Transmission of values in adolescents: An analysis with video games

Abstract

Introduction: Like any other audiovisual products, video games are tools that enable the transmission of contents. However, while the educational utilities of this medium of communication have been researched in several occasions, its transmission of values has not been analysed in depth. Method: A correlational approach based on a survey questionnaire has been used in order to examine video game consumption habits among adolescents (N=110). In addition, the content of the video games used the most by research participants was subjected to analysis. Results and conclusions: The study has shown that there are significant differences in video game usage among male and female adolescents, and that there are no significant differences according to age groups. The study also confirmed that video games are, indeed, transmitters of certain values. © 2015, Revista Latina de Comunicación Social. All rights reserved.

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How to cite this article in bibliographies / References
J Sinde Martinez, C Medrano Samaniego, J Ignacio Martínez de Morentin (2015):
“Transmission of values in adolescents: an analysis with video games”. Revista Latina de
Comunicación Social, 70, pp. 230 to 251.
http://www.revistalatinacs.org/070/paper/1044pv/14en.html
DOI: 10.4185/RLCS-2015-1044en
Transmission of values in adolescents:
an analysis with video games
J Sinde Martinez [CV] [ORCID] [GS] Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko
Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), jsinde001@ikasle.ehu.es
C Medrano Samaniego [CV] [ORCID] [GS] Senior Lecturer of Evolutionary Psychology.
Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Donostia-San Sebastián,
Spain - mariaconcepcion.medrano@ehu.es
J Ignacio Martínez de Morentin [CV] [ ORCID] [ GS] Associate Professor. Universidad del
País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain –
juanignacio.demorentin@ehu.es
Abstract
Introduction: Like any other audiovisual products, video games are tools that enable the
transmission of contents. However, while the educational utilities of this medium of communication
have been researched in several occasions, its transmission of values has not been analysed in
depth. Method: A correlational approach based on a survey questionnaire has been used in order to
examine video game consumption habits among adolescents (N=110). In addition, the content of the
video games used the most by research participants was subjected to analysis. Results and
conclusions: The study has shown that there are significant differences in video game usage among
male and female adolescents, and that there are no significant differences according to age groups.
The study also confirmed that video games are, indeed, transmitters of certain values.
Keywords
Video games; video game usage; transmission of values; media literacy.
Contents
1. Introduction. 1.1. Schwartz’s model of values. 1.2. Values and video games: previous research. 2.
Method. 2.1 Participants. 2.2. Design. 2.3 Instruments. 2.4 Procedure. 2.5. Data analysis. 3.
Results. 3.1. Differences according to gender and age. 3.2. Analysis of video games’ values. 4.
Discussion and conclusions. 5. List of references.

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Translation by Cruz Alberto Martínez Arcos, Ph.D. (Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas)
1. Introduction
Over the years, since their inception about 60 years ago, video games have evolved in different
ways. What has remained intact, however, has been their objective: entertain. As their name
suggests, they are audiovisual games. The Real Academia Española (RAE) defines a video game as
an “electronic device that allows, through appropriate commands, to simulate games on TV or
computer screens” (RAE, 2001). Obviously, according to the latest advances regarding this object of
study, this definition is somewhat outdated, since we no longer necessarily need a TV or computer
screen to play video games, and can use portable and mobile consoles instead. Marqués defines them
as a type of interactive electronic game, present in different media (ROM, cartridge, magnetic or
optical disk, online platform, etc.) and used on different platforms (pocket device, console attached
to a TV set, arcade, microcomputer, interactive video, networked platform) (Marqués, 2000).
Like any other media, video games have a number of characteristics. According to Gros (2000) they
are the following: they have a series of symbolic notations, i.e. they contain textual information,
sound, music, animation, video, photographs and images in three dimensions, are dynamic and allow
us to show on a screen changing phenomena and highly interactive processes.
The video game industry has grown exponentially in recent years, and everything indicates that it
will continue to grow. A study conducted by the PwC agency (2011) indicates that, while the market
volume in 2010 amounted to 55 billion dollars, the forecast for 2015 is 82,400 million, which is an
increase of 8.2% according to the compound annual growth rate. If we look at the data provided by
this study on the television industry, the growth will be of only 7%, which is a lower growth rate in
comparison with video games, although the television’s market volume is clearly larger. In Spain,
however, in recent years there has been a decrease in the market of video games, going from 1,454
billion euros turnover in 2007 to only 762 million euros in 2013, which is a very similar to the
figures from 2002. However, according to the forecasts of the PwC agency, the figures from 2007
will be exceeded in 2015, reaching 1,716 billion euros. This year the video game industry will
surpass the cinema industry on market figures.
In addition to their economic impact, video games have achieved great influence and consolidation
with the passing of the years. Although in many places they are still seen as mere entertainment,
video games have become a profession, a way of life. In South Korea, for example, video game
matches involving professional players have been broadcast on television since 15 years ago.
Meanwhile the United States grants electronic sports o e-sports visa to video game players, as the
video game industry increasingly attracts more people: the World Championship of League of
Legends, currently one of the most successful video games with an audience of 32 million people
throughout the world and 27 million players per day.
With regards to video game consumers, several authors have shown that video games are used more
frequently by teens (Estallo, 1995; in Etxeberria, 2001) and by males (Estallo, 1995; Funk, 1993; in
Etxeberria, 2001). Likewise, a study conducted among children of the community of Madrid (2005)

