes the Cook County and surrounding Chicago sub-
urbs because the aims of the study are to specifically focus
&Vanja Lazarevic
lazarevic.vanja@gmail.com
1
Psychiatry Department, Boston Children’s Hospital/Harvard
Medical School, 21 Autumn St., 1st floor, Boston,
MA 02115, USA
2
Department of Human and Community Development,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 905 South
Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
1
The LGBQ acronym accurately reflects the self-identification of
survey respondents in our data and is inclusive of the range of
identities among sexual minorities. We do not include the T for
transgender because our paper does not address gender minority
status.
123
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DOI 10.1007/s10834-015-9464-1
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on the life experiences of LBGQ individuals in non-
metropolitan communities.
Literature Review
Life Satisfaction
The scant research on life satisfaction among LGBQ
individuals has suggested that life satisfaction may be
lower among LGBQ compared to heterosexual individuals.
Specifically, a four-country study from Cuba, South Africa,
India, and Norway compared LGBQ youth to heterosexual
males and females in each location and found that LGBQ
youth reported lower levels of life satisfaction (Træen et al.
2009). In addition, the latest research in the US has indi-
cated that LGBQ individuals reported lower life satisfac-
tion than non-LGBQ individuals. A Gallup poll with about
3000 LGBQ adults and 81,000 heterosexual adults found
that LGBQ adults had a lower score on life satisfaction
even after controlling for age, gender, race, educational
attainment, state of residence, and population density
(Gates 2014). However, an Israeli study comparing 219
LGBQ youth with 219 heterosexual youth found no dif-
ferences in life satisfaction between the two groups, even
though the LGBQ group reported more depressive symp-
toms (Shenkman and Shmotkin 2011). Although research
on the life satisfaction of LGBQ individuals consists of
only these few studies, it has demonstrated that life satis-
faction is salient for LGBQ people and worthy of further
exploration. Therefore, the current study expanded on this
research by examining life satisfaction in a sample of
LGBQ adults, specifically focusing on indicators that pre-
vious research has found to be relevant to LGBQ well-
being: economic well-being, family support, and commu-
nity attachment.
Minority Stress Theory
Minority stress theory (Meyer 2003) provides a framework
for hypothesizing the constructs associated with life satis-
faction for LGBQ individuals. According to minority stress
theory, LGBQ people face stigma-based stressors (e.g.,
social rejection, hate speech, victimization, felt need to
hide) in addition to the stressors of daily living experienced
by all. Minority stress has been associated with health and
well-being disparities among sexual minorities (Institute of
Medicine 2011). Furthermore, research has consistently
found that LGBQ-specific resources can ameliorate the
negative effects of minority stress (Institute of Medicine
2011). LGBQ-specific resources are social and tangible
supports that convey a clear message of affirmation for
LGBQ identities.
Although general stress is part of the minority stress
model, it is an understudied construct. Virtually all
research using minority stress theory focuses solely on
LGBQ-specific stress (LeBlanc et al. 2015). Our study
extends this literature by examining the impact of general
stress, specifically financial stress and household income
level, on sexual minorities. We also study the moderating
role of LGBQ-specific resources on the relationship
between reduced economic well-being and life satisfaction.
Derived from minority stress theory, our overall hypothesis
is that greater economic distress will be associated with
lower life satisfaction in a sample of LGBQ adults, and this
negative relationship will be reduced in the presence of
LGBQ-specific supports.
Economic Well-Being
US and international population-based research has found
that economic well-being is related to life satisfaction
(Argyle 2001; Diener et al. 1999; Dumludag 2013; Stein
et al. 2013). Both at the national (Diener and Biswas-
Diener 2002) and individual (Diener et al. 1999) levels,
decreased economic well-being has been associated with a
decrease in life satisfaction. More specifically, this link
appears to be stronger for those with lowered income
(Christoph 2010). Conversely, individuals with lower
levels of financial stress report higher levels of life satis-
faction (Stein et al. 2013).
Interpretations of these findings should include the
understanding that economic well-being has been assessed
both objectively and subjectively, and each approach can
provide unique information (Diener and Suh 1997).
Objective measures have included individual or household
income, home equity, accrued debt, or other financial assets
and liabilities. These measures reflect the attainment of
material well-being that can be evaluated on the basis of
income cut-offs such as the federal poverty level, or soci-
etal norms regarding material success such as achieving a
‘‘middle class’’ income. Objective measures cannot, how-
ever, tap an individuals’ perception that their income is
adequate; even people with higher incomes may experience
financial distress. Indeed, studies have found that the per-
ception of financial stress may be more predictive of psy-
chological well-being than objective indicators (e.g.,
Takeuchi et al. 1991) and may even mediate the relation-
ship between poverty and psychological health (e.g., Tha-
nakwang 2013). Thus, scholars have also utilized
subjective assessments of economic well-being. Subjective
measures have included the extent to which one perceives
their financial resources to be adequate and/or the extent to
which one feels stress about their financial situation (e.g.,
Sumarwan and Hira 1993). The current study has included
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both an objective measure of household income as well as a
subjective measure of perceived financial stress.
