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The effects of advertisements that sexually objectify women on state body dissatisfaction and judgments of women: The moderating roles of gender and internalization
Abstract
Experimental studies have demonstrated that exposure to idealized images of women increases state body image disturbance. However, little work has experimentally examined the effects of exposure to images that sexually objectify women, especially as it relates to women and men's state body dissatisfaction and judgments of women. In the current study, 437 women and men were randomly assigned to view advertisements that sexually objectify women and portray appearance ideals, or to view non-appearance-related advertisements. Results indicated that state body dissatisfaction increased for women and men exposed to advertisements that sexually objectified women, although this effect was larger for women. Trait internalization of appearance ideals moderated this effect, indicating that women and men with higher internalization exhibited greater state body dissatisfaction after viewing women sexually objectified in advertisements. Exposure to women sexually objectified in advertisements did not affect women's or men's attractiveness or competence ratings of women in university advertisements.
... Recently, considerable research has examined internalisation as a mediator in adults [44][45][46] and adolescents [47] but fewer studies have examined internalisation as a moderator in the context of social media use. In this regard, internalisation (baseline) as a moderator will be the focus of this paper in that higher internalisation is expected to strengthen the negative influence of media imagery on body image and this detrimental effect is expected to diminish with lower internalisation levels [48,49]. ...
... Taken together, much of the existing research on internalisation as a moderator has been confined to adult samples and revolves around typical appearance attributes (i.e., thinideal internalisation in females and muscular-ideal internalisation in males) [48,58,59,64]. Therefore, the overarching aim of the current study was to add to past research and explore the relationships between social media use (Instagram and Snapchat), thin-ideal internalisation, muscular-ideal internalisation, and body dissatisfaction in adolescents. ...
... Unexpectedly, neither thin-or muscular-ideal internalisation moderated the relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction among girls. This latter finding conflicts with literature that has highlighted a moderation effect through thinideal internalisation in women [48,64]. Given that these studies were conducted in relation to effects from traditional media and in older samples, moderation may perhaps be stronger under those circumstances rather than when tested in younger individuals in the social media environment. ...
Internalisation of appearance ideals moderates the relationship between exposure to media images and body dissatisfaction. To date, the role of thin- and muscular-ideal internalisation in the context of social media remains under explored, particularly for boys. As such, we aimed to explore how social media use (Instagram and Snapchat) was related to body dissatisfaction, and whether thin- and muscular-ideal internalisation would moderate this relationship in a sample of 1153 adolescent boys and girls (55.42% males; Mage = 13.71, SD = 1.14). As hypothesised, social media use, and thin- and muscular ideal internalisation were positively correlated with body dissatisfaction in both genders. In moderation analyses, thin-ideal internalisation emerged as the only variable that had a significant effect on body dissatisfaction in both genders. Additionally, the influence of social media use on body dissatisfaction was moderated by muscular-ideal internalisation in boys, whereby for boys with high muscular-ideal internalisation, greater social media use was associated with greater body dissatisfaction. The two-way (muscular x thin-ideal internalisation) and three-way interaction (social media use x thin-ideal internalisation x muscular-ideal internalisation) effects on body dissatisfaction were non-significant. These findings emphasise the importance of considering the sociocultural environment (i.e., new media influences) as frameworks for understanding body dissatisfaction and suggest targeting of internalisation of appearance ideals in body dissatisfaction prevention programs.
... For women, self-objectification can be conceptualized as the downstream psychological consequence of repeated exposure to being objectified and seeing other women being objectified in society. Although exposure to sexually objectifying images is related to women's level of self-objectification (Aubrey, 2006;Morry & Staska, 2001), some women are more likely to self-objectify than others (Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015;Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005;Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig, Guarda, & Heinberg, 2004). In other words, a state of self-objectification may be more chronically accessible to them in day-to-day life. ...
... In other words, a state of self-objectification may be more chronically accessible to them in day-to-day life. Women with greater trait objectification seem particularly vulnerable to ads that depict a sexually objectified female target in terms of lower satisfaction with their own bodies (Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015). ...
... Other evidence suggests that exposure to objectifying images of women does not lead female or male perceivers to see less competence in a nonobjectified female target (Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015;Schooler, 2015). Krawczyk and Thompson had participants judge the competence of a female shown in a static visual advertisement after they had seen women being objectified in other ads. ...
What effect might exposure to sexually objectifying images of women have on how female perceivers subsequently rate a spokeswoman’s competence? Because sexually objectifying images dehumanize and devalue women, perceivers were predicted to rate the spokeswoman as less competent. Female undergraduates in the United States participated in a laboratory experiment in which they either saw objectifying or control images of women before they listened to a speech by a spokeswoman who either had a lean or heavier body build. The spokeswoman’s body build had no effect on her perceived competence. However, relative to controls, women who had first seen objectifying images of other women saw the spokeswoman as less effective and were less persuaded by her. The implications of these findings for objectification theory and advertising are discussed.
... In this vein, individuals high in thin-ideal internalization would be more vulnerable to thin-ideal media exposure. This outcome has been shown in experimental research, including with young adult females (Dittmar et al. 2009) and middle-adolescent girls (Durkin and Paxton 2002) exposed to thin-ideal images, and with college-aged females and males following exposure to sexually objectifying thin-ideal images (Krawczyk and Thompson 2015). ...
... This demonstrates that poor body satisfaction outcomes for participants with high levels of risk were apparent only if they also had low media literacy, as discussed above. Previous research has typically found that thin-ideal internalization and appearance comparison tendencies predict change in body image following media viewing (Dittmar et al. 2009;Dittmar and Howard 2004;Durkin and Paxton 2002;Krawczyk and Thompson 2015); however, this is not always the case. The mitigating effects of media literacy, or other protective factors, may explain the current, and previous null findings (Durkin and Paxton 2002, grade 7 girls;Homan et al. 2012). ...
... First, as has been suggested in previous research in which some participants have been found to rate their own appearance more highly after viewing thinideal images (Mills et al. 2002), some participants in the control condition of the current study may also have been inspired towards self-enhancement by viewing thin-ideal images (Mills et al. 2002), resulting in greater body satisfaction. Second, the experimental images were conservative relative to other studies (Krawczyk and Thompson 2015), and did not show the extreme levels of thinness that may be required to produce body satisfaction changes, or third, the ubiquity of thin-ideal media images in Western cultures may have reduced their impact such that presentation of ten thin-ideal images in a controlled setting is not sufficient to change body satisfaction (Perloff 2014). ...
Exposure to thin-ideal media can contribute to increased body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls. Understanding the factors that may prevent or exacerbate the negative effects of media exposure on body dissatisfaction is important to facilitate prevention of these problems. This study evaluated the effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images on body image in three instructional set experimental conditions: appearance comparison, peer norms, and control. An important aim was to examine baseline levels of media literacy as a protective factor and trait thin-ideal internalization and trait upward appearance comparison as risk factors. Early adolescent girls (N = 246) completed baseline measures and 1 week later viewed thin-ideal media images, before and after which they rated their state body satisfaction. Participants in the appearance comparison instruction but not peer norms instruction condition had significantly reduced body satisfaction. Media literacy, particularly high levels of critical thinking, mitigated the negative effects of trait thin-ideal internalization and trait upward appearance comparison on body satisfaction outcomes. These findings provide evidence for the role of media literacy as a protective factor against the negative effects on body satisfaction of exposure to thin-ideal media images, and also provide evidence to support the development and implementation of media literacy-based body image interventions.
... and cultural representations contribute to the process by which people internalize the observer's perspective on their own body and come to believe that their personal value is given only by their physical appearance. When people attach particular importance to physical appearance and engage in social comparison with other people whose type of beauty falls within societally imposed standards (Lindner et al., 2012), they can feel body shame (Tiggemann and Boundy, 2008;Choma et al., 2009;Manago et al., 2015), body dissatisfaction (Grippo and Hill, 2008;Krawczyk and Thompson, 2015;Perez et al., 2018) and low self-esteem (Strelan et al., 2003;Adams et al., 2017;Breslow et al., 2020). When this phenomenon occurs, people may want to modify certain aspects of their body by resorting to various types of strategies: pursuing an esthetic operation (Ching and Xu, 2019;Skowronski et al., 2022;Schettino et al., 2023), for example, or following restrictive diets (Dakanalis et al., 2015;Schaefer et al., 2018) which over time can lead to the development of eating disorders (Mitchell and Mazzeo, 2009;Jongenelis et al., 2014). ...
Objective
Conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis to synthesize previously obtained results regarding the relationship between interest in cosmetic surgery and personality traits.
Methodology
A series of criteria were applied (at the level of design, independent variables, dependent variable, participants) in order to decide which existing studies could be considered eligible for inclusion in the meta-analytic procedure. The identification of research that met the eligibility criteria was carried out with the help of the electronic search function in the following databases: ScienceDirect, PsycInfo, Web of Science, Scopus, Springer, and PubMed. Following this approach left 13 studies that were then subjected to the final analysis and included in the meta-analysis.
Results
The researchers’ expectations were partially supported by the results of the analyses, thus demonstrating the existence of a significant relationship between perfectionism (socially prescribed perfectionism; perfectionistic self-promotion), appearance-based rejection sensitivity, and interest in pursuing esthetic surgery.
Discussions
Identifying these relationships will allow cosmetic surgeons to understand both the mechanisms underlying this decision and the need for psychological assessment/counseling before patients undergo such procedures. It will also allow psychologists to develop best practice guidelines for how they relate to the patient before they perform cosmetic surgery. At the same time, psychotherapists will be able to devise targeted and personalized interventions for each personality profile, so that the decision to undergo an esthetic operation is not made based on a dispositional trait (fear of rejection, stress caused by body dissatisfaction).
... This could be due to several reasons. Media internalization was considered a mediator, but it could also be argued that it is instead a trait and should be introduced as a moderator (Bessenoff, 2006;Krawczyk and Thompson, 2015;McLean et al., 2016;Vuong et al., 2021). Additionally, the association between internalization and body dissatisfaction can be explained through self-discrepancy and other processes such as body surveillance (Fitzsimmons-Craft et al., 2012), which should be considered in future studies. ...