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concluded in the same way: 69% of children admited to play video games. If we look at the gender
of video game players, 85% of boys play video games while only 52% of girls do so. In terms of age,
as people grow older the use of video games declines. Thus, video games are played by 78% of
students in the third cycle of primary school, 73% of students in the first cycle of secondary
education, 65% of students in the second cycle of secondary education, and only 52% of high school
students.
While we might think that the only purpose of video games is to entertain, different authors have
highlighted their academic opportunities (Etxeberria 1999; Esther-Gabriel, 1994; Le Diberdier,
1998; Mandinacht, 1987). Their pedagogical capacity is undeniable, as pointe out by Etxeberria
(2001). According to this author, video games “have many of the features that require an effective
organisation of the social learning”, including: “the playful nature of learning, the growing and
progressive difficulty of skills, the individual rhythm of each participant, the immediate knowledge
of the results” (p. 11). So in comparison to other activities that take place at school or at home, video
games are very effective learning tools. Many examples can be found in Los video games: aprender
en mundos reales y virtuales (“Video games: learning in real and virtual worlds”), in which Lacasa
(2011) presents different real-life examples of classroom activities dedicated to learning through the
use of video games.
According to Gros, using video games in a formal learning context may be a valuable tool for
teachers, since video games have shown a great motivating potential among students (2002: 13). This
same author points out that:
“What a video game [...] offers is not a mere simulation [...]. The objective of the use of
these video games is not to develop skills to play but to think and reflect on the content,
on the decisions taken, to compare them with the decisions taken by other colleagues, to
analyse the generated learning, and its transfer. Ultimately, the teacher should take
advantage of the richness of a tool that luckily is liked by and can motivate students,
who know it to use.”
In the same way that video games have been introduced in the academic and school realms, they
have also been incorporated into the professional field. In fact, the games used by companies for the
training of workers are known as serious games. In this sense, Chabert and Allain (2014) point out
that video games have become a real and important market with their companies, their customers, its
R&D and the support of public authorities as well as the common tender among several French
ministries.
However, as is the case with television, movies or other media, video games are also a transmitter of
values, feelings, sensations, thoughts, etc. And these values are not neutral, they present certain
options of life and a certain scale of values (Medrano, Martinez de Morentin, Aierbe, 2010). These
values, as you would expect, are not always desirable from an educational point of view.
1.1. Schwartz’s model of values
The study of values is not something new in the academic literature. For many years authors have
tried to formulate a satisfactory definition and it seems, according to Schwartz (1992), that a