Given the evidence of economic disadvantage among
same-sex partner households, it may be especially impor-
tant to study the psychological impact of economic well-
being on LGBQ individuals. Indeed, a survey of 1496
lesbian and bisexual women has found that those with
lower incomes were at higher risk for poor general health
(Fredriksen-Goldsen et al. 2010). Further, analyses of US
Census data have indicated that same-sex couple house-
holds have a higher risk of poverty compared to their
married heterosexual counterparts (Prokos and Keene
2010; see also Badgett et al. 2013). Similarly, a report from
the Williams Institute indicated that children living in
same-sex couple households were twice as likely to be
living in poverty as those with a married mother and father
(Albelda et al. 2009). Thus as derived from minority stress
theory, we examined the link between economic well-being
(a ‘‘general stressor’’) and life satisfaction among LGBQ
adults.
Family and Community Support
It is known that social support is associated with economic
well-being for the general population (Simmons et al.
2007); minority stress theory also posits that LGBQ-
specific social support can mitigate the effects of stigma-
based stress on LGBQ individuals’ health and well-being
(Meyer 2003). What has not been studied is whether
LGBQ-specific social support can mitigate the effects of
general stress for sexual minorities. Thus, in the current
study, indicators of LGBQ-specific social support were
tested as moderators of the relationship between economic
well-being and life satisfaction.
An emerging body of research has confirmed minority
stress theory (Meyer 2003) by finding that social support
from family, the local community, and the LGBQ com-
munity, are all important for the life satisfaction of LGBQ
individuals. A study in Spain conducted with 220 gay men,
for example, found that higher levels of emotional support
from one’s family were positively associated with
increased life satisfaction (Domı
´nguez-Fuentes et al.
2012). Additionally, a study with 187 Chinese gay men
living in Hong Kong found that higher levels of life sat-
isfaction were related to higher levels of gay peer support
and disclosure of sexual orientation (Wong and Tang
2003). Further, a US based study with 99 LGBQ individ-
uals found that support from coworkers (but not from one’s
employer) was related to increased life satisfaction (Huff-
man et al. 2008).
Drawing on the previously mentioned study of Spanish
youth (Domı
´nguez-Fuentes et al. 2012), support from
one’s family of origin appears to be an influential factor,
in that emotional support from family members was
positively associated with life satisfaction. Other studies
have also shown that support from family can serve as a
protective factor against psychological distress among
sexual minority youth who have experienced victimiza-
tion or discrimination (Mustanski et al. 2011); however
the positive effects of this support seemed to decrease
with age. Family acceptance of LGBQ youth has also
been shown to predict greater self-esteem (Ryan et al.
2010). Therefore, support from one’s family appears to be
an important determinant of life satisfaction for LGBQ
individuals.
We will also examine attachment to place (Altman and
Low 1992) by examining emotional connections to both
one’s residential community and the local LGBQ com-
munity. Residential community attachment has been
found to be associated with positive psychological well-
being (McLaren 2009; McLaren et al. 2008). Likewise,
attachment to a local LGBQ community may also impact
one’s satisfaction with life. In fact, these networks and
connections specific to one’s minority identity can play an
integral role for LGBQ individuals in terms of mental
health outcomes for themselves and their children. One
study found that the mere presence of a local LGBQ
community that involves parents can promote child well-
being and reduce the impact of stigmatization (Van Gel-
deren et al. 2009). Similarly, in another study, LGBQ
parents have called for specific connections to other
LGBQ parents saying, ‘‘I think just getting kids around
and seeing other families like theirs at some point…so
they don’t feel like the only one’’ (Holman and Oswald
2011, p. 450). These connections may be just as sup-
portive and important for adults as well. One study
reported gay men as ‘‘being constantly ‘aware of your
surroundings,’ being ‘hypersensitive,’ or ‘hyper-vigi-
lant’’’ as a way of specifically identifying other LGBQ
individuals and building this network around one’s
minority identity (Boulden 2001,p.66).Havingthese
connections and feeling invested in both the LGBQ and
the broader community can provide the supports neces-
sary to alleviate other stressors (McLaren 2009; McLaren
et al. 2008; Oswald and Culton 2003).
Similarly, the perceived local community climate for
sexual minorities can also impact individual well-being.
Community climate is defined as the level of support for
LGBQ people in a specific place (Oswald et al. 2010).
Supportive social climates have been linked to lower dis-
tress and increased well-being, both for LGBQ individuals
(Hatzenbuehler 2011) as well as children of lesbian and
gay parents (Lick et al. 2012). Therefore, the perception
that where one lives is supportive of LGBQ individuals
may buffer any negative relationship between economic
distress and life satisfaction.