IntroductionThe study examines the influence on body dissatisfaction of viewed images of bodies transmitted over mass media and social media, as mediated by the internalization of body ideals through media and self-discrepancy (the difference between the perceived actual self and the perceived ideal self).Method
In this study, the images of bodies individuals view in their everyday media diet are estimated using a newly developed pictorial scale for women (thinness) and men (muscularity). For participants, the perceived body image is formed through mass media (magazines, TV) and social media (Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, and Snapchat). The self-discrepancy theory is then used to explain the effect of images of bodies in the media on the internalization of these body ideals and body dissatisfaction.ResultsResults show that Facebook and YouTube shape body ideals perceived to be prevalent in the media, negatively influencing internalization and self-discrepancy. Self-discrepancy, in turn, increases body dissatisfaction. However, for males, the perceived body ideals in the media did not affect body dissatisfaction, internalization, or self-discrepancy.DiscussionThese results emphasize the importance of combining and comparing mass and social media and differentiating between female and male concerns regarding body image.
... However, due to its design, this type of research does not enable us to evaluate the direction of causality or rule out the existence of possible confounding variables. As for experimental studies, they have shown the effect of exposure to attractive bodies or bodies representative of the thin ideal on different variables such as self-esteem (Lee et al., 2014;Vogel et al. 2014), body satisfaction (Haferkamp et al., 2011;Harper et al., 2008;Krawczyk et al., 2015;Yu et al., 2018), motivation to diet (Jin et al., 2019;Lewallen et al., 2016) or concern over physique ( Seekis et al., 2020;Tiggemann et al., 2015). However, the results are heterogeneous and less consistent. ...
Social networks use is related to the occurrence of eating disorders (ED). In this study, we experimentally evaluated the effect of exposure to social networks and stereotypical images of the thinness ideal on ED symptomatology and analyzed the mediator role of anxiety in this process. A sample of 321 young adults of both sexes (166 females) were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: high and low exposure to the thin ideal. Our results indicate a decrease in self-esteem in the group exposed to the thin images and an increase in anxiety. We found the effect of the images on self-esteem is completely mediated by the increase in anxiety. No changes in body satisfaction or drive for thinness were found. Our study shows how brief exposure to images and profiles representative of the thin ideal seems to influence participants' self-esteem. These results show the need to raise awareness of the possible consequences of social media, as well as to promote a healthy use of social networks.
... Sin embargo, por su diseño, este tipo de investigaciones no permite evaluar la dirección de la causalidad ni descartar la existencia de posibles variables de confusión. Por su parte, los estudios experimentales han mostrado el efecto de la exposición a cuerpos atractivos o representativos del ideal de delgadez sobre distintas variables como la autoestima (Lee et al., 2014;Vogel et al. 2014), la satisfacción corporal (Haferkamp et al., 2011;Harper et al., 2008;Krawczyk et al., 2015;Yu et al., 2018), la motivación para hacer dietas (Jin et al., 2019;Lewallen et al., 2016) o la preocupación por el físico (Seekis et al., 2020;Tiggemann et al., 2015). Sin embargo, los resultados son heterogéneos y menos consistentes. ...
Social networks use is related to the occurrence of eating disorders (ED). In this study, we experimentally evaluated the effect of exposure to social networks and stereotypical images of the thinness ideal on ED symptomatology and analyzed the mediator role of anxiety in this process. A sample of 321 young adults of both sexes (166 females) were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: high and low exposure to the thin ideal. Our results indicate a decrease in self-esteem in the group exposed to the thin images and an increase in anxiety. We found the effect of the images on self-esteem is completely mediated by the increase in anxiety. No changes in body satisfaction or drive for thinness were found. Our study shows how brief exposure to images and profiles representative of the thin ideal seems to influence participants' self-esteem. These results show the need to raise awareness of the possible consequences of social media, as well as to promote a healthy use of social networks. // El uso de redes sociales está relacionado con la aparición de trastornos de la conducta alimentaria (TCA). Hemos evaluado experimentalmente el efecto de la exposición a redes sociales e imágenes estereotípicas del ideal de delgadez sobre la sintomatología de TCA, analizando el papel mediador de la ansiedad. Trescientos veintiún adultos jóvenes (166 mujeres) fueron asignados aleatoriamente a dos condiciones: de alta y baja carga comparativa con el ideal de delgadez. Encontramos una diminución de la autoestima en el grupo expuesto a imágenes de carga comparativa alta y un aumento de la ansiedad. El efecto de las imágenes sobre la autoestima está completamente mediado por el incremento en la ansiedad. No se encontraron cambios en la satisfacción corporal o la obsesión por la delgadez. Nuestro estudio muestra cómo la exposición breve a imágenes y perfiles representativos del ideal de delgadez parece tener un efecto sobre la autoestima de los participantes. Estos resultados evidencian la necesidad de dar a conocer las posibles consecuencias de las redes sociales, así como de promover un uso sano de las mismas.
... To date, research assessing how exposure to sexualized images relates to body image among men has demonstrated mixed results (Ward, 2016). Some studies find a small negative effect of exposure to sexualized images on men's body image (Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015), but other research reports null effects (Johnson et al., 2007;Michaels et al., 2013). Thus, we ask the following two research questions: ...
... Acceptability of such advertisements varies across the world, depending upon the degree of conservatism or restrictiveness of the society. There are many negative consequences of promoting these sexualized advertisements, e.g., body image dissatisfaction, psychological stress (Krawczyk and Thompson, 2015), including the inefficacy of such advertisements (Gramazioet al., 2021). ...
... Advertisements represent femininity with beauty and perfection but, women cannot achieve this unrealistic standard of perfection, as a consequence the feeling of inadequacy and dissatisfaction is conventional today (Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015). Fairness-based advertisements make skin color-based discrimination in the society. ...
Media representation of female gender roles in advertising are relentlessly contested themes in a traditional society. Stereotypical representation not only limits the socially accepted traditional roles of gender, but also has an impact on how people perceive women. This study has focused on how women characters are constructed in order to understand reflection of stereotypical gender norms in Bangladeshi television commercials. Stuart Hall’s representation theory has adapted as the framework for conceptualizing the context of this study and scrutinizing the data. Using qualitative and quantitative methods, this paper has explored how such representations constitute unequal gender identities, traditional norms and perpetuate subtle forms of colorism towards women. This study found that dominant patriarchal ideology is deeply embedded in television commercials of Bangladesh; there is a discrimination towards the construction of women's image. Moreover, such media representations generate the ideology of beauty in a negative way and push the concept of colorism towards women.
... It seems likely that sexualized media cause the same effect, as they usually feature thin and athletic women and men Flynn et al., 2015;Hatton & Trautner, 2011;. Accordingly, experimental research shows that women and men report decreased body satisfaction after exposure to sexualized images in traditional media such as magazines and television (e.g., Halliwell, Malson, & Tischner, 2011;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015;Pennell & Behm-Morawitz, 2015;L. R. Smith, 2016;Strahan et al., 2008). ...
Background: A growing body of research has documented negative effects of sexualization in the media on individuals’ self-objectification. This research is predominantly built on studies examining traditional media, such as magazines and television, and young female samples. Furthermore, longitudinal studies are scarce, and research is missing studying mediators of the relationship. The first aim of the present PhD thesis was to investigate the relations between the use of sexualized interactive media and social media and self-objectification. The second aim of this work was to examine the presumed processes within understudied samples, such as males and females beyond college age, thus investigating the moderating roles of age and gender. The third aim was to shed light on possible mediators of the relation between sexualized media and self-objectification. Method: The research aims were addressed within the scope of four studies. In an experiment, women’s self-objectification and body satisfaction was measured after playing a video game with a sexualized vs. a nonsexualized character that was either personalized or generic. The second study investigated the cross-sectional link between sexualized television use and self-objectification and consideration of cosmetic surgery in a sample of women across a broad age spectrum, examining the role of age in the relations. The third study looked at the cross-sectional link between male and female sexualized images on Instagram and their associations with self-objectification among a sample of male and female adolescents. Using a two-wave longitudinal design, the fourth study examined sexualized video game and Instagram use as predictors of adolescents’ self-objectification. Path models were conceptualized for the second, third and fourth study, in which media use predicted body surveillance via appearance comparisons (Study 4), thin-ideal internalization (Study 2, 3, 4), muscular-ideal internalization (Study 3, 4), and valuing appearance (all studies). Results: The results of the experimental study revealed no effect of sexualized video game characters on women’s self-objectification and body satisfaction. No moderating effect of personalization emerged. Sexualized television use was associated to consideration of cosmetic surgery via body surveillance and valuing appearance for women of all ages in Study 2, while no moderating effect of age was found. Study 3 revealed that seeing sexualized male images on Instagram was indirectly associated with higher body surveillance via muscular-ideal internalization for boys and girls. Sexualized female images were indirectly linked to higher body surveillance via thin-ideal internalization and valuing appearance over competence only for girls. The longitudinal analysis of Study 4 showed no moderating effect of gender: For boys and girls, sexualized video game use at T1 predicted body surveillance at T2 via appearance comparisons, thin-ideal internalization and valuing appearance over competence. Furthermore, the use of sexualized Instagram images at T1 predicted body surveillance at T2 via valuing appearance. Conclusion: The findings show that sexualization in the media is linked to self-objectification among a variety of media formats and within diverse groups of people. While the longitudinal study indicates that sexualized media predict self-objectification over time, the experimental null findings warrant caution regarding this temporal order. The results demonstrate that several mediating variables might be involved in this link. Possible implications for research and practice, such as intervention programs and policy-making, are discussed.
... De nombreuses études ont mis en évidence les différents contextes induisant un état transitoire d'auto-objectification. Par exemple, l'exposition à des remarques à caractère sexuel dans un lieu public (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson, 2001), l'essayage d'un maillot de bain devant un miroir (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998 ;Quinn, Kallen, & Cathey, 2006 ;Tiggemann & Boundy, 2008), la présence ostensible d'une caméra (Gay & Castano, 2010 ;Saguy, Quinn, Dovidio, & Pratto, 2010) et l'exposition à des images de femmes dénudées (Aubrey, 2006 ;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015) sont autant de contextes qui suscitent une baisse de l'estime de soi chez des femmes L'année psychologique/Topics in Cognitive Psychology, 2020, 120, 321-349 ainsi qu'une augmentation du sentiment d'auto-objectification. En règle générale, les situations dans lesquelles la présence d'un regard extérieur porté sur son corps est rendue saillante induiraient un tel sentiment (pour une revue de la littérature sur l'auto-objectification d'état, voir Kahalon, Shnabel, & Becker, 2018). ...