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consensus by different authors in different fields has been reached. We could define values in the
following way: “criterion used by people to select and justify their actions and assess people
(including oneself) and different events” (Kluckhohn, 1951; Rockeach, 1973; Williams, 1968).
Thus, we could say that values are the qualities people develop, initially, to respond to biological
needs and, later, according to their social context; based on which people shapes their representations
of reality and acts.
Values play a crucial role in the proper functioning of all types of organisations and in the
performance of all of their components. An organisation’s values (which are defined by the set of
values held by its members) define the ideals of its members and, therefore, its responses to and
perceptions of the world that surrounds it. In the same way, they are responsible for the satisfaction
of each of the members, their identification with the organisation and their intentions to remain or
leave the organisation (Judge and Bretz, 1992; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Meglino
and Ravlin, 1998; Verquer et al., 2003; Quaquebeke, Graf, Kerschereiter, Schuh, and Dick, 2014).
Like it occurs with the definition, the literature identifies five intrinsic characteristics of values
(Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987, 1990): 1) they are concepts or beliefs, 2) concerning states or
behaviours, 3) go beyond specific situations, 4) guide the selection or evaluation of behaviours and
events, 5) and are ordered by their relative importance. Values, understood in this way, differ from
attitudes primarily in their generality or abstraction and hierarchical ordering according to their
importance (Bem, 1970; Rockeach, 1973).
In addition to these formal characteristics, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) added that the main
aspect of a value is the type of goal or motivational concern it expresses. They developed a universal
typology of the different contents of values, concluding that values represent 3 universal
requirements for human beings: need of the individual as a biological organism, need for social
interaction, and survival and need for well-being.
Although, as noted Bermejo Berros (2010), there is still no definitive consensus on values and their
classification, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) initially defined eight “motivational types” of
values: prosocial, restrictive conformity, pleasure, achievement, maturity and self-direction, safety
and power. In a second review (1992), Schwartz proposes 11 motivational types of values, adding
new types and modifying some of the previous ones. However, in subsequent revisions, he reduced
the number to 10 values. Thus, the list of motivational types of values is as follows: self-direction,
stimulation, hedonism, achievement, power, safety, conformity, tradition, benevolence and
universalism.
Self-direction: the goal of this value is independent thought and action.
Stimulation: derived from the need for variety of situations to maintain an optimal level of
activation (Berlyne, 1960; Houston y Mednick, 1963; Maddi, 1961; in Schwartz, 1992b).
Hedonism: refers to the organism’s need for pleasure and satisfaction (Bentham, 1938 /
1948; Freud, 1993; Morris, 1956; Williams, 1968; in Schwartz, 1992b).

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Achievement: it is the personal success through the demonstration of competences according
to social standards.
Power: it relates to certain former motivational type, but unlike “achievement”, “power” is
characterised by the attainment or preservation of a dominant position within the social
system.
Security: is it related to harmony, the stability of society, relationships and of self.
Conformity: it is characterised by restricting certain actions, inclinations and impulses that
could damage or inconvenience others and violate different social norms.
Tradition: within this group we find values that are defined by respect, commitment and
acceptance of customs and ideas imposed by the culture or religion of each individual.
Benevolence: refers to the concern of everyone for the welfare of the people of her around.
Universalism: understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection of the well-being of all
persons and nature without distinction.
1.2. Values and video games: previous research
Values have been studied by many authors and in different areas and fields, including media
studies. Several studies have analysed the presence and the impact of the media on society and their
ability a diversity of contents, including values. In the same way, scholars have studied the kinds of
values they media pass on to consumers.
“The transmitted values are not neutral, they present certain life choices and a certain
scale of values, which does not always coincide with desirable values from the
educational point of view” (Medrano, Martinez de Morentin and Aierbe, 2010: 24)
This argument refers to the world of television, but can be extrapolated to any of the other mass
media: newspapers, radio stations, internet websites and cinema. In these media we can find
occurrences, situations and actions that go in line with that statement.
Video games, although not a medium of communication per se, share diverse aspects with them: they
are stories told through a screen (in the same way that occurs with television and cinema), with the
peculiarity that it is an interactive medium, i.e., the customer himself takes the decisions and takes
control of the story. Therefore, the transmitting capacity of video games would be, if not the same,
very similar to that of television, taking into account, in addition, their great acceptance
today. Moreover, the contents, attitudes, values and beliefs transmitted by the media and video
games are also similar.
However, research on the incidence of values by video games are scarce, as Ortega Carrillo and
Robles Vílchez (2008: 156) point out:
“Studies on video games and their impact on the formation of values are still scarce and
little significant. The Educational technology and social research group (TEIS) of the