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The Current Study
As discussed above, research finds that LGBQ individuals
are at risk for financial distress, and that LGBQ-specific
resources have a positive impact on well-being among
sexual minorities. However the existing literature on sexual
minorities that links stress to well-being has focused on
stigma-based stress rather than general stress. The current
study is important because we test unexamined aspects of
minority stress theory (Meyer 2003). Specifically, we
examine the relationship between general stress and well-
being, and the moderating effects of LGBQ specific sup-
ports on this relationship. Our hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1
1a Income will have a curvilinear relationship with life
satisfaction. Specifically, income and life satisfaction
will have a positive relationship at lower levels of
income but this relationship will become weaker at
higher levels of income
1b Perceived financial stress will be negatively
associated with life satisfaction
Hypothesis 2
2a Family support will be positively related to life
satisfaction
2b Community attachments will be positively related to
life satisfaction
2c Perception of one’s residential community as
‘‘supportive’’ will be positively related to life
satisfaction
Hypothesis 3
3a Having a local and supportive family will reduce the
negative effects that lower levels of income have
upon life satisfaction
3b Having a local and supportive family will reduce the
negative effects that perceived financial stress has
upon life satisfaction
3c Higher levels of attachment to one’s place of
residence will reduce the negative effects that lower
levels of income have upon life satisfaction
3d Higher levels of attachment to one’s place of
residence will reduce the negative effects that
perceived financial stress has upon life satisfaction
3e Higher levels of attachment to the LGBQ community
will reduce the negative effects that perceived
financial stress has upon life satisfaction
3f Higher levels of attachment to the LGBQ community
will reduce the negative effects that lower levels of
income have upon life satisfaction
Materials and Methods
Procedure
This study was approved by the University of Illinois
Institutional Review Board (#11094). Inclusion criteria
required individuals to be 16 years of age or older, identify
as LGBQ and currently reside in downstate Illinois. For the
purposes of this study, downstate Illinois is defined as
south of I-80 in order to exclude metropolitan Cook County
and the surrounding Chicago suburbs. Only small metro or
nonmetropolitan counties of the state are represented by
this sample (rural–urban continuum codes of 3 or greater;
Economic Research Service 2013); respondents’ home
communities ranged in size from 400 to 130,000 people.
Respondents were invited to take part in a one-time
online survey that took between 15 and 30 min to com-
plete. This format was utilized in order to reach the most
geographically dispersed sample as possible within down-
state Illinois while maintaining a relatively low cost, a
documented advantage of this form of data collection
(Cooper 2000; Evans and Mathur 2005; Kraut et al. 2004).
Research has indicated no differences between collecting
data through web-based surveys and paper-and-pencil
surveys (Ritter et al. 2004).
Messages inviting individuals to participate were sent to
organizations serving the LGBQ population in downstate
Illinois. In addition, respondents were recruited at com-
munity events (e.g., Pride Fest), and flyers with contact
information were posted at community centers, bars, and
other local organizations. Further, invitations were extended
through social networking websites (e.g., Facebook), as well
as personal and professional networks and listservs. Because
of these recruitment strategies, it is unknown how many
people received an invitation to participate and thus
response rates cannot be reported. Respondents who com-
pleted the survey were entered into a lottery for 5 gift cer-
tificates to Amazon.com each worth $25.00.
The online survey asked respondents a range of closed-
ended questions covering topics such as demographics and
residential ZIP code, family and partner relationships,
employment, residential community, religion, and LGBQ
community. Respondents were also asked a set of open-
ended questions regarding their perceived quality of life
and strategies for improvement.
The current survey represents wave two of a longitudi-
nal study of non-metropolitan LGBQ communities. Data
for this wave were collected between December 2010 and
May 31, 2011. Data collection was closed the day before
civil unions became legal in Illinois. We mention this fact
so that readers are cognizant that state- or federal-level
legal recognition of same-sex relationships was not
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available to the respondents in our sample at the time of
survey completion.
Respondents
Data were collected from 458 individuals who identified
their sexual orientation as LGBQ. Respondents ranged in
age from 17 to 74 (M=38.80, SD =13.81). Respondents
resided in 54 residential communities across downstate
Illinois. The majority of the sample was white (90.3 %)
and female (62.3 %). This race and gender distribution is
consistent with US Census data regarding the demo-
graphics of downstate Illinois same-sex couples: they are
largely white and female (Gates and Cooke 2011).
Measures
Dependent Variable
Respondents’ life satisfaction was assessed with the 5-item
Satisfaction with Life scale developed and validated by
Diener et al. (1985). Sample items included ‘‘The condi-
tions of my life are excellent’’ and ‘‘I am satisfied with my
life.’’ Answer choices ranged from 1 (strongly disagree)to
7(strongly agree). Scale scores were computed by aver-
aging all items; higher scores indicated higher levels of life
satisfaction. Cronbach’s alpha for this sample was high
with a=0.89.
Independent Variables
Economic well-being was assessed both objectively and
subjectively using adjusted household income and per-
ceived financial stress respectively.