L’objectification sexuelle, à savoir la tendance à considérer ou à traiter une personne
comme un objet sexuel, est présente au quotidien dans les relations interpersonnelles
comme dans les médias. En effet, ceux-ci (télévision, magazines,
internet, jeux vidéo…) véhiculent des images sexualisées, idéalisées et stéréotypées
des femmes et des hommes qui ne sont pas sans conséquence pour le
grand public. Actuellement, de nombreuses études mettent en évidence que
l’impossibilité pour une personne de ressembler ou de s’identifier à une
construction inatteignable ou à un modèle parfait peut avoir des conséquences
négatives comme de la honte corporelle, de l’anxiété par rapport à son apparence,
des troubles alimentaires ou encore de la dépression. L’objectif de cette
revue de la littérature est triple. Primo, elle introduit le lecteur à la théorie de
l’objectification, développée par Fredrickson et Roberts (1997), qui décrit
l’influence de cette représentation omniprésente et idéalisée de la beauté sur la
santé mentale des femmes. Secundo, cette littérature centrée sur le concept
d’auto-objectification présente de manière synthétique et structurée les études
phares qui ont significativement contribué au développement de la réflexion
sur la manière dont les hommes et les femmes perçoivent leur propre corps.
Tertio, ce manuscrit décrit les limites actuelles de cette théorie et présente de
nouvelles perspectives de recherche.
... De nombreuses études ont mis en évidence les différents contextes induisant un état transitoire d'auto-objectification. Par exemple, l'exposition à des remarques à caractère sexuel dans un lieu public (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson, 2001), l'essayage d'un maillot de bain devant un miroir (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998 ;Quinn, Kallen, & Cathey, 2006 ;Tiggemann & Boundy, 2008), la présence ostensible d'une caméra (Gay & Castano, 2010 ;Saguy, Quinn, Dovidio, & Pratto, 2010) et l'exposition à des images de femmes dénudées (Aubrey, 2006 ;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015) sont autant de contextes qui suscitent une baisse de l'estime de soi chez des femmes L'année psychologique/Topics in Cognitive Psychology, 2020, 120, 321-349 ainsi qu'une augmentation du sentiment d'auto-objectification. En règle générale, les situations dans lesquelles la présence d'un regard extérieur porté sur son corps est rendue saillante induiraient un tel sentiment (pour une revue de la littérature sur l'auto-objectification d'état, voir Kahalon, Shnabel, & Becker, 2018). ...
... De nombreuses études ont mis en évidence les différents contextes induisant un état transitoire d'auto-objectification. Par exemple, l'exposition à des remarques à caractère sexuel dans un lieu public (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson, 2001), l'essayage d'un maillot de bain devant un miroir (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998 ;Quinn, Kallen, & Cathey, 2006 ;Tiggemann & Boundy, 2008), la présence ostensible d'une caméra (Gay & Castano, 2010 ;Saguy, Quinn, Dovidio, & Pratto, 2010) et l'exposition à des images de femmes dénudées (Aubrey, 2006 ;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015) sont autant de contextes qui suscitent une baisse de l'estime de soi chez des femmes L'année psychologique/Topics in Cognitive Psychology, 2020, 120, 321-349 ainsi qu'une augmentation du sentiment d'auto-objectification. En règle générale, les situations dans lesquelles la présence d'un regard extérieur porté sur son corps est rendue saillante induiraient un tel sentiment (pour une revue de la littérature sur l'auto-objectification d'état, voir Kahalon, Shnabel, & Becker, 2018). ...
L’objectification sexuelle, à savoir la tendance à considérer ou à traiter une personne comme un objet sexuel, est présente au quotidien dans les interactions interpersonnelles comme dans les médias. En effet, ceux-ci (télévision, magazines, internet, jeux vidéo…) véhiculent des images sexualisées, idéalisées et stéréotypées de femmes et des hommes qui ne sont pas sans conséquence pour le grand public. Actuellement, de nombreuses études mettent en évidence que l’impossibilité pour une personne de ressembler ou de s’identifier à une construction inatteignable ou à un modèle parfait peut avoir des conséquences négatives comme de la honte corporelle, de l’anxiété par rapport à son apparence, des troubles alimentaires ou encore de la dépression. L’objectif de cette revue de la littérature est triple. Primo, elle introduit le lecteur à la théorie de l’objectification, développée par Fredrickson et Roberts (1997), qui décrit l’influence de cette représentation omniprésente et idéalisée de la beauté sur la santé mentale des femmes. Secundo, cette littérature centrée sur le concept d’auto-objectification présente de manière synthétique et structurée les études phares qui ont significativement contribué au développement de la réflexion sur la manière dont les hommes et les femmes perçoivent leur propre corps. Tertio, ce manuscrit décrit les limites actuelles de cette théorie et présente de nouvelles perspectives de recherche.
... Thompson and Krawczyk [9] in their investigation effects of exposure to sexually objectified images of women. Results revealed that dissatisfaction has increased among women and men, on the other hand, exposed to advertisements that sexually objectified women consider women with instrumentality (The effects of advertisements that sexually objectify women on state body dissatisfaction and judgments of women: The moderating roles of gender and internalization). ...
This paper tends to highlight the grievance of women's sexual objectification in television advertising in Pakistan. As Martha Nussbaum calls it "instrumentality" of women in mass media advertising for commercial purposes, this paper also attempted to address this concern. Based on the nature of this topic, beauty products advertisements were selected by dividing them into two categories. The time frame was limited and, seven most popular television channels were selected for data gathering purpose. Every observed television channel broadcasted a fair number of product advertisements which were carefully recorded and enlisted in their assigned category. The cross-tabulation method is used to display the frequency record of advertisements whereas; Chi-square test is applied to test the relationship between women sexual objection and television advertising. Results revealed that there is no significant relationship found between our postulated variables. However, several positive responses are also documented which means, media advertising particularly, television advertising in Pakistan does contain related content which promotes inequality and violates women rights in our society. Further, it is recommended that marketers and, advertisers should not exploit the image of women to gain their commercial interest. Rather, they should play their role to alter stereotypical convictions of society about roles of women without limiting perceptions about their intelligence and capabilities.
... First, regular exposure to media and advertising-driven portrayals of ideal body shapes and weights may be one reason why people may perceive themselves as overweight when they are not. Previous work has suggested that both men and (especially) women, tend to feel less satisfied with their bodies or be more likely to consider themselves overweight after viewing pictures of thin people (e.g. on television) [55][56][57][58][59][60]. ...
Background
With studies around the world suggesting a large proportion of people do not recognise that they are overweight (or feel satisfied with being overweight), this fuels the view that such ‘misperceptions’ need to be ‘corrected’. However, few longitudinal studies have examined the consequences of under-perceived weight status, nor over-perceived weight status (when a person feels overweight when they are not) and weight-related satisfaction on trajectories in body mass index (BMI).
Methods
Five-year BMI trajectories were examined among 8174 participants in an Australian nationally representative cohort. Each person was classified into groups according to their neighbourhood socioeconomic circumstances, baseline BMI and answers to “how satisfied are you with your current weight?” and “do you consider yourself to be… acceptable weight / underweight / overweight?” Gender-specific multilevel linear regressions were used to examine five-year BMI trajectories for people in each group, adjusting for potential confounders.
Results
At baseline, weight-related dissatisfaction and perceived overweight were generally associated with higher mean BMI for men and women, regardless of whether they were classified as ‘normal’ or overweight by World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Mean BMI did not decrease among people classified as overweight who perceived themselves as overweight, or expressed weight-related dissatisfaction, regardless of where they lived. Among men and women with ‘normal’ BMI at baseline but expressing weight-related dissatisfaction, mean BMI increased disproportionately among those living in disadvantaged areas compared to their counterparts in affluent areas. Similarly, mean BMI rose disproportionately among people in disadvantaged areas who felt they were overweight despite having a ‘normal’ BMI by WHO criteria, compared to people with the same over-perceptions living in affluent areas. These differences exacerbated pre-existing socioeconomic inequities in mean BMI.
Conclusions
No evidence was found to suggest accurate recognition of overweight or expressing weight-related dissatisfaction leads to a lower BMI. However, there was evidence of an increase in mean BMI among people who felt dissatisfied with, or over-perceived their ‘normal’ weight, especially in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. Correction of under-perceptions may not drive weight loss, but circumstances contributing to over-perception and dissatisfaction with weight status may contribute to increased weight gain and exacerbate socioeconomic inequities in BMI.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-6938-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... Given the prevalence of sexualized images in the media (Hatton & Trautner, 2011), and their negative effects on women's well-being (e.g., increased body dissatisfaction: Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015; negative mood, weight- related appearance anxiety: Harper & Tiggemann, 2008;self-objectification: Aubrey, 2006; see Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002, for a meta-analytic review), a growing body of research has started to examine the effect of sexualization on the way people perceive others. Based on Objectification Theory, which posits that sexualization in the media is a criti- cal vehicle of the objectification of women in Western cul- tures (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), researchers started to investigate whether sexualization leads people to see and appraise them in "object-like" ways. ...
Research has shown that sexualized people are perceived as possessing fewer traits of a human being. Most scholars have argued that these effects are driven by revealing clothing, with targets wearing swimsuits or lingerie being perceived as possessing less mind and less humanness in comparison with nonsexualized targets. However, revealing clothing in these studies was often confounded with other sexualizing factors, such as posture suggestiveness, and, so, the aspects which lead people to perceive women in object-like ways remain unclear. This article begins to fill this gap by examining the role of two key sexualizing factors, namely revealing clothing and posture suggestiveness, on objectification-related traits. After exposure to a picture of a woman, 223 participants were asked to indicate the extent to which this woman possessed warmth, competence, and morality. For competence and warmth, we found an interaction between revealing clothing and posture suggestiveness: Posture suggestiveness caused less attribution of warmth and competence to women wearing revealing clothing, but not for women wearing less revealing clothing. For morality, we found that women in suggestive (vs. nonsuggestive) postures were perceived as possessing less morality, regardless of the type of clothing. The implications of these findings for the field are discussed.