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University of Granadas [...] is one of the few groups that include this subject among its
priority research lines (Ortega Carrillo, 2001 and 2003; and Pascual and Ortega,
2007). The work of Vera y Espinosa (2003) also highlight the power of video games to
convey attitudes and shape values”.
In the same way, Pindado, in his review of the literature on video games (2005), examines many
studies addressing this subject. However, none of them is about the transmission of values by these
electronic games. These studies address the educational power of video games, the cognitive value,
the acquisition of skills and abilities, literacy, prevention and health promotion and video games as
socialising medium.
Research on video games and values has been scarce in recent years. However, Ortega Carrillo and
Robles Vílchez carried out a study to analyse the values transmitted in violent video games
(2008). Based on a sample of college students the study examines the possibilities offered by a
number of video games chosen by the students themselves. This study used a 30-items instrument
designed by the authors to analyse video games in different facets. For the part of values, in addition
to the corresponding indicators, the authors provided participants/researchers with a list of the
different values and attitudes, to facilitate their identification. This research shows that violent video
games transmit values and counter-values. However, the presence of the first type occurs as a way to
get the second type. ”Be perfect, surpass yourself, rejoice and be competent to kill, annihilate,
destroy, steal or rape, is a moral perversion, unacceptable from an educational point of view” (Ortega
Carrillo and Robles Vílchez, 2008: 164).
The media have always been the target of various social agents when explaining “the evils that afflict
society” (Pindado, 2010). While the most-criticised medium has been television, “in the last decade
it has shared honour with video games and the Internet” (Pindado, 2010). Today’s society is
changing at a very high pace, due to the full inclusion of technology in our daily lives. This is the
“global village” (Medrano and Aierbe, 2008), which implies that adolescents are part “of a
generation that was born and lived in environments with different screens” (Medrano and Aierbe,
2008). They are the so called digital natives:
“They live immersed in an authentic electronic and media reality that surrounds their lives
and in which they move with ease. This is a world in which adults feel at times so intimidated
as aliens, and that they, on the other hand, dominate with great skill” (Pindado, 2010: 55).
These teenagers, who are very skilled in the management of electronic devices and technologies,
build their values differently from today’s adults. They do not do it through the traditional
socialization media, such as school or family, but do so through the media.
Having reviewed the state of the art, the main objectives of this article are as follows: 1. identify
adolescents’ video gam use habits according to age and gender, and 2 to analyse the types of values
transmitted by video games. Based on these objectives, we formulated the following hypotheses: 1)
there are differences in video games use habits according to age and gender; 2) video games are a
medium transmitter of values; and 3) the values transmitted by video games are individualistic,
collectivist and mixed.

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2. Method
2.1. Participants
The sample size was n=110 compulsory secondary education students from Getxo, province of
Bizkaia. Of them, 54 are in the first year (49.1%) and 56 in the fourth year (51.9%). Within the first
group of students, at the time of the survey, 43 were 12 years old and 11 were 13 years old. Of the
second group, 40 were 15 years old and 16 were 16 years old at the time of the survey. 54 of the
participants were female, and 55 were male.
Table 1: Number of participants by age and gender
12-13 years old
15-16 years old
Total
Female
18
36
54
Male
25
31
55
Total
43
67
110
2.2. Design
The study follows a quantitative and correlational design. Analysis of frequencies, exploratory factor
analysis, as well as the Student’s T test were performed to examine differences in terms of age and
gender.
2.3. Instruments
The instrument used is the “questionnaire on video games consumption habits”, designed and
validated by López Becerra (2012). This questionnaire consists of 24 items: the first 19 use a Likert-
type scale, with 5 possible answers, ranging from “Totally disagree” (1) to “totally agree” (5); the
last 5 offer diverse response alternatives. For this research, however, we added one item, the number
25, which asks respondents about their favourite video games. The inclusion of this last open
question aims to identify the general preferences with respect to video games, to carry out the
subsequent analysis of these video games.
The instrument used for the analysis of each video game is Schwartz’s list of 52 different
values. These values we sorted into different groups, which represent the different motivational
types: openness to change (self-direction, stimulation and hedonism), self-enhancement
(achievement and power), conservation (security, conformity and tradition) and self-transcendence
(benevolence and universalism)