Adjusted household income was measured categorically
such that each respondent indicated the category that best
described their annual household income in 2011 US dol-
lars (in increments of $10,000). For the current analysis we
assigned each respondent the middle value of their income
category to represent their household income. For example,
if the $0 to $10,000 category was checked, we coded their
household income as $5000. If the $60,001 to $70,000
category was checked, we coded their household income as
$65,000. Our use of the categorical mean was based on the
assumption that it more accurately reflected within cate-
gory variance than would using either the high or low value
of each increment. We then used the OECD equivalence
scale (1982) to calculate adjusted household income (for a
similar approach see Lee et al. 2014). The following for-
mula was used: S =1?0.70 (A -1) ?0.5 K, where A
is the number of adults and K the number of children aged
less than 18.
For our sample, adjusted household income had a mean
of $29,400 with a standard deviation of $21,670. Finally,
income was divided by 10,000 for ease of interpretation.
To test hypothesized non-linearity in the relationship
between adjusted household income and life satisfaction
we created a squared adjusted household income variable.
Such practice forces a quadratic functional form and is
commonly used when estimating non-linear effect of
income on outcome variables (e.g., Joesch 1998; Nilsson
2008)
Perceived financial stress was measured with a single
item that asked respondents to indicate how often they
worried about their financial situation. The answer choices
ranged from 1 (never)to5(very frequently)(M=3.14,
SD =1.21).
In the current study four indicators of family and com-
munity support were utilized: proximal family of origin
support, attachment to the residential community, attach-
ment to the local LGBQ community, and the perceived
residential community climate for sexual minorities.
Proximal family of origin support was computed by
combining scores from three different indicators: fre-
quency of contact with family members, proximity to
family members, and family supportiveness. Taken toge-
ther, these indicators tap whether or not the LGBQ indi-
vidual has frequent, rather than holiday-based, interaction
with relatives who are able to provide in-person support on
a regular basis. Linear relationships between family of
origin variables, economic well-being, and life satisfaction,
are not of interest per se. Rather, our construct of concern is
the nearby presence and interaction with high functioning
relatives.
To assess frequency of contact, respondents were asked
to indicate how often they were in contact with their par-
ents or siblings. The answer choices ranged between 1 (less
than monthly)to4(daily). In addition, respondents were
asked to indicate in miles how far away their nearest rel-
ative lived. Respondents provided answers that ranged
from 0 to over 9000 miles. Lastly, respondents were asked
to indicate how supportive their immediate and extended
family of origin is of them. To assess level of supportive-
ness from family or origin, we administered a 5-item scale
called the APGAR scale of Family Functioning (Smilkstein
1978). We administered the scale twice, once asking about
support from parents/siblings, and the second time asking
about the support from extended family members. Sample
items included ‘‘I am satisfied with the way my parents/
siblings discuss items of common interest and share
problem solving with me’’ and ‘‘I am satisfied with the
amount of time my parents/siblings and I spend together.’’
Answer responses were reverse-coded so that scores ranged
from 1 (hardly ever)to3(almost always). The 5 items were
added together to create a composite scale. Higher scores
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indicated higher satisfaction with family functioning. The
Cronbach’s alpha for the immediate family of origin scale
was 0.89, and for the extended family of origin was 0.94.
In order to compute the composite score for proximal
family of origin support, respondents had to have three
conditions satisfied: they had to be in daily or weekly
contact with their family members, their family members
had to live no further than 45 miles away, and they had to
rate their family supportiveness on the APGAR measure as
high (scores 12–15). Daily or weekly contact was used as a
cutoff to increase the likelihood that family members of
LGBQ respondents are able to provide support on a regular
basis. The distance cut-off was based on the geographical
distribution of communities; 45 miles indicated that
respondents lived in the same or adjoining counties as their
family members thus increasing the likelihood of being
physically available in time of need. An APGAR rating of
‘‘high’’ suggests that a family is able to respond effectively
to chronic and acute stress and thereby provide support to
members (Smilkstein 1978). Respondents who met all
three of these conditions were assigned a score of 1 (23 %);
everyone else was assigned a score of 0 (77 %).
Attachment to residential community was assessed by a
Place Identity subscale developed by Williams and Vaske
(2003). The subscale is part of the larger measure; how-
ever, for the purposes of the current study we utilized the
6-item subscale. A sample item included ‘‘I feel that my
residential community is part of me.’’ The answer
responses ranged from 1 (strongly disagree)to5(strongly
agree). All items were averaged to create a scale score
(a=0.95). Scores were distributed with M=2.90, and
SD =0.96.
Attachment to the local LGBQ community was measured
using a modified version of the above described Place
Identity subscale (Williams and Vaske 2003). We substi-
tuted ‘‘LGBQ community’’ for ‘‘residential community.’’
For example, a sample item included was ‘‘I feel the local
LGBQ community is part of me.’’ The answer responses
ranged from 1 (strongly disagree)to5(strongly agree). All
items were averaged to create a scale score (a=0.95).