... In one study, male and female undergraduates in the US were randomly assigned to either view advertisements that sexually objectified women and portray appearance ideals, or non-appearance-ISSUES PAPER related advertisements. The study found body dissatisfaction increased for women and men exposed to advertisements that sexually objectified women, although this effect was larger for women (Krawczyk & Thompson 2015). ...
The aim of this issues paper is to provide an overview of significant literature currently published on the nature of gender portrayals in advertising, and the impacts of these representations on women's health and wellbeing, gender inequality and attitudes and behaviours that support violence against women. This issues paper found that the continued use of gender stereotypes and increasing reliance on images that sexualise and objectify women in advertisements undermines efforts to promote gender equality in Australia. Gender-stereotyped portrayals limit the aspirations, expectations, interests and participation of women and men in our society. These portrayals are associated with a range of negative health and wellbeing outcomes and are highly problematic for the prevention of family violence and other forms of violence against women. The studies cited in this paper demonstrate that there is a clear business case for change. Brands, businesses and creative agencies can benefit from portraying both women and men proportionately, respectfully and realistically. ABOUT WOMEN'S HEALTH VICTORIA Women's Health Victoria (WHV) is a statewide women's health promotion, advocacy and support service. We work collaboratively with women, health professionals, policy makers and community organisations to influence systems, policies and services to be more gender equitable to support better outcomes for women.
... They should also be more likely to optimize those images by editing them. Yet, in modeling celebrity-like behavior and competing for attention, we argue that women will share fewer selfies than men because males are less likely to be self-conscious of their appearance (Sparkes, 2015) and have lower levels of body dissatisfaction after exposure to idealized images of appearance (Krawczyk and Thompson, 2015). Thus, we propose the following hypotheses: ...
Mass media systems play increasingly prevalent roles in our lives. However, the relationship between traditional mass media exposure and behavior on social media is unclear, particularly in the context of selfie-related behavior, which includes capturing, editing, and sharing images of oneself. In the tradition of social cognitive theory, we argue that reality television (RTV) models a value system focused on the self and competition with others, and hypothesize a model where self-worth based on competition mediates the relationship between RTV viewing and selfie-related behavior. Path analysis results from survey data (N = 334) support the mediation model. Selfie-related behavior was explicated and measured via novel instruments. Audience variables including online network size and diversity also played roles in selfie editing and sharing, as did specific social media platforms. Results are discussed in the context of evolving media systems.
... Exposure to idealized images has a small but generally negative impact on body image in both genders (Barlett, Vowels, & Saucier, 2008;Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002;Want, 2009). However, adverse effects are more likely when participants have high internalization of appearance ideals (e.g., Durkin & Paxton, 2002;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015) and high levels of appearance comparisons (Bury, Tiggemann, & Slater, 2016;Durkin & Paxton, 2002;Galioto & Crowther, 2013). These findings are consistent with theoretical models which propose that individuals who place a high value on meeting appearance ideals and engage in frequent appearance comparisons to evaluate themselves on this dimension are likely to conclude they do not meet the unrealistic appearance ideal and are consequently dissatisfied (Durkin, Paxton, & Sorbello, 2007;Muris, Meesters, van de Blom, & Mayer, 2005;Rodgers, Paxton, & McLean, 2014;Rodgers, McLean, & Paxton, 2015;Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). ...
Frequent exposure to appearance ideal social media is associated with body dissatisfaction. We hypothesised that commercial and peer social media literacy would protect against the negative impact of exposure to social media appearance ideal images on young adults' body image. The study was presented as an investigation of alcohol promotion on social media. Participants were 187 women (Mage = 24.6, SD = 3.7) and 187 men (Mage = 22.8, SD = 3.9) who viewed gender-matched alcohol-related appearance ideal social media images or control images containing alcohol only. Social media literacy was assessed prior to image exposure and body satisfaction measured before and after exposure. A negative effect of ideal image exposure on body satisfaction was observed in both women and men. In women only, commercial-social media literacy moderated the negative effect of exposure, independent of internalization or body comparison. Inclusion of social media literacy skills in prevention interventions is supported.
... First, exposure to media images with a high degree of sexualization may lead people to adopt a perception of their body as a mere object (cf. Aubrey, 2006;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015;Nowatzki & Morry, 2009). Aubrey (2006) demonstrated that exposure to television programs in which the protagonists are sexually objectified socializes us to take an outsider's perspective on our physical selves (i.e., "How do I look?"). ...
Ever since Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) proposed objectification theory, research on self-objectification and – by extension –
other-objectification has experienced a considerable expansion. However, most of the studies on sexual objectification have been conducted solely in Western populations. This study investigates whether the effect of target sexualization on social perception differs as a function of culture (Western vs. Eastern). Specifically, we asked a Western sample (Belgian, N = 62) and a Southeast Asian sample (Thai, N = 98) to rate sexualized versus nonsexualized targets.Wefound that sexual objectification results in dehumanization in both Western (Belgium) and Eastern (Thailand) cultures. Specifically, participants from both countries attributed less competence and less agency to sexualized than to nonsexualized targets, and they reported that they would administer more intense pain to sexualized than to nonsexualized targets. Thus, building on past research, this study suggests that the effect of target sexualization on dehumanization is a more general rather than a culture-specific phenomenon.
... I decided that any man who judged my attractiveness on having hairless legs was not someone I wanted to attract. (P173,33,Pakeha,heterosexual,married) Women's worth continues to be defined by appearance (Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015;Kwan & Trautner, 2009), so taking up this position of resistance might indeed be what some participants described as ''brave.'' Participant 173 described her willingness to limit her romantic options to meet a set of values, positioning her lack of hair removal as tied to individual integrity and authenticity -a choice in the face of social pressure. ...
Hair removal amongst Western women is ubiquitous, and research continues to highlight the ongoing conformity of almost all women with hair removal practices. Often women are presented as either cultural dupes, following the expectations of the Western hairless ideal without question, or highly engaged participants in the rigours of aesthetic labour, using it for their own agentic purposes. This paper seeks to explore the various ways that younger women (18–35) made sense of their own and others’ hair removal practices. We report on a thematic analysis of data generated from an online (mostly) qualitative survey with 299 female-identified respondents. Four themes were constructed: (1) women should do what they want with their body hair, (2) removing hair is socially shaped, (3) begrudging complicity, and (4) resistance to hair removal norms takes a particular kind of woman. We discuss the ways in which women described their practices and thinking where they seemed simultaneously complicit with and resistant to idealised notions of feminine embodiment.
... However, evidence suggests that men's BD also increases when looking at objectifying images of women's bodies in the media. Krawczyk and Thompson (2015) found that exposure to advertisements that sexually objectify women lead to increases in BD for both sexes, reinforcing findings of objectification theory (Moradi & Huang, 2008). ...
The purpose of this effort is to broaden the scope with which body dissatisfaction (BD) is viewed to inform the practices of MFTs. Associations between college students' BD and measures of depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and body image were tested using mean-level comparisons, path analysis, and multi-group tests by sex, across ethnic/racial groups, and across immigration status. Data were collected from N = 10,573 youth. There was evidence of significant mean level differences, and BD predicted internalizing symptoms while multi-group tests were largely invariant suggesting a more universal impact than dominant theoretical explanations (i.e. Objectification theory) posit.
... Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) argue that this constant body surveillance leads to increases in both shame and anxiety about the body, which in turn contribute to a number of mental health issues including disordered eating. Experimental evidence has demonstrated that exposure to sexualized fashion magazine images results in both state self-objectification and body dissatisfaction (Harper & Tiggemann, 2008;Krawczyk & Thompson, 2015). ...
A large body of literature has demonstrated mass media effects on body image and disordered eating. More recently, research in this area has turned to 'new' forms of media, such as the Internet, and particularly Social Networking Sites (SNSs). A systematic search for peer-reviewed articles on SNS use and body image and eating disorders resulted in 20 studies meeting specific inclusion criteria. As a whole, these articles demonstrated that use of SNSs is associated with body image and disordered eating. Specific SNS activities, such as viewing and uploading photos and seeking negative feedback via status updates, were identified as particularly problematic. A small number of studies also addressed underlying processes and found that appearance-based social comparison mediated the relationship between SNS use and body image and eating concerns. Gender was not found to be a moderating factor. It was concluded that, although there is a good deal of correlational research supporting the maladaptive effect of SNS use on body image and disordered eating, more longitudinal and experimental studies are needed.
This study examines the effects of a lingerie model’s femininity (submissive vs. assertive), race (East Asian vs. Caucasian), and presence/absence (model-presence vs. product-only) on young Chinese female consumers’ advertising evaluation, body image, and gender role attitudes. Results from an experiment show that ads with lingerie models presenting assertive femininity (sexual subjects) receive more positive advertising evaluation but result in more traditional gender role attitudes than ads with those presenting submissive femininity (sexual objects). Caucasian lingerie models receive more positive advertising evaluation than East Asian lingerie models. Product-only lingerie advertisements are more positively evaluated and predict a more positive body image than lingerie advertisements with models. The findings of this study provide empirical support for feminist scholars’ critique of the postfeminist media culture and advertising use of sexual empowerment discourse, which paradoxically disempowers women.
This study replicated and expanded social comparison theory predictions in regard to how exposure to online models and explicit comparison goals affected planned behaviors and self-efficacy to lose weight in men and women. A 2 (models’ attractiveness: more attractive vs less attractive) × 2 (models’ weight status: lower vs higher) × 2 (explicit social comparison instructions: present vs absent) × 2 (gender: female vs male) factorial design was adopted ( N = 418). Women and men exposed to online photos of more attractive models reported higher planned behaviors to lose weight relative to those who were exposed to photos of less attractive models, thus replicating previous research. Participants exposed to more attractive and higher weight models reported higher self-efficacy to lose weight relative to those exposed to more attractive and lower weight models. Contrary to the prediction, women who did not receive social comparison instructions showed higher planned behaviors to lose weight relative to women who were instructed to explicitly compare themselves against the models. The study discusses implications for social comparison research and avenues for future inquiry.