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2.4. Procedure
For this study we contacted the aforementioned school and provided it with the necessary
information about the project, its objectives and procedures. Before the application of the
questionnaire we obtained the consent of the participants’ parents.
The administration of the questionnaire was approved by the management and teaching staff of the
school. We started with the first year secondary school students, one class at a time. The application
of the questionnaire took place during school hours and lasted a maximum of 20 minutes. Before
beginning, we explained to the participants the purpose of the questionnaire and the instructions to
fill it (which also appeared in the document itself).
2.5. Data analysis
After the administration of the questionnaire the answers were analysed in the IBM SPSS Statistics
21 program. Different statistical analyses were performed, including an analysis of the
questionnaire’s total reliability and an exploratory factor analysis.
Various analyses were also carried out to study the different relationships between the use of video
games and such variables as gender and age.
Similarly, we analysed of frequency of item 25 of the questionnaire, which examines the favourite
games of the participating teens. After the table of frequencies was developed, we performed an
axiological analysis of these videogames based on Schwartz’s model and list of values.
3. Results
According to Cronbach’s Alpha the total reliability of the questionnaire is α = 0.954. In other words,
this is a very acceptable reliability level.
An exploratory factor analysis of the questionnaire was performed. In concordance with the original
author, a first analysis was carried out to discover correlations between factors. To this end we used
the Principal Component Analysis and the direct oblimin rotation method, as a methods of
extraction.
Table 2: Analysis of correlations between the different factors.
Matrix of correlations between factors
Factor
1
2
3
4
1
1.000
2
.315
1.000
3
-.341
-.497
1.000
4
489
435
-.607
1.000
Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalisation.

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As we can see in table 2, the correlations between the different factors are not high, so this is a
multidimensional test.
A second factor analysis was performed, this time using as extraction method the principal
component analysis and the varimax rotation method. The results are ordered by size.
Table 3: Weight of items
Rotated component matrix*
Component
1
2
3
4
Item 1
.785
.405
Item 6
.753
Item 3
.751
.380
Item 7
.737
Item 20
.713
Item 5
.649
.410
Item 23
.627
.475
Item 2
.618
.480
Item 22
.579
.407
.481
Item 21
.555
.400
Item 4
.534
.433
Item 24
.493
.439
.421
Item 12
.773
Item 16
.715
Item 14
.709
Item 15
.421
.669
Item 8
.609
Item 13
.458
.585
Item 18
.790
Item 17
.763
Item 19
.739
Item 10
.463
.465
.392
Item 9
.710
Item 11
.517
.543
Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation.
* Rotation has converged in 14 iterations.
The four factors extracted account for 67.887% of the total variance of the questionnaire, divided in
the following way:

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The first factor explains 49.907% of the variance. It consists of items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 20, 21, 22
and 23. According to the author, this factor makes reference to “the habits of use and the degree of
attraction to videogames. This factor is called “degree of attraction to video games”.
The second factor consists of items 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 and 7,771% of the total variance. It is
called “level of concern about video games” and refers to the ability of teens “to play, get games or
search information about video games they like the most”.
The third factor explains 6.005% of the total variance of the questionnaire, and consists of items 10,
17, 18 and 19. Refers to the degree of interference posed by gamers in academic activities. It is
termed “interference of video games with academic activities”
The fourth and last factor represents 4.204% of total variance and consists of items 9 and 11. Refers
to the interference produced by video games in non-academic activities. It is called “interference of
video games with other activities”.
3.1. Differences according to gender and age
The Student’s T test was used to detect gender differences in video game habits and verify the first
hypothesis (“there are differences in video game use habits depending on age and gender”). To this
end, we compared the factors included in the questionnaire (table 4).
Table 4: Differences associated with gender
Gender
N
Average
SD
t
p
Degree of attraction to video
games
Girl
54
29.8587
9.41032
-6,902
0.000
Boy
56
41.4546
8.18668
Concern about video games
Girl
54
7.9867
3.45612
-6,475
0.000
Boy
56
13.2500
4.91473
Academic interference
Girl
54
5.1667
2.20420
-3,682
0.000
Boy
56
7.1071
3.21179
Non-academic interference
Girl
54
2.4630
1.16089
-2,751
0.007
Boy
56
3.1607
1.47435
As we can see, there are differences in the four factors. Scores for boys are, on average, higher than
those for girls: they feel more attraction for video games (t = 6.902), have greater concern (t = -
6.475), video games interfere more with both academic and non-academic activities (t = - 3,682 and t
= -2,751). The differences are, in addition, significant in all cases (p ≤ 0.05).
Differences according to age
As with gender, an analysis was carried out to identify the differences between different age
groups. The Student’s T test was used given that participants were divided in two different school
years and, therefore, in two age groups (table 5).