Scores were distributed with M=3.13, and SD =0.95.
To assess their perceptions of residential community
climate for LGBQ people respondents rated their home
community as either 1 (hostile), 2 (tolerant)or3(sup-
portive). Because our hypothesis is specifically about per-
ceiving one’s community as supportive, this scale was
collapsed into a dummy variable where 1 =supportive
(25 %) and 0 =hostile or tolerant (75 %).
Controls
Demographic variables included race (white =1), age (in
years), and sex (female =1). These were selected to
control for life course differences within the sample. A
nationally representative study found that Blacks and
Hispanics had lower life satisfaction relative to Whites
(Barger et al. 2009); hence we controlled for race. Life
satisfaction among the general US population has been
found to be lowest during middle adulthood and thus it is
important to control for age (Steptoe et al. 2015). This
same nationally representative study found no sex differ-
ences in life satisfaction among adults in the US (Steptoe
et al. 2015). However, research on LGBQ populations
suggests that the relationship between stress and well-being
may differ between lesbians and gay men (Feinstein et al.
2012); hence we controlled for sex.
In addition, we controlled for respondent’s health by
using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8) (Kroenke
et al. 2001; Spitzer et al. 1999), which measures the level
of depressive symptoms in the past 2 weeks as reported by
the respondent. The measure contained 8 items (e.g., ‘‘In
the past 2 weeks have you had trouble with poor appetite or
overeating’’) with responses ranging from 0 (not at all)to3
(nearly every day). Past studies have demonstrated that the
PHQ is a valid measure of depression for gay men (Holt
et al. 2012). Cronbach’s alpha for the current study was
0.91.
In addition, we controlled for education and religiosity.
Past studies have established strong correlations between
life satisfaction and education (del Mar Salinas-Jime
´nez
et al. 2011; Witter et al. 1984); education and economic
well-being (Simmons et al. 2007); and religiosity and life
satisfaction (Hackney and Sanders 2003; Koenig and Lar-
son 2001; Stein et al. 2013). As a result, we included these
variables as controls.
Finally, life satisfaction has been found to vary by res-
idential location (Jokela et al. 2015) and thus respondents
were clustered into 5 groups to control for similarities
among respondents living in the same residential commu-
nities. Clustering was based on the bifurcated population
distribution of residential communities in the sample,
which ranged from 443 to 34,628 and then 76,122 to
129,107. Respondents living in the 443–34,628 communi-
ties were grouped together on the assumption that they
share a rural experience. The remaining respondents were
grouped by their residential communities because, although
similar in size, each of the four communities represented is
geographically and economically distinct.
Data Analysis
Using IBM SPSS Version 22.0, we tested all variables for
skewness and kurtosis. None of the variables were exces-
sively skewed (all within the ±1 range); moderate kurtosis
above ±1 was observed only in the income (-1.345), and
religiosity variables (-1.304). Known correlates of life
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satisfaction were controlled for in all analyses. We pro-
ceeded with multiple regression analysis with clusters
control using Stata Statistical Software (Version 12). All
continuous variables used in the interaction terms were
centered (Aiken and West 1991) and interactions were
computed by multiplying the independent variable and the
moderator variable. Missing data were handled with list-
wise deletion and the final sample included 332 individuals
(out of the original 458). Of the 126 individuals who were
omitted from the analyses, 87 chose not to report their
household income and 39 others had missing values on
other variables. We tested the life satisfaction of those who
reported income and compared it to those who did not. We
found no significant differences (mean life satisfaction of
4.94 and 4.92 respectively, t=0.136, p[.05). Similarly,
we observed no significant differences in life satisfaction
between those who reported their level of education and
those who did not (mean life satisfaction of 4.93 and 4.92
respectively, t=0.060, p[.05) as well as any difference
in life satisfaction across all other variables that were
missing.
Results
Table 1presents a descriptive summary of the study
variables and intercorrelations between the variables. As
shown, all independent variables except adjusted house-
hold income and attachment to local LGBQ community
were correlated significantly with life satisfaction in the
hypothesized directions. In addition, being a female was
associated with higher life satisfaction, and, as expected
depressive symptoms were associated with lower life sat-
isfaction. Education, religiosity, age and race were not
significantly associated with life satisfaction, but were
retained in subsequent analyses based on prior research
suggesting their importance, and because they were sig-
nificantly associated with some of the independent
variables.