Current literature is inconsistent about the effects of idealized (i.e., thin) vs. non-idealized (i.e., average or plus-size) models on young women’s well-being. This inconsistency may be explained by different frames (i.e., passive body, active body, and subject) surrounding beauty ad models. The current experimental study among 568 women aged 18–30 years (M = 21.45, SD = 1.84) tested the effects of differently framed ads featuring idealized vs. non-idealized models on well-being and ad effectiveness while taking into account the mediating role of cognitive schemas and moderating role of thin-ideal internalization. Results showed that a passive body frame generated more appearance schemas compared to a subject frame. The effects of framing on body functionality schemas operated differently for idealized vs. non-idealized models. The passive body frame also induced inferior ad outcomes (i.e., lower attitudes to the advertisement and brand and lower purchase intent) compared to an active body frame. No other main framing effects nor moderating effects of thin-ideal internalization were found. These results for advertising outcomes can encourage beauty brands to stop using typical objectifying ads.
Recent research has pointed to potential negative effects on young women of using social networking sites. We examined whether exposure to thin-idealised images of users' bodies, typical of those posted on Instagram, would result in changes in state mood and body dissatisfaction. We further examined women's reported thoughts when viewing such images to explore qualitatively their cognitive experiences. Female participants (N = 126) reported on trait body dissatisfaction and body comparison, and state body dissatisfaction and mood, and were randomly assigned to view and describe their thoughts about either images depicting the Western thin-ideal or control images (scenery). The control sample increased mood and decreased body dissatisfaction more than thin-ideal participants following exposure, with only marginal moderating effects of trait appearance comparison and internalization of the thin-ideal. In a sample that viewed the thin-ideal images (n = 91) upward body comparison thoughts and positive thoughts related to the bodies depicted were associated with negative mood changes. Media awareness and literacy thoughts were not protective; however, thoughts unrelated to the thin-ideal bodies were protective. Findings suggest that while young women appeared largely resilient to short-term exposure to Instagram images of thin-idealized peers, a subset of women appeared to be at risk.
This study examined how exposure to online pictures of male models with different body sizes (thin, overweight) and physical attractiveness levels (attractive, unattractive) affected men’s self-esteem (appearance- and weight-related self-esteem). Men exposed to attractive model pictures showed lower appearance-related self-esteem compared with those exposed to unattractive models. Among participants who were exposed to overweight models, those who were exposed to attractive models showed lower appearance- and weight-related self-esteem compared with those exposed to unattractive models. Men who saw themselves as more attractive or thinner than the models showed higher appearance- or weight-related self-esteem. The results imply a downward social comparison effect in which men reported higher self-esteem when exposed to model pictures they found less attractive or heavier compared with themselves.
This paper provides an organizing framework for the experimental research on the effects of state self-objectification on women. We explain why this body of work, which had grown rapidly in the last 20 years, departs from the original formulation of objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997). We compare the different operationalizations of state self-objectification and examine how they map onto its theoretical definition, concluding that the operationalizations have focused mostly on one component of this construct (concerns about one's physical appearance) while neglecting others (adopting a third-person perspective and treating oneself as a dehumanized object). We review the main findings of studies that experimentally induced state self-objectification and examined its affective, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes. We note that three core outcomes of this state as specified by objectification theory (safety anxiety, reduced flow experiences, and awareness of internal body states) have hardly been examined so far. Most importantly, we introduce an integrative process model, suggesting that the reported effects are triggered by four different mechanisms: appearance monitoring, experience of discrepancy from appearance standards, stereotype threat, and activation of the “sex object” schema. We propose strategies for distinguishing between these mechanisms and explain the theoretical and practical importance of doing so.
Physical appearance comparison may make individuals more susceptible to the detrimental effects of brief media exposure on body satisfaction. However, it is unclear whether these findings would also extend to chronic media exposure in everyday life. In addition, it is unknown whether the role of appearance comparison relative to media and body dissatisfaction differs between genders. This study examined trait physical appearance comparison as a moderator of the relationships between television and Internet exposure and appearance evaluation and body area satisfaction. Male (n = 137) and female (n = 335) undergraduates completed self-report measures of trait physical appearance comparison, television and Internet consumption, appearance evaluation, and body area satisfaction. Among women, appearance comparison moderated the relationship between television exposure and appearance evaluation, such that those who engaged in more appearance comparison and viewed more television had a more negative evaluation of their appearance. Among men, appearance comparison moderated the relationship between Internet use and body area dissatisfaction, such that those who engaged in more appearance comparison and spent a significant amount of time on the Internet had greater body area dissatisfaction. These results suggest that appearance comparison represents a vulnerability for experiencing body dissatisfaction from media exposure, contingent on media format and gender.
BACKGROUND
Physical exercise may contribute to changes in eating behavior.
AIMS
to investigate eating behavior and reported energy intake in physically active individuals.
METHODS
Thirty-nine healthy adults of both sexes, who were involved in physical fitness training, were enrolled to participate in the study. A food diary and the TFEQ-21 was used for energy intake measurementandeating behaviors identification.
RESULTS
All participants showed acceptable levels of all evaluated behaviors: Cognitive restraint (46.58±16.4 and 49.5±20.0), Emotional eating (8.12±12.5 and 40.8±26.7),and Uncontrolled eating (21.6±15.1 and 35.6±20.9) in men and women, respectively. Uncontrolled eating was associated with increased carbohydate intake for women, andfat-free masscontent was associated with less Emotional eating only in men. There were no differences in energy and macronutrient consumption between training and non-training days.
CONCLUSION
Regular physical exercise is associateto bettereating behaviors, but women mayfind it harder to maintain or lose weight due to higher levels of emotional eating.
Background: Physical exercise may contribute to changes in eating behavior. Aims: to investigate eating behavior and reported energy intake in physically active individuals. Methods: Thirty-nine healthy adults of both sexes, who were involved in physical fitness training, were enrolled to participate in the study. A food diary and the TFEQ-21 was used for energy intake measurement and eating behaviors identification. Results: All participants showed acceptable levels of all evaluated behaviors: Cognitive restraint (46.58 ± 16.4 and 49.5 ± 20.0), Emotional eating (8.12 ± 12.5 and 40.8 ± 26.7), and Uncontrolled eating (21.6 ± 15.1 and 35.6 ± 20.9) in men and women, respectively. Uncontrolled eating was associated with increased carbohydate intake for women, and fat-free mass content was associated with less Emotional eating only in men. There were no differences in energy and macronutrient consumption between training and non-training days. Conclusion: Regular physical exercise is associate to better eating behaviors, but women may find it harder to maintain or lose weight due to higher levels of emotional eating.
This study analyzes the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty, examining the brand’s overall implementation of the campaign, as well as its successes and failures. More than ten years after the launch of Dove’s first campaign, the advertising world has greatly evolved. In an ever-changing media world, Dove took the first step towards an attempt at an all-inclusive advertising campaign. This study examines the degree to which Dove’s innovative campaign set the bar for future advertisements. It demonstrates the importance of corporate social responsibility, brand management, inclusivity and the two-way symmetrical communication model.
Sexually objectifying portrayals of women are a frequent occurrence in mainstream media, raising questions about the potential impact of exposure to this content on others’ impressions of women and on women’s views of themselves. The goal of this review was to synthesize empirical investigations testing effects of media sexualization. The focus was on research published in peer-reviewed, English-language journals between 1995 and 2015. A total of 109 publications that contained 135 studies were reviewed. The findings provided consistent evidence that both laboratory exposure and regular, everyday exposure to this content are directly associated with a range of consequences, including higher levels of body dissatisfaction, greater self-objectification, greater support of sexist beliefs and of adversarial sexual beliefs, and greater tolerance of sexual violence toward women. Moreover, experimental exposure to this content leads both women and men to have a diminished view of women’s competence, morality, and humanity. Limitations with the existing research approaches and measures are discussed, and suggestions for future research directions are provided.
Many scholars have recognized and studied the links between various sources of appearance-related pressure (e.g., media and interpersonal pressures to be mesomorphic) and men's body image and well-being. Pornography is another medium of appearance-related pressure that is very rarely considered in this research. The present study incorporated pornography use into 2 models of men's body image and 1 model of men's interpersonal and emotional well-being. College men (N = 359) rated how often they viewed pornography and also completed measures of general media and interpersonal pressures to be mesomorphic, internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, body monitoring, body image (i.e., muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction, body appreciation), anxiety and avoidance within romantic relationships, and emotional well-being (i.e., positive and negative affect). Path analyses revealed that men's frequency of pornography use was (a) positively linked to muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction indirectly through internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, (b) negatively linked to body appreciation directly and indirectly through body monitoring, (c) positively linked to negative affect indirectly through romantic attachment anxiety and avoidance, and (d) negatively linked to positive affect indirectly through relationship attachment anxiety and avoidance. General media and interpersonal pressures to be mesomorphic also made unique contributions within the models. These findings highlight the need to more comprehensively examine men's pornography use and the implications of this use for their psychological health. Given these findings, counselors may want to examine how pornography use may be linked to their male clients' body-related, relational, and emotional well-being.
A recent raft of lifestyle television programs have attempted through the presentation of "real women" and their corporeal experiences to promote positive body image, but their actual efficacy in doing so has not been examined. In the present study, (1) a lifestyle show aimed at promoting positive body image using average-sized actors (n = 40); (2) a modelling competition with an explicit focus on the thin ideal (n = 40); and (3) a nature series containing neutral content (n = 40). During pre- and post-exposure sessions, participants completed measures of body-focused anxiety, body weight dissatisfaction, and mood. Preliminary analyses showed that participants in each of the three groups did not significantly differ in key demographics and attitudes toward the video clips. However, participants in both experimental groups, but not the control group, reported more negative body-focused anxiety and body weight dissatisfaction in the post-test session. Participants exposed to the video clip focused on the thin ideal, but not the clip that ostensibly promotes positive body image, reported more negative post-exposure mood. These results are discussed in terms of the deleterious effects of lifestyle television programs that seek to (re)define "real women" as those who engage in traditional beauty practices and who are willing to work on the body.