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Table 5: Differences according to age
Age group
N
Average
SD
t
p
Degree of attraction
to videogames
12-13
43
36.8143
11.07920
0.839
0.403
15-16
67
35.0868
10.18211
Concern about
video games
12-13
43
11.8438
5.25030
2.007
0.047
15-16
67
9.9104
4.71532
Academic
interference
12-13
43
5.9302
2.15357
-0.644
0.521
15-16
67
6.2985
3.32582
Non-academic
interference
12-13
43
3.0465
1.34436
1.407
0.162
15-16
67
2.6716
1.37497
In the case of differences according to age, we can see that in 3 of the 4 factors, 12-13 year-old
participants have higher scores: degree of attraction to videogames (t = 0.839), concern about
videogames (t = 2.007) and non-academic interference (t = 1.407). The only dimension in which 15-
16 year-old students scored higher is academic interference (t = -0.644). However, these differences
are only significant in the second factor (p ≤ 0.05).
3.2. Analysis of video games’ values
In order to verify the second and third hypothesis and carry out the analysis of the values transmitted
by video games, we identified the favourite or most-used videogames among adolescents. Figure 1
shows the favourite games of participants, and the frequency with which they were chosen. As we
can see, four video games have stood out above the rest: FIFA, GTA V, Call of Duty and Just
Dance. Together, they constitute 50% of the cases. The rest of the video games are very behind in
terms of frequency: Mario Bros., Mario Kart and Sims 3 are the following favourite games with
3.6% each.
Figure 1: Frequency of most-used video games

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For the analysis, we selected the video games used the most by teens, given that they have the
greatest presence and influence. The list of analysed video games is shown in table 4.
Table 6: Analysed video games
Title
Platform
Genre
Year
Developer
Description
14 FIFA
PS3
Sports
2013
EA Sports
Football Simulator
Grand Theft
Auto V
PS3
Action-
adventure
2013
Rockstar
Games
3 players must
complete missions to
reach the objective
Just Dance 4
Wii
Musical
2012
Ubisoft
Dancing to the sound
of music
Call of Duty:
Black Ops II
PS3
First-person
action
2012
Treyarch
Soldiers fight around
the world
The Sims 3
PC
Social
Simulator
2009
Maxis
Create a character and
control all aspects of
his life
Mario Kart Wii
Wii
Racing
Simulator
2008
Nintendo
Racing simulator
Super Mario
Galaxy 2
Wii
Platforms
2010
Nintendo
Run, jump and move
around different
planets to set the
trapped Princess free
“Platform” refers to the platform in which the game has been analysed.
Schwartz’s list of 52 different values was used for the analysis of each video game. These values
were classified in different motivational types, each one of them referring to different dimensions, as
explained in the “instruments” section. Table 7 presents the motivational types and their presence in
the analysed video games.
Table 7: Presence of motivational types in various video games
N
Media
SD
Asymmetry
Kurtosis
Self-direction
7
2.14
2.854
764
-1.687
Stimulation
7
1.57
1.272
-.222
-1.715
Hedonism
7
1.14
1.069
-.374
-2.800
Achievement
7
3.29
1.976
-.733
-.864
Power
7
2.71
2.138
.374
-2.800
Safety
7
2.71
3.147
.727
-1.415
Conformity
7
1.43
1.902
.764
-1.687
Tradition
7
1.00
1.732
1.347
-.111
Benevolence
7
3.29
2.928
.277
-1.482
Universalism
7
2.86
3.579
1.079
-.973
N valid
7

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In terms of the aforementioned values, we confirmed their presence in the different characters of the
video games, both protagonists and secondary characters. The study shows that 3 values (capable,
successful and social recognition) appear in 6 of 7 of the examined games (figure 2). Other 3 values
(daring, helpful and loyal) appear in 5 of the 7 video games used the most by adolescents. On the
contrary, many values are hardly present in these games, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2: Most frequent values in the sample of video games
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Capable
Successful
Social recognition
Daring
Helpful
Loyal
Exciting life
Pleasure
Enjoying life
Ambitious
Influential
Authority
Belonging
World in peace
Figure 3: Least frequent values in the analysed video games
0
1
2
3
Devout
Choosing own goals
Curious
Self-respect
varied life
Reciprocation of favours
Family security
Clean
Politeness
Honoring parents and elders
Respect for tradition
Humble
Moderate
Indulgent
Honest
Equality
Unity with nature
Wisdom
Openness to change
Protecting the environment