To statistically test our hypotheses we used multi-
variate regression with cluster control for geographical
area (Table 2). Such analysis provided robust standard
errors that accounted for the potential interdependency
between respondents who reside in the same geograph-
ical area, and as such represent a conservative test of our
hypotheses. Model 1 included only the control variables
(i.e., education, religiosity, gender, depressive symp-
toms, age, and race); 32.8 % of the variance in life
satisfaction was explained by the model and we found
that gender (b=0.377, p\.01), depressive symptoms
(b=-0.142, p\.01), and age (b=-0.015, p\.05)
were all significantly associated with life satisfaction. In
Model 2 we entered the hypothesized independent
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations (r)
Mean SD 123456789101112
1. Life satisfaction 4.94 1.31 .89
2. Adj. HH income (in $10,000) 3.44 2.26 .08 –
3. Financial stress (perceived) 3.13 1.21 -.41** -.42** –
4. Local family support 0.24 – .10* -.02 -.06 –
5. Attachment-residential 2.90 0.97 .21** .14** -.16** .08 .95
6. Attachment-local LGBQ 3.12 0.95 .08 -.11* .05 .04 .32** .95
7. Supportive residential 0.24 – .19** -.02 -.14** .03 .37** .12** –
8. Education 0.74 – .05 .32** -.15** -.17** .07 -.10 .09 –
9. Religiosity 1.76 1.97 .01 -.11* .02 .06 -.06 .00 .05 -.04 –
10. Female 0.63 – .14** -.15** .12* -.09 -.00 .08 -.06 .04 .04 –
11. Depressive symptoms 5.86 5.33 -.52** -.22** .41** -.08 -.21** -.03 -.18** -.13* -.02 .08 .91
12. Age 38.88 13.76 -.01 .53** -.18** -.07 .23** -.01 -.02 .37** -.20** -.10 -.21** –
13. White 0.91 – .01 .10* -.03 .02 .03 .06 -.06 .11* -.01 -.01 -.02 .14**
Note All tests are one-tailed. Alpha reliabilities are in bold in the diagonal. N=363
*p\.05; ** p\.01
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variables adjusted household income (in thousands of
dollars), perceived financial stress, local and supportive
family of origin, emotional attachment to residential
community, emotional attachment to the local LGBQ
community, and the perception that one’s residential
community is supportive. We found that, surprisingly,
adjusted household income was not significantly related
to life satisfaction. Supporting our hypothesis, we found
that financial stress had a strong negative effect on life
satisfaction of LGBQ respondents; a one unit increase in
financial stress was associated with a 0.342 unit decrease
in life satisfaction (p\.01). We found no support for
our hypotheses that local family support, emotional
attachment to residential community, emotional attach-
ment to the local LGBQ community, and the perception
that one’s residential community is supportive would
have direct effects on life satisfaction, although all
effects were positive, as expected. In Models 4 and 5 we
tested our moderating hypotheses and found no support
for a moderating effect.
Finally we present results in Model 3 that tested whether
the association between adjusted household income and life
satisfaction followed a non-linear pattern. As can be seen, in
Model 3, the squared-term of adjusted household income was
significant (b=-0.024, p\.05) but the direct effect of the
linear term was still not statistically significant (b=0.018,
p[.05). This result indicated that only respondents with
higher income experienced the negative effect of adjusted
household income on life satisfaction while for respondents
with lower income there was no relationship between adjusted
household income and life satisfaction. Figure 1illustrated
the non-linear relationship between adjusted household
income and life satisfaction (keeping all other variables
constant). As can be seen, the infliction point was at adjusted
household income of $40,000 and life satisfaction decreased
at an increasing rate afterwards.
Table 2 Multivariate regression of the antecedents of life satisfaction, with cluster controls
Model 1 bModel 2 bModel 3 bModel 4 bModel 5 b
Education 0.157 (0.171) 0.177 (0.149) 0.119 (0.140) 0.142 (0.150) 0.105 (0.134)
Religiosity -0.026 (0.017) -0.030 (0.021) -0.031 (0.023) -0.034 (0.025) -0.038 (0.028)
Female 0.377** (0.047) 0.447** (0.056) 0.390** (0.056) 0.437** (0.059) 0.422** (0.050)
Depressive symptoms -0.142** (0.009) -0.106** (0.012) -0.104** (0.011) -0.108** (0.011) 0.106** (0.010)
Age -0.015* (0.005) -0.018* (0.005) -0.020* (0.005) -0.019* (0.006) -0.020* (0.005)
White 0.094 (0.254) 0.132 (0.263) 0.121 (0.281) 0.171 (0.249) 0.145 (0.280)
Adj HH income (in $10,000) – -0.045 (0.058) 0.018 (0.054) -0.003 (0.065) 0.022 (0.050)
Adjusted HH income squared – – -0.024* (0.007) -0.020* (0.007) -0.023* (0.006)
Financial stress – -0.342** (0.075) -0.324** (0.063) -0.328** (0.060) -0.308* (0.072)
Local family support – 0.229 (0.141) 0.205 (0.125) 0.225 (0.092) 0.209 (0.125)
Attachment-residential – 0.116 (0.081) 0.094 (0.076) 0.116 (0.063) 0.116 (0.070)
Attachment-LGBQ – 0.050 (0.076) 0.063 (0.071) 0.053 (0.075) 0.071 (0.075)
Supportive residential – 0.089 (0.135) 0.068 (0.123) 0.064 (0.149) 0.067 (0.153)
HH inc * Local family – – – 0.046 (0.057) –
HH inc * Attach-res – – – 0.054 (0.027) –
HH inc * Attach-LGBQ – – – -0.000 (0.019) –
HH inc * Supportive res – – – 0.019 (0.117) –
Fin stress * Local family – – – – -0.043 (0.078)
Fin stress * Attach-res – – – – -0.092 (0.040)
Fin stress * Attach-LGBQ – – – – -0.039 (0.050)
Fin stress * Supportive res – – – – 0.007 (0.064)
Constant 5.925** (0.127) 5.826** (0.211) 5.955** (0.356) 5.826** (0.361) 5.927** (0.342)
R
2
0.328 0.421 0.436 0.444 0.445
DR
2
– 0.108** 0.015** 0.008** 0.009**
Note All continuous variables were centered before computing interactions; Listwise deletion was used; robust standard errors are in parentheses.