The topic of missing data has been receiving increasing attention, with calls to apply advanced methods of handling missingness to counseling psychology research. The present study sought to assess whether advanced methods of handling item-level missing data performed equivalently to simpler methods in designs similar to those counseling psychologists typically engage in. Results of an initial preliminary analysis, an analysis using real-world data, and a series of simulation studies were used in the present investigation. Results indicated that available case analysis, mean substitution, and multiple imputation had similar results across low levels of missing data, though in data with higher levels of missing data and other problems (e.g., small sample size or scales with weak internal reliability) mean substitution produced inflation of correlation coefficients among items. The present results support the use of available case analysis when dealing with low-level item-level missingness.
This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body.
Background
This study evaluated the score reliability and equivalence of factor structure of the Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3) [1] in a sample of female college students from the four largest ethnic groups in the USA.
Methods
Participants were 1245 women who self-identified as European American/White (n = 543), African American/Black (n = 137), Asian American (n = 317), or Latina/Hispanic (n = 248). All completed the SATAQ-3 and a demographic questionnaire. To test the factor similarity and score reliability across groups, we used exploratory factor analysis and calculated Cronbach’s alphas (respectively).
Results
Score reliability was high for all groups. Tests of factor equivalence suggested that the four pre-established factors of the SATAQ-3 (i.e., knowledge, perceived pressure, thin-ideal internalization, athletic-ideal internalization) were similar for women of all ethnic groups. Only two items (20 and 27) did not consistently load on the previously identified scale across all four groups. When scored, African Americans reported significantly less perceived pressure and internalization than all other groups.
Conclusions
Results support the use of the SATAQ-3 in female college students of these four ethnicities.
Mass media are believed to be a pervasive force in shaping physical appearance ideals and have been shown, to negatively impact females' body image. Little research has attended to the effects of media exposure on males' body image. The current experiment exposed 158 males to television advertisements containing either ideal male images or neutral images that were inserted between segments of a television program. Participants were blocked on dispositional body image and attitudes toward appearance variables to assess for moderating effects. Results indicated that participants exposed to ideal image advertisements became significantly more depressed and had higher levels of muscle dissatisfaction than those exposed to neutral ads. Inconsistent with past research, no dispositional effects were noted that would suggest the influence of schematicity on mood and body image changes.
This article reviews research pertaining to mass media as a causal risk factor for negative body image and disordered eating in females. The specific purpose is to clarify the impact of mass media by applying seven criteria that extend those of Kraemer et al. (1997) and Stice (2002). Although media effects clearly meet a majority of the criteria, this analysis indicates that, currently, engagement with mass media is probably best considered a variable risk factor that might well be later shown to be a causal risk factor. Recommendations are made for further research, with an emphasis on longitudinal investigations, studies of media literacy as a form of prevention, and clarification of psychosocial processes that moderate and mediate media effects.
Previous studies of men's breast size preferences have yielded equivocal findings, with studies variously indicating a preference for small, medium, or large breasts. Here, we examined the impact of men's oppressive beliefs in shaping their female breast size ideals. British White men from the community in London, England (N = 361) viewed figures of women that rotated in 360° and varied in breast size along five levels. They then rated the figure that they found most physically attractive and also completed measures assessing their sexist attitudes and tendency to objectify women. Results showed that medium breasts were rated most frequent as attractive (32.7 %), followed by large (24.4 %) and very large (19.1 %) breasts. Further analyses showed that men's preferences for larger female breasts were significantly associated with a greater tendency to be benevolently sexist, to objectify women, and to be hostile towards women. These results were discussed in relation to feminist theories, which postulate that beauty ideals and practices in contemporary societies serve to maintain the domination of one sex over the other.
This study (N = 911) investigated how exposure to sexualizing prime-time television programs, music television, men’s magazines, and pornographic websites was related to the internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance among adolescent boys. A structural equation model showed direct relationships between exposure to sexualizing television and pornographic websites and the internalization of appearance ideals. Indirect relationships between these types of sexualizing media, and self-objectification and body surveillance through the internalization of appearance ideals were also reported. A direct relationship with self-objectification was only found for sexualizing pornographic websites. Discussion warns attention for adolescent boys at risk of sexualization.
This study provides empirical evidence for the objectification of women and unearths factors that increase objectification.
Objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997) suggests that women from Western cultures are the targets of male gaze.
Although this seems self-evident from a look at the media, little empirical evidence exists to document the phenomenon or
unravel underlying processes. Undergraduate female participants (N = 82) from the Midwestern part of the United States rated three photographs of well-known female Olympic athletes shown either
provocatively dressed or in sport-appropriate outfits. Results showed that when shown provocatively attired the women were
objectified. Furthermore, participants’ own levels of social physique anxiety were significant predictors of objectification.
Sexism and trait objectification were not significantly related to ratings.
Research suggests that exposure to sociocultural norms for idealized appearance can reduce both women's and men's body satisfaction. Despite comparable effects for both genders in the lab, in the "real-world" women's body satisfaction is chronically lower than men's. Real-world gender differences may arise from discrepancies in men's and women's everyday exposure to norms. Across eight studies using a variety of content analysis, survey, and experimental methods, we examine differences in sociocultural norms for ideal appearance pertaining to women and men in "daily life" contexts. We demonstrate that appearance norms encountered by women in daily life are more rigid, homogenous and pervasive than those for men, and that more messages implying the attainability of the ideal appearance are directed at women. Finally, experimental results show that homogeneous, rigid norms (like those typically encountered by women) are more harmful to body image than heterogeneous, flexible norms (like those typically encountered by men).
Test the hypothesis that reductions in thin-ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction mediate the effects of a dissonance-based eating disorder prevention program on reductions in eating disorder symptoms over 1-year follow-up.
Data were drawn from a randomized effectiveness trial in which 306 female high school students (mean age = 15.7 years, SD = 1.1) with body image concerns were randomized to the 4-session dissonance-based prevention program or an educational brochure control condition, wherein school counselors and nurses were responsible for participant recruitment and intervention delivery.
Dissonance-intervention participants showed greater reductions in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptoms; change in thin-ideal internalization predicted change in body dissatisfaction and symptoms; change in body dissatisfaction predicted change in symptoms; and all indirect effects were significant. Change in thin-ideal internalization fully mediated the effects of intervention condition on change in body dissatisfaction and partially mediated the effects on symptoms; change in body dissatisfaction partially mediated the effect of intervention condition on change in symptoms.
Findings provided support for the intervention theory of this eating disorder prevention program over longer term follow-up, extending the evidence base for this effective intervention.
G*Power is a free power analysis program for a variety of statistical tests. We present extensions and improvements of the version introduced by Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, and Buchner (2007) in the domain of correlation and regression analyses. In the new version, we have added procedures to analyze the power of tests based on (1) single-sample tetrachoric correlations, (2) comparisons of dependent correlations, (3) bivariate linear regression, (4) multiple linear regression based on the random predictor model, (5) logistic regression, and (6) Poisson regression. We describe these new features and provide a brief introduction to their scope and handling.
The effect of experimental manipulations of the thin beauty ideal, as portrayed in the mass media, on female body image was evaluated using meta-analysis.
Data from 25 studies (43 effect sizes) were used to examine the main effect of mass media images of the slender ideal, as well as the moderating effects of pre-existing body image problems, the age of the participants, the number of stimulus presentations, and the type of research design.
Body image was significantly more negative after viewing thin media images than after viewing images of either average size models, plus size models, or inanimate objects. This effect was stronger for between-subjects designs, participants less than 19 years of age, and for participants who are vulnerable to activation of a thinness schema.
Results support the sociocultural perspective that mass media promulgate a slender ideal that elicits body dissatisfaction. Implications for prevention and research on social comparison processes are considered.
There are no published studies evaluating the impact of introduction of television on disordered eating in media-naïve populations.
To assess the impact of novel, prolonged exposure to television on disordered eating attitudes and behaviours among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls.
A prospective, multi-wave cross-sectional design was used to compare two samples of Fijian schoolgirls before and after prolonged regional television exposure with a modified 26-item eating attitudes test, supplemented with a semi-structured interview to confirm self-reported symptoms. Narrative data from a subset of respondents from the exposed sample were analysed for content relating television exposure to body image concerns.
Key indicators of disordered eating were significantly more prevalent following exposure. Narrative data revealed subjects' interest in weight loss as a means of modelling themselves after television characters.
This naturalistic experiment suggests a negative impact of television upon disordered eating attitudes and behaviours in a media-naïve population.
Self-objectification theory posits and past research has found that Caucasian women's body image is negatively affected by a stigma of obesity and sociocultural norm of thinness that leads women to self-focus from a critical external perspective. However, research in this area is limited by its methodology and the restricted demographic composition of its study participants. The current study tested 176 men and 224 women of Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian American descent in a situation that induced a state of self-objectification (e.g., wearing a one-piece Speedo bathing suit) or that served as a control condition (e.g., wearing a sweater). Contrary to previous research, when put in a self-objectifying situation, men and women of every ethnicity experienced negative outcomes (e.g., lower math performance) that parallel those previously found for Caucasian women.
Research suggests that exposure to mass media depicting the thin-ideal body may be linked to body image disturbance in women. This meta-analysis examined experimental and correlational studies testing the links between media exposure to women's body dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin ideal, and eating behaviors and beliefs with a sample of 77 studies that yielded 141 effect sizes. The mean effect sizes were small to moderate (ds = -.28, -.39, and -.30, respectively). Effects for some outcome variables were moderated by publication year and study design. The findings support the notion that exposure to media images depicting the thin-ideal body is related to body image concerns for women.
There are literally hundreds of studies that have investigated the role of sociocultural factors on body image and eating disturbances. In recent years, theoretical models have evolved to postulate how these influences lead to body image and eating disturbances, either directly or indirectly by producing changes in dispositional factors such as internalization and social comparison. This chapter highlights the impact of these studies on prevention and treatment strategies. The most widely tested and well-validated sociocultural model is the Tripartite Influence Model of body image and eating disturbance. Stice developed the Dual Pathway Model (DPM) as an extension of the pre-existing sociocultural model by including mechanisms of action hypothesized to explain how a subset of women exposed to sociocultural pressures ultimately develops bulimia nervosa (BN). In parallel with the evidence that has accrued over the past two decades supporting sociocultural approaches, are treatment and prevention efforts focused on similar sociocultural influences.