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4. Discussion and conclusions
It seems necessary to begin the conclusions section alluding to the questionnaire used in this
research. As mentioned in the results section, the reliability analysis yields a good result, with an
index α=0.954. This score converges with the one obtained by the author of the scale (α=0.915),
although it is slightly higher.
In terms of the factor analysis, we found serious differences in the composition of each
factor. According to the analysis carried out in this research, the factors are ordered in a way and
contain items different from those obtained by López Becerra (2012). This could be due to the fact
that the original design of the questionnaire is aimed at preteens, so its application to teens changed
the results. Another explanation could be the number of items contained in the questionnaire, the last
5 in particular: the design of these items can lead to confusion, since their drafting and answer
options are not entirely clear.
In terms of the objectives of this study, the first one was to confirm the existence of differences in
video game usage among male and female teens, based on the hypothesis that the rate of use among
males would be higher than among females. The results confirmed that video game usage among
boys is higher than among girls. These data confirm the results of other related studies carried out by
different authors (Estallo, 1993; Funk, 1995; Protégeles, Civertice and Defensor del Menor, 2005).
In terms of the age of players, the differences are not significant. Unlike the results found in other
research studies, the age is not a relevant factor to explain video game usage. In other words,
preteens and teens are attracted by video games with the same intensity, have the same degree of
concern about video games, and their academic and non-academic activities are affected by video
games with the same intensity.
The second objective was to analyse the values transmitted by video games, based on the hypothesis
that videogames transmit values and that they are both individualist and collectivist. The first general
analysis of the results shows that, in fact, video games transmit values. All of the analysed video
games transmit values, as expected, and as shown by other researchers (Ortega Carrillo and Robles
Vílchez, 2008).
Similarly, the values transmitted by video games have proved to be both individualist and
collectivist. If we look at the most-common values we can see that some of them belong to the first
group (successful, social recognition) and some others belong to the second group (loyal,
helpful). The frequency with which they appear is very similar in both groups, so we could say that
video games transmitted collectivist and individualist values alike. As explained at the beginning, the
state of the art review showed that no other studies have addressed the transmission of values by
video games, so these findings are exploratory, and therefore it would be appropriate to confirm
them in future research.
However, these conclusions do converge with the contributions of other researchers in relation to the
media: they are transmitters of individualist and collectivists values (Medrano, Aierbe and Martínez
de Morentin, 2011).

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Video games have proven to be able to transmit any type of content and become a tool to carry out
different activities and tasks ranging from mere entertainment to educational applications and a
diversity of treatments and/or rehabilitations.
However, we did not find any previous research addressing the possible consequences of video
games in relation to the values they transmit. On some occasions the academia and the media have
argued that violent video games cause violent behaviours. However, we have not found any study
that corroborate this hypothesis. Likewise, there are no studies addressing the possible effects of the
values that are transmitted by video games and that the educational community has considered as
desirable for adolescents. Will a video game that promotes collectivist values make the player more
inclined to this type of behaviours?
In terms of limitations, we could highlight the nature and design of the questionnaire. In addition to
some items being not entirely clear, the use of Likert-type scales can affect the effect of social
desirability. It is possible that some participants answered what they thought “they should answer”
following the rules and assumptions of the social group to which they belong, instead of answering
what they really thought or did, regardless of whether it is socially acceptable by peers. It is known
that adolescence is a period in which personality takes shape and that peers play an important role in
its development, so peer pressure may have had a negative effect on respondents’ honesty.
If we look at possible future research, this is a poorly researched field so there is still a great deal of
issues to investigate. We could classify video games depending on the values they tend to
transmit. Thus, violent video games (encompassing action, adventure, strategy, or role-playing
genres) would transmit markedly individualistic values, whereas simulators (sports, musical, social
genres) would transmit markedly collectivist values. Undoubtedly, delving into this field, in order to
understand and be able to use video games and their values as an education tool, can be really
interesting given the current the importance and relevance of this medium of communication among
teenagers. As Lacasa (2011) points out, “in a society that wants to receive and produce messages,
teaching students to express themselves [...] can contribute to the creation of innovative educational
scenarios related to new literacy forms” (p. 54).
This research study is part of an R&D project funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy
and Competitiveness EDU 2012-36720, the Basque Government as a consolidated research
group IT688-13, and the UFI of the UPV/EHU 11/04.
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Annex 1
We are interested in knowing your video games consumption habits. When we talk about video
games, we include console and computer types. Carefully read the statements in the
questionnaire. Mark with a pen the number of your response.
We highly appreciate your honesty. There is no best or worst answers. We only want you to answer
about your habits with regards to video games. If you have any questions, raise your hand and the
teacher will assist you. Thank you very much for your collaboration.