The 332 participants were clustered in 5 different area clusters. Significance test for the change in R
2
in Model 3 is against Model 2 and in Models
4–5 against Model 3
*p\.05; ** p\.01
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Discussion
Prior research on LGBQ populations has emphasized the
detrimental effects of minority stress on well-being.
Although general stress is acknowledged within the
minority stress model (Meyer 2003), it has not yet been
studied. The findings of our study contribute to the litera-
ture by showing that income and perceived financial stress
are indeed relevant to the life satisfaction of LGBQ
individuals.
First, we found that life satisfaction was negatively
impacted by adjusted household income among those with
higher, but not lower, incomes. This finding is contrary to
the previous literature and to our hypothesis, and should be
interpreted carefully. The mean adjusted household income
in our sample was approximately $34,400. The median
adjusted income (not presented) was a little lower at
$32,400 and only 33.2 % of our sample had an adjusted
household income above $40,000 (where Fig. 1shows the
drop in life satisfaction begins). This demonstrates that for
two-thirds of our respondents, there was no relationship
between adjusted household income and life satisfaction
and the driving force behind this relationship (Table 2,
Model 3) was the 33.2 % of individuals who had adjusted
household incomes above $40,000. LGBQ individuals who
earn higher incomes might be under more stress at work
and/or work longer hours, both of which could reduce life
satisfaction. Further, individuals who live on their own will
have higher adjusted household income than individuals
that live with a spouse/children and living alone might also
be related to lower life satisfaction, especially in the non-
metropolitan context which is highly couple oriented.
Future studies on this topic should control for relationship
status and workplace stress.
Second, we found that perceived financial stress was
negatively related to life satisfaction. Thus, when consid-
ering the economic well-being of sexual minorities it is
important to examine the subjective dimension. Thinking
about this study in its broader, historical context, data were
collected during an economic recession. The downward
economic forecast could have contributed to increased
feelings of financial strain and possible loss of financial
security, which negatively impacted life satisfaction. This
is similar to the findings from a study with Turkish
nationals which examined life satisfaction and income
comparison, indicating that global financial crisis nega-
tively affected the life satisfaction of the study participants
by preventing them from maintaining or achieving their
desired level of economic success (Dumludag 2013).
In addition to broad economic trends, the perception of
financial stress could also be related to experiences with
minority stigma. As indicated in minority stress theory
(Meyer 2003), LGBQ individuals often experience stress
processes unique to this identity. However, these stress
processes may manifest themselves as more general, per-
haps, financial stress. For example, participants may be
experiencing job instability related to workplace prejudice
against LGBQ employees, or they may be worried about
paying for a partner’s health care out of pocket due to their
lack of eligibility for dependent coverage for same-sex
partners. It is well documented that sexual minorities
experience disproportionate barriers in the workplace in
terms of compensation (e.g., Baumle and Poston 2011;
Elmslie and Tebaldi 2007), and also face discrimination
based on sexual orientation (Ragins et al. 2007; Velez et al.
2013; Waldo 1999). Thus, future research should examine
the reasons for perceived financial stress among sexual
minorities at all income levels. Additionally, the concep-
tual distinctions between general stress and minority stress
should be studied (LeBlanc et al. 2015).
Contrary to our hypothesis, local family of origin sup-
port did not have a significant effect on life satisfaction for
LGBQ individuals in this sample. The lack of finding could
be due to a strict definition of what constitutes high family
of origin support. As a result, only 23 % of our sample fell
into this category, reducing the power to fully explore
association between this and other variables.