This new work summarizes the research on all forms of media on children, looking at how much time they spend with media everyday, television programming and its impact on children, how advertising has changed to appeal directly to children and the effects on children and the consumer behavior of parents, the relationship between media use and scholastic achievement, the influence of violence in media on anti-social behavior, and the role of media in influencing attitudes on body image, sex and work roles, fashion, & lifestyle. The average American child, aged 2-17, watches 25 hours of TV per week, plays 1 hr per day of video or computer games, and spends an additional 36 min per day on the internet. 19% of children watch more than 35 hrs per week of TV. This in the face of research that shows TV watching beyond 10 hours per week decreases scholastic performance. In 1991, George Comstock published Television and the American Child, which immediately became THE standard reference for the research community of the effects of television on children. Since then, interest in the topic has mushroomed, as the availability and access of media to children has become more widespread and occurs earlier in their lifetimes. No longer restricted to television, media impacts children through the internet, computer and video games, as well as television and the movies. There are videos designed for infants, claiming to improve cognitive development, television programs aimed for younger and younger children-even pre-literates, computer programs aimed for toddlers, and increasingly graphic, interactive violent computer games. *Presents the most recent research on the media use of young people *Investigates the content of children's media and addresses areas of great concern including violence, sexual behavior, and commercialization *Discusses policy making in the area of children and the media *Focuses on experiences unique to children and adolescents.
One hundred and thirty-nine women viewed television commercials that contained either Appearance-related commercials (demonstrating societally-endorsed images of thinness and attractiveness) or Non-Appearance-related advertisements. Pre-post measures of depression, anger, anxiety, and body dissatisfaction were examined. Participants were blocked by a median split on dispositional levels of body image disturbance and sociocultural attitudes regarding appearance. Individuals high on these measures became significantly more depressed following exposure to the Appearance videotape and significantly less depressed following a viewing of the Non-Appearance advertisements. In addition, individuals high on the level of sociocultural awareness/internalization became more angry and participants high on body image disturbance became more dissatisfied with their appearance following exposure to commercials illustrating thinness/attractiveness. Participants who scored below the median on dispositional levels of disturbance either improved or showed no change on dependent measures in both Appearance and Non-Appearance video conditions. The findings are discussed in light of factors that might moderate media-influenced perturbations in body image.
In contrast to the large body of research examining the negative effects of idealized media images on girls' and women's body image, little research has investigated whether media images can positively impact body concept among females. Using a between-participants experimental design, this study examined how images of performance athletes, sexualized athletes, sexualized models, and nonsexualized models impacted adolescent girls' and college women's tendency to self-objectify. Participants were 350 adolescent girls and 225 college women who completed a measure of body objectification after viewing photographs. As expected, performance athlete images prompted less self-objectification, suggesting the need for more of this imagery in mainstream media.
The issue of thin-ideal (or muscularity ideal for males) media effects on viewers continues to be debated and discussed within the scientific community. Many scholars have concluded that thin-ideal media can have an appreciable effect on viewers. More recently several scholars have contested this issue suggesting that media effects may be small to negligible or limited to groups of individuals already at risk for body dissatisfaction. The current meta-analysis, the most comprehensive to date with 204 studies, sought to examine the effects of thin or muscular media ideals on men and women in experimental, correlational, and longitudinal studies. Outcomes included general body dissatisfaction, restrictive eating, and symptoms of eating disorders. Results indicate little evidence for media effects in males. Effects were minimal for most females as well although some evidence suggested that women with preexisting body dissatisfaction may be primed by media ideals, particularly in experimental studies. Little evidence emerged for ethnic differences or differences across media types. However, some evidence emerged that publication bias issues may be inflating effect size estimates in some areas of study. Further, contrary to expectations, effect sizes were generally smaller for child samples than for adult and college student samples. Taken together, it is concluded that media effects are generally minimal and limited to those with preexisting body dissatisfaction. The evidence further did not support substantive links between media use and eating disorder symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Our study aimed to offer a comprehensive test of the model outlined in objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). A sample of 116 Australian female undergraduate students completed measures of self-objectification, self-surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, internal body awareness, flow, disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning. Simple correlations showed that most variables were related as predicted. Structural equation modeling showed an acceptable level of fit of the data to the theoretical model. Nevertheless, predictive ability was considerably greater for disordered eating than for depressed mood, which in turn was greater than for sexual functioning. Appearance anxiety and body shame emerged as the major mediating variables. The findings provide strong evidence in support of objectification theory. In particular, we concluded that self-objectification plays an important role in the development of mental health issues in young women. Accordingly, intervention strategies that target either societal objectification practices themselves, or educate young women to resist the pressures inherent in these practices that lead to self-objectification, have potentially far-reaching benefits.
Internalization of societal standards of physical attractiveness (i.e., internalization of the thin ideal for women and internalization of the mesomorphic ideal for men) is a widely studied and robust risk factor for body dissatisfaction and maladaptive body change behaviors. Substantial empirical research supports internalization as both a mediator and a moderator of the relation between societal influences and body dissatisfaction. In this paper, a primer on mediation and moderation is followed by a review of literature and discussion of the extent to which internalization can theoretically fulfill the roles of both mediation and moderation. The literature review revealed a stark contrast in research design (experimental versus non-experimental design) when alternate conceptualizations of internalization are adopted. A meta-theoretical, moderated mediation model is presented. This model integrates previous research and can inform future empirical and clinical endeavors.
Previous experimental research demonstrates that exposure to ultra-thin media models has negative effects on many women's body image, but neglects underlying psychological processes. We develop and test a moderated mediation model with internalization of the thin beauty ideal as moderator, and activation of weight-related self-discrepancies as mediating mechanism through which exposure leads to heightened body-focused negative affect. We demonstrate that thin-internalizers' higher negative affect after exposure to advertisements featuring thin models is fully mediated by weight-related self-discrepancy activation (N= 87; Study 1). These findings replicate in a larger sample of women (N = 155; Study 2) and hold regardless of whether or not thin models' body size was emphasized during exposure. Implications for interventions are discussed.
The relationship between exposure to sexually objectifying music television, primetime television programs, fashion magazines, and social networking sites and the internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance was examined among adolescent girls (N = 558). A structural equation model showed direct relationships between sexually objectifying media and the internalization of beauty ideals, and indirect relationships between sexually objectifying media and self-objectification, and body surveillance through the internalization of beauty ideals. The direct relationships between sexually objectifying media and the internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance differed across the types of sexually objectifying media. The discussion focuses on the implications of these findings to explain self-objectification among girls.
Although a great deal of research has examined the effects of objectification on women's self-perceptions and behavior, empirical research has yet to address how objectifying a woman affects the way she is perceived by others. We hypothesize that focusing on a woman's appearance will promote reduced perceptions of competence, and also, by virtue of construing the women as an "object", perceptions of the woman as less human. We found initial experimental evidence for these hypotheses as a function of objectifying two targets - Sarah Palin and Angelina Jolie. In addition, focusing on Palin's appearance reduced intentions to vote for the McCain-Palin ticket (prior to the 2008 US Presidential election). We discuss these findings in the context of the election and the objectification of women.
This study extends the literature on eating disorder symptomatology by testing, based on extant literature on objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. Roberts, 1997) and the role of sociocultural standards of beauty (e.g., L. J. Heinberg, J. K. Thompson, & S. Stormer, 1995), a model that examines (a) links of reported sexual objectification experiences to eating disorder-related variables and (b) the mediating roles of body surveillance, body shame, and internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty. Consistent with hypotheses, with a sample of 221 young women, support was found for a model in which (a) internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty mediated the links of sexual objectification experiences to body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms, (b) body surveillance was an additional mediator of the link of reported sexual objectification experiences to body shame, and (c) body shame mediated the links of internalization and body surveillance to disordered eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Philosophers have argued that when people are objectified they are treated as if they lack the mental states and moral status associated with personhood. These aspects of objectification have been neglected by psychologists. This research investigates the role of depersonalization in objectification. In Study 1, objectified women were attributed less mind and were accorded lesser moral status than non-objectified women. In Study 2, we replicated this effect with male and female targets and extended it to include perceptions of competence and pain attribution. Further, we explored whether target and perceiver gender qualify depersonalization. Overall, this research indicates that when people are objectified they are denied personhood. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) proposed objectification theory as an integrative framework for understanding how women's socialization and experiences of sexual objectification are translated into mental health problems. This article reviews the past decade of research grounded in objectification theory and highlights needed directions for future scholarship in this area. Specifically, this article reviews research organized according to the following themes: (a) self-objectification and its proposed consequences, (b) sexual objectification experiences as a proposed precursor, and (c) disconnections from bodily functions. An overview of emerging objectification theory research with men is also provided. The review concludes with needed directions for future theoretical and research efforts aimed to advance the psychology of women.
Body-image disturbance and eating disorders are a significant physical and mental health problem in Western countries. We describe emerging work on one newly identified variable that appears to be a potent risk factor for the development of these problems internalization of societal standards of attractiveness. Work conducted independently in our labs over the past decade has included scale development, correlational studies, prospective risk-factor studies, randomized experiments, and randomized prevention trials. Findings collectively suggest that internalization is a causal risk factor for body-image and eating disturbances, and that it appears to operate in conjunction with other established risk factors for these outcomes, including dieting and negative affect. Future research is needed to examine the specific familial, peer, and media influences that promote internalization and to replicate and extend our prospective and experimental studies.
Objective
To evaluate the role of appearance-based social comparison processes as a possible mediational link between developmental factors (negative social feedback, i.e., teasing about appearance; biological status, i.e.,early physical maturation) and levels of body dissatisfaction, eating disturbance, and global psychological functioning.Method
In this study of 173 female undergraduates, covariance structure modeling (CSM) was used to examine direct and mediational relationships among these variables.ResultsAppearance-based social comparison mediated the effect of appearance-related teasing on body image and eating disturbance; body image mediated the effect of teasing on eating disturbance; eating disturbance had a direct effect on overall psychological functioning.DiscussionImplications for devising and testing other theoretical models are discussed. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 26: 43–51, 1999.