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Totally
disagree
Fairly
disagree
Neither
agree
nor
disagree
Fairly
agree
Totally
Agree
1.
I like to play video games.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
I usually play video games.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
I’ve played many video games.
1
2
3
4
5
4.
I know many video games
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I consider myself a good video
game player.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
Video games seem fun.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
When I play video games time
flies
1
2
3
4
5
8.
I dedicate more time to video
games than to play with my
friends
1
2
3
4
5
9.
I spend more time playing video
games than sports
1
2
3
4
5
10.
I go to bed late and I get up early
to keep playing.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
I dedicate more time to video
games than to be with my family.
1
2
3
4
5
12.
I look for information about video
games in magazines, TV or the
Internet.
1
2
3
4
5
13.
I like to compete in video games
and be the best.
1
2
3
4
5
14.
I save money to spend it on video
games.
1
2
3
4
5
15.
I talk to my friends about video
games.
1
2
3
4
5
16.
Whenever I see a video game
store I go inside
1
2
3
4
5

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Age:_________ boy/girl:_________
Answer the following questions with the option closest to reality:
20.
I play video
games since:
Never
Months
A year
2 or 3 years
More than 4
years
21.
I dedicated to
video games:
Nothing
Less than 1
hour a day
1 to 2 hours a
day
2 to 3 hours
a day
More than 3
hours a day
22.
Number of
video games
that I know:
0
1 or 2
Up to 10
10 to 20
More than
20
23.
Number of
video games
I’ve played:
0
1 or 2
Up to 10
10 to 20
More than
20
24.
Frequency I
play video
games:
Never
Once a month
Weekends
Three or
four days
Every day
25.
What is your favourite game?
Annex 2
Self-direction
1. Freedom - Freedom of action and thought
2. Creativity - Uniqueness, imagination
3. Independent - Self-dependant, self-sufficient
17.
Before doing homework I play
video games.
1
2
3
4
5
18.
I dedicate more time to video
games than to do homework.
1
2
3
4
5
19.
I forgetting important things while
I play video games (e.g. like doing
homework)
1
2
3
4
5

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4. Choosing own goals
5. Curious - Interested in everything, explorer
6. Self-respect - Belief in one’s worth
Stimulation
7. Exciting life - Stimulating experiences
8. Varied life - Full of challenges, novelty and change
9. Daring
Hedonism
10. Pleasure- Gratification of wishes
11. Enjoying life
Achievement
12. Ambitious
13. Influential- Impact on others
14. Capable- Competent, effective, efficient
15. Successful- reaching one’s goals
16. Intelligent
Power
17. Social power - Control over the rest, domination
18. Wealth - Material possessions, money
19. Authority - The right to command and give orders
20. Preservation of one’s public image
21. Social recognition - Respect, approval of others

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Security
22. National security - Protection of one’s nation against enemies
23. Reciprocation of favours - Revocation of debt
24. Family security
25. Sense of belonging - Feeling others care about oneself
26. Social order - Stability of society
27. Healthy - Not physically or mentally ill
28. Clean
Conformity
29. Obedient
30. Self-discipline - resistance to temptation
31. Politeness, good education -
32. Honouring parents and elders
Tradition
33. Respect for tradition
34. Devout - to faith and religious beliefs
35. Accepting one’s life portion - Surrendering to life circumstances
36. Humble
37. Moderate - Avoiding extreme forms of thought and action
Benevolence
38. Helpful - Working for the welfare of others
39. Responsible

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40. Forgiving - Willing to forgive others
41. Honest
42. Loyal - to friends, the group
43. Mature love - Deep emotional and spiritual intimacy
44. True friendship - close and helpful friends
Universalism
45. Equality - of opportunities for all
46. Unity with nature - Fitting in nature
47. Wisdom- Mature understanding of life
48. World of beauty - Beauty in nature and art
49. Social justice - Concerned about the weak, correcting injustices
50. Broadminded - Tolerant of different ideas and beliefs
51. Protecting the environment
52. World at peace- Free of wars and conflicts
_______________________________________________________________
How to cite this article in bibliographies / References
J Sinde Martinez, C Medrano Samaniego, J Ignacio Martínez de Morentin (2015): “Transmission of
values in adolescents: an analysis with video games”. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, 70,
pp. 230 to 251.
http://www.revistalatinacs.org/070/paper/1044pv/14en.html
DOI: 10.4185/RLCS-2015-1044en
Article received on 2 February 2015. Accepted on 18 March. Published on 27 March 2015.