Furthermore, none of the climate and attachment vari-
ables had a moderating effect on the relationship between
economic well-being and life satisfaction. The community
variables (attachment and climate) had neither direct nor
moderating effects. These unexpected findings call into
question the buffering effects of gay-identified support
against normative, rather than minority, stress. According
to minority stress theory (Meyer 2003), the presence of
social supports can lessen, to some extent, the negative
effects of minority stress processes. In fact, the extant lit-
erature demonstrates the great importance of social and
community support for alleviating the negative effects of
anti-gay stressors. However, it seems these supports may
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
$10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $40,000 $50,000 $60,000 $70,000 $80,000 $90,000 $100,000
Fig. 1 The curvilinear relationship between adjusted household
income (in US dollars) and life satisfaction. Based on Table 2,
Model 3 results. All other variables held constant (=0)
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not have the same impact on more general stressors, e.g.,
economic distress. Existing research on LGBQ populations
has primarily focused on minority stressors without typi-
cally controlling for general stress processes. Conversely,
our study included indicators of economic stress, but not
LGBQ-specific stressors such as victimization, conceal-
ment, or internalized homophobia (Meyer 2003). Future
research can move the body of knowledge forward by
including both types of stress processes or order to disen-
tangle the effects of the well-being of LGBQ individuals
(LeBlanc et al. 2015).
Future research should also examine other aspects of a
sexual minority identity which may influence the rela-
tionship between stressors and life satisfaction. Minority
stress theory (Meyer 2003) purports that identity salience,
prominence, or integration can have significant impacts on
the way stressors are interpreted and the effects they can
have on one’s psychological well-being. That is, an indi-
vidual who places great importance on their sexual
minority status may be more influenced by the LGBQ-
support in their community compared to an individual with
low sexual identity salience. Future studies should explore
the role of such identity factors, as well as further examine
the additive stressors for sexual minorities.
Limitations
This study was not without limitations. For example, per-
ceived financial stress has been found to vary over time
(Valentino et al. 2014). The cross-sectional design of this
study was unable to capture such change in perception;
future research should focus on LGBQ economic well-
being using longitudinal designs. Additionally, we used
non-random sampling to recruit our participants; therefore
the results may not be generalizable to other LGBQ pop-
ulations. Finally, some of the unexpected results may be
due to the limitations of our measure of proximal family
support. Our measure tapped family nearness and general
functionality, but did not directly assess LGBQ-friendli-
ness specifically. Thus, we may not have captured what
really matters—a family that is affirming of the LGBQ
person’s sexuality.
Implications
Despite these limitations, the study provided several
practical contributions to the literature on economic well-
being and social support for LGBQ individuals. First, it is
important to consider financial stress as it is perceived,
rather than solely rely on objective indicators such as
income. Considering both subjective and objective indi-
cators of economic well-being helps paint a more accurate
picture of economic stressors. Second, services addressing
financial stress should be open and welcoming to sexual
minorities and same-sex couples. Practitioners supporting
low-income families must take care to address all concerns
affecting overall life satisfaction, including identity support
for sexual minorities as well as economic support (Holman
et al. 2014). While services may be focused on a family’s
economic well-being, including images of diverse families
in brochures or asking about a partner rather than husband
or wife are practices that can feel welcoming to LGBQ
clients and improve life satisfaction overall. Third, our
study contributed to the knowledge about the life satis-
faction of LGBQ individuals living in non-metropolitan
settings. Studies that examine well-being often neglect
those living in non-metropolitan communities. Their chal-
lenges and strengths greatly contribute to the diversity of
experiences of LGBQ individuals, and much more is
needed to fully understand the well-being of these popu-
lations. Lastly, our study was one of the first to examine the
effects of supportive communities on the life satisfaction of
LGBQ individuals. More research is needed to understand
the complexities of effects of residential communities on
their residents.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the University
of Illinois Research Board for the financial support for the Rainbow
Illinois project.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no potential
conflicts of interest with the respect to the research, authorship and/or
publication of this manuscript.
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Vanja Lazarevic Current research projects Dr. Lazarevic is working
on are: ‘‘Understanding early risk factors for radicalization among
Somali refugee communities resettled in North America’’ and
‘‘Cultural brokering among immigrants and refugees from Eastern
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Europe.’’ Some of her major academic achievements are: Postdoctoral
Research Fellow, Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center, Boston
Children’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School; Student/New Profes-
sional representative, International Section, the National Council of
Family Relations. She received her Ph.D. from the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Elizabeth G. Holman is currently working on the following research
projects: ‘‘Legal, social, and community climate indicators for
LGBTQ individuals,’’ ‘‘Workplace discrimination for sexual minority
employees,’’ ‘‘and work-family balance for same-sex couples.’’ Some
of her major academic achievements are: Co-founder of the LGBT
Research Symposium; winner of the 2014 Illinois Council on Family
Relations’ Outstanding Student Research Award; 2011–2014
Jonathan Baldwin Turner Graduate Fellow. She received her Master’s
degree and her M.S.W. from the University of Illinois at Urbana
Champaign.
Ramona F. Oswald is currently working on a research project titled
‘‘Effects of social climate on sexual minority well-being.’’ She was a
twice winner of the Anselm Strauss research award given by the
National Council on Family Relations (NCFR) and co-founder of the
NCFR’s GLBT focus group. She received her Ph.D. from the
University of Minnesota.
Karen Z. Kramer is currently working on a research project titled
‘‘Stay-at-home fathers and family and work outcomes; low-income
families mobility.’’ She received her doctoral degree from the
University of Minnesota.
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