Little research has investigated males’ reactions to non-objectified media images of women, including those that depict women
in instrumental activities like playing a sport. Using a survey methodology, this study examined U.S. adolescent boys’ open-ended
responses to images of performance athletes, sexualized athletes, and sexualized models. Participants were 104 adolescent
boys from California (ages 12–17, primarily European-American). They remarked on the performance athletes’ physical competence
and focused on the athletic context depicted in the photograph. In contrast, participants focused on the physical appearance
and attractiveness of the sexualized athletes and sexualized models. Overall, findings suggest that performance images of
women evoke instrumental evaluations of women from male viewers, while sexualized images induce objectified appraisals.
KeywordsMales–Media images–Objectification–Body image–Sports–Female athletes
Objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206, 1997) contends that experiences of sexual objectification socialize women to engage in self-objectification. The
present study used an experimental design to examine the effects of media images on self-objectification. A total of 90 Australian
undergraduate women aged 18 to 35 were randomly allocated to view magazine advertisements featuring a thin woman, advertisements
featuring a thin woman with at least one attractive man, or advertisements in which no people were featured. Participants
who viewed advertisements featuring a thin-idealized woman reported greater state self-objectification, weight-related appearance
anxiety, negative mood, and body dissatisfaction than participants who viewed product control advertisements. The results
demonstrate that self-objectification can be stimulated in women without explicitly focusing attention on their own bodies.
The current study evaluated the effects of receiving ambiguous appearance-based or nonappearance-based feedback on body image, mood states, and body change strategies. One hundred and forty-six women were randomly assigned to either an appearance condition, wherein they interacted with a confederate supposedly working for a cosmetic surgery center, or a nonappearance condition, in which the confederate purportedly worked for an academic enhancement center. Counter to expectations, there was no evidence of significant group differences on most of the variables that assessed mood states and body change strategies. However, intentions to engage in bulimic behavior were significant higher and dieting intentions marginally higher at posttest for the appearance condition, however anger levels were significantly higher for the nonappearance condition. Limitations of the study are discussed and future indications for research in this area are suggested.
Agency attribution is a hallmark of mind perception; thus, diminished attributions of agency may disrupt social-cognition processes typically elicited by human targets. The current studies examine the effect of perceivers' sexist attitudes on associations of agency with, and neural responses to, images of sexualized and clothed men and women. In Study 1, male (but not female) participants with higher hostile sexism scores more quickly associated sexualized women with first-person action verbs ("handle") and clothed women with third-person action verbs ("handles") than the inverse, as compared to their less sexist peers. In Study 2, hostile sexism correlated negatively with activation of regions associated with mental state attribution-medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, temporal poles-but only when viewing sexualized women. Heterosexual men best recognized images of sexualized female bodies (but not faces), as compared with other targets' bodies; however, neither face nor body recognition was related to hostile sexism, suggesting that the fMRI findings are not explained by more or less attention to sexualized female targets. Diminished mental state attribution is not unique to targets that people prefer to avoid, as in dehumanization of stigmatized people. The current studies demonstrate that appetitive social targets may elicit a similar response depending on perceivers' attitudes toward them.
One possible reason for the continued neglect of statistical power analysis in research in the behavioral sciences is the inaccessibility of or difficulty with the standard material. A convenient, although not comprehensive, presentation of required sample sizes is provided here. Effect-size indexes and conventional values for these are given for operationally defined small, medium, and large effects. The sample sizes necessary for .80 power to detect effects at these levels are tabled for eight standard statistical tests: (a) the difference between independent means, (b) the significance of a product-moment correlation, (c) the difference between independent rs, (d) the sign test, (e) the difference between independent proportions, (f) chi-square tests for goodness of fit and contingency tables, (g) one-way analysis of variance, and (h) the significance of a multiple or multiple partial correlation.
Hypotheses about the effects of self-focused rumination on interpretations of events and interpersonal problem solving were tested in 3 studies with dysphoric and nondysphoric participants. Study 1 supported the hypothesis that dysphoric participants induced to ruminatively self-focus on their feelings and personal characteristics would endorse more negative, biased interpretations of hypothetical situations than dysphoric participants induced to distract themselves from their mood, or nondysphoric participants. Study 2 showed that dysphoric participants who ruminated were more pessimistic about positive events in their future than the other 3 groups. Study 3 showed that dysphoric ruminating participants generated less effective solutions to interpersonal problems than the other 3 groups. In Studies 1 and 3, dysphoric ruminating participants also offered the most pessimistic explanations for interpersonal problems and hypothetical negative events. In all 3 studies, dysphoric participants who distracted were as optimistic and effective in solving problems as non-dysphoric participants.
To evaluate the role of appearance-based social comparison processes as a possible mediational link between developmental factors (negative social feedback, i.e., teasing about appearance; biological status, i.e., early physical maturation) and levels of body dissatisfaction, eating disturbance, and global psychological functioning.
In this study of 173 female undergraduates, covariance structure modeling (CSM) was used to examine direct and mediational relationships among these variables.
Appearance-based social comparison mediated the effect of appearance-related teasing on body image and eating disturbance; body image mediated the effect of teasing on eating disturbance; eating disturbance had a direct effect on overall psychological functioning.
Implications for devising and testing other theoretical models are discussed.
The goal of this investigation was to develop and validate a revision of a widely used measure of societal influences on body image and eating disturbances-the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ).
Two independent samples of college females completed a revision and extension of the SATAQ and factor analyses were conducted to determine the underlying structure of the revised scale.
Factor analyses indicated two distinct internalization factors: one appeared to reflect a generic media influence related to TV, magazines, and movies. A second factor clearly reflected internalization of athletic and sports figures. Two other factors, reflecting media pressures and media as an informational source, also emerged. Another widely used measure of thin-ideal internalization, the Ideal Body Internalization Scale-Revised (IBIS-R), was included in factor analyses to determine its empirical relationship with the revised SATAQ. None of the IBIS-R items loaded with any of the internalization items or items reflective of media pressures or information. Instead, the IBIS-R appeared to tap into an awareness of appearance norms dimension. The SATAQ-3 subscales had excellent convergent validity with measures of body image and eating disturbance. Eating-disturbed and eating-disordered samples had higher scores on SATAQ-3 subscales than a control sample.
The SATAQ-3 measures multiple aspects of a societal influence and should prove useful for basic risk factor work as well as for gauging the efficacy of prevention and treatment programs.
Although the relationship between media exposure and risk behavior among youth is established at a population level, the specific psychological and social mechanisms mediating the adverse effects of media on youth remain poorly understood. This study reports on an investigation of the impact of the introduction of television to a rural community in Western Fiji on adolescent ethnic Fijian girls in a setting of rapid social and economic change. Narrative data were collected from 30 purposively selected ethnic Fijian secondary school girls via semi-structured, open-ended interviews. Interviews were conducted in 1998, 3 years after television was first broadcast to this region of Fiji. Narrative data were analyzed for content relating to response to television and mechanisms that mediate self and body image in Fijian adolescents. Data in this sample suggest that media imagery is used in both creative and destructive ways by adolescent Fijian girls to navigate opportunities and conflicts posed by the rapidly changing social environment. Study respondents indicated their explicit modeling of the perceived positive attributes of characters presented in television dramas, but also the beginnings of weight and body shape preoccupation, purging behavior to control weight, and body disparagement. Response to television appeared to be shaped by a desire for competitive social positioning during a period of rapid social transition. Understanding vulnerability to images and values imported with media will be critical to preventing disordered eating and, potentially, other youth risk behaviors in this population, as well as other populations at risk.
Research suggests that young children have body image concerns, such as a desire for thinness and an avoidance of obesity. Surprisingly, few studies have investigated how children's body preferences and stereotypes are influenced by media aimed at children. In order to gain a better understanding of the content of such media, a content analysis was used to examine body image-related messages in popular children's videos and books. Results indicated that messages emphasizing the importance of physical appearance and portraying body stereotypes are present in many children's videos but relatively few books. Of the videos examined, the ones that exhibited the most body image-related messages were Cinderella and The Little Mermaid. Indian in the Cupboard and ET were the videos with the least number of body image-related messages. Of the books studied, the one with the highest number of body image-related messages was Rapunzel. Ginger and The Stinky Cheese Man were the only books studied that did not exhibit body image-related messages. Implications of an association of beauty and thinness in children's media are explored.
To examine the tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance as a viable sociocultural explanation for the development of eating and body image problems with young Japanese females.
A sample of 289 Japanese female undergraduates completed a variety of measures designed to index family, peer, and media influences, as well as levels of body dissatisfaction, eating disturbances, and self-esteem.
The data were evaluated with structural equation modeling to test the tripartite model. Fit indices indicated a moderate fit to the overall tripartite model, replicating previous findings.
This study suggests that the sociocultural variables found to influence body image and eating disturbances in Japan are similar to those observed with US samples. The implications for prevention and intervention programs are discussed.
The current study was an investigation of the self-schema and social comparison theories of body dissatisfaction. The social comparison manipulation consisted of exposure to one of three levels of comparison figure: upward, downward, or no comparison. Two different imagery exercises served to prime either a participants' appearance self-schema, or a non-appearance schema. Participants completed state measures of body image and mood at pre- and posttest. Results indicated no significant interaction between priming and social comparison and no significant main effect for priming. However, there was a significant effect of social comparison, such that those in the downward comparison condition showed an increase in body satisfaction and positive mood. Results are discussed in the context of self-schema theory and social comparison, and suggestions are given for future research that might further shed light on these theoretical approaches for understanding body dissatisfaction.
The Tripartite Influence Model of body image and eating disturbance proposes that three formative influences (peer, parents, and media) affect body image and eating problems through two mediational mechanisms: internalization of the thin-ideal and appearance comparison processes. The current study evaluated this model in a sample of 325 sixth through eighth grade girls. Simple path analyses indicated that internalization and comparison fully mediated the relationship between parental influence and body dissatisfaction and partially mediated the relationship between peer influence and body dissatisfaction. Additionally, internalization and comparison partially mediated the relationship between media influence and body dissatisfaction. Six a priori SEM models based on the full Tripartite Influence Model were also evaluated. A resulting model was found to be an adequate fit to the data, supporting the viability of the Tripartite Model as a useful framework for understanding processes that may predispose young women to develop body image disturbances and eating dysfunction.