Available via license: CC BY-SA 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Acta Linguistica Asiatica, 5(1), 2015.
ISSN: 2232-3317, http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/ala/
DOI: 10.4312/ala.5.1.71-84
JAPANESE LANGUAGE EDUCATION AND DYSLEXIA:
ON THE NECESSITY OF THE DYSLEXIA RESEARCH
Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
nagisa.moritoki@guest.arnes.si
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to show the important role of dyslexia, which is said to account for
most learning disabilities in Japanese language education. Potential dyslexic learners in Japanese
language are rather few, however, the recognition of dyslexia brings about both the reform of
Japanese language education as well as the results of the change to ‘more accurately
conceptualized as an alternative developmental pathway’ (OECD 2007 92).
In this paper, I will first discuss what dyslexia is and what perspective it offers to the area of
Japanese language education. I will then outline the present status of accepting and arranging
learning disabilities and dyslexic learners in Japan and Japanese language education. Then I will
consider actual conditions and attitudes about learning disabilitites and dyslexia in Japanese
language education through previous surveys and point out present problems and finally proposals
to solve them.
Dyslexia is a disability of the phonological component bound to semantic understandings, but
includes future suggestions in widespread subjects to Japanese language education.
Keywords: dyslexia; Japanese; language learning; inclusive education; autonomous learning
Povzetek
Namen te raziskave je prikazati pomembnost prepoznavanja disleksije, ki naj bi bila vzrok za večino
težav tudi v procesu izobraževanja japonskega jezika. Kljub temu, da je učencev z disleksijo
relativno malo, pa je njeno prepoznavanje spodbudilo reforme v sistemu poučevanja japonskega
jezika, rezultati pa se kažejo tudi v ‘spremembah konceptualizacije disleksije kot alternativne
razvojne poti’ (OECD 2007: 92).
V raziskavi najprej predstavim pojav disleksije in diskutiram o vplivih, ki jim ima disleksija na
področje izobraževanja japonskega jezika. Kasneje se osredotočim na sedanje dojemanje in
razvrščanje učnih motenj ter dislektičnih učencev na primeru Japonske in pri izobraževanju
japonskega jezika. Hkrati skozi predhodnje raziskave ocenjujem trenutne razmere in splošni odnos
do učnih motenj, še posebej odnos do disleksije, izpostavljam problem in navajam predloge k
reševanju problemov.
Ključne besede: disleksija; japonščina; učenje jezika; vključujoče izobraževanje; samostojno učenje
72 Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
1. Introduction
The statistics of the Japan Foundation 2013 count approximately four million
Japanese language learners enrolled in institutions. These statistics do not include
those engaged in civil language courses, TV/radio language courses, and learners who
learn through the Internet or a social network system (SNS), which has grown in
worldwide popularity in recent years. The diversification of such increasing number of
learners includes varied purposes of learning, attributes of learners, learning
environments, learners’ backgrounds and so on. Considering this, the increasing
number of learners with LDs (learning disabilities) is a present issue in Japanese
language education (Ikeda, 2004; Imura, 2007; Ikeda and Moritoki, 2013 and others).
In December 2004, 137 examinees (among them, 11 people with LDs) received special
arrangements
1
on the JLPT (Japanese-Language Proficiency Test)
2
. Though only a
small number among all examinees received such exemptions, this figure is steadily
increasing every year.
The purpose of this paper is to show the importance of perspective of dyslexia,
which is said to account for most LDs in Japanese language education. The next
section first discusses what dyslexia is and what perspective it offers to Japanese
language education. I will then outline the present status of accepting and arranging
LD and dyslexic learners in Japan and Japanese language education in section 3. In the
following section, I will consider actual conditions and attitudes about LDs and
dyslexia in Japanese language education through previous surveys and point out
present problems and proposals to solve them.
2. Learning disabilities, dyslexia and its cause
Dyslexia is the most common and most carefully studied of the learning disabilities; it
affects 80% of all individuals identified as learning disabled (Lerner, 1989; Shaywitz,
2003; Shaywitz and Shaywitz, 2004; Ishii, 2004; OECD, 2007). Dyslexia is reported to
affect 5-10% of alphabetic language speakers
3
. In Slovenia 3% of the population is
seriously affected and 7% mildly. In addition, 2-3% of pupils categorized as serious
cases are unable to finish elementary education because of dyslexia (Kavkler, 2002).
However, with wider recognition and understanding of dyslexia in recent times, more
dyslexics are being identified, recognized and counted in surveys. We cannot neglect
1
JLPT, Data of the test in December 2014. Retrieved from https://www.jlpt.jp/statistics/pdf/2014_2_4.pdf
2
The Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) is a test to measure and certify the Japanese-
language proficiency of non-native speakers. It started under the joint organization of the Japan
Foundation and Japan Educational Exchanges and Services (previously Association of International
Education, Japan). It is the largest Japanese-language test in the world, with approximately
610,000 examinees in 62 countries and areas worldwide in 2011.
(http://www.jlpt.jp/e/about/message.html)
3
BBC NEWS on September 1, 2004, Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3618060.stm
Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: … 73
the approximate 10% of the population identified as dyslexic. Considering this, we can
safely estimate that the same ratio of Japanese language learners could be dyslexic in
Europe.
Here, let us understand the definition of dyslexia. The definition below was given
by the American organization International Dyslexia Association (IDA) in 2002, which
has become the fundamental basis in Japan and other countries:
Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word
recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties
typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is
often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of
effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems
in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede
growth of vocabulary and background knowledge (adopted by the IDA Board of
Directors, Nov. 12, 2002
4
).
Dyslexia is considered to have a neurobiological foundation. The deficit of writing
and reading abilities causes difficulties in reading comprehensions, therefore reducing
reading experience, and thus, can lead to poor vocabulary and background
knowledge. Dyslexia occurs developmentally, which is inherent or found in the stage
of development, and acquirementally, which occurs because of accident or illness
after the birth. We will discuss developmental dyslexia, since all of the Japanese
examinees who have so far requested special arrangements for the JLPT are identified
as developmental dyslexic.
The Japanese definition of dyslexia (Uno et al., 2006) is based on IDA’s definition,
however, it differs from IDA on the following two points. One is that the Japanese
definition states deficit of the visual component, as well as the phonological one,
which causes difficulties in accuracy and fluency of spelling and decoding in
information progresses. It is reasonable to say that the process of reading and
understanding differs among languages, for example between phonogram and
ideogram, in a system of decoding characters and understanding meanings. The
second characteristic point of the Japanese definition is that it refers to the mental
status of dyslexics. The dyslexia often causes low self-evaluation and loss of
confidence through repeated failures, and thus maladjustment to the society.
Therefore, arrangements for dyslexics require both learning support and mental
support. I will discuss the differences between the IDA’s definition and Japanese
definition in another paper.
4
Retrieved from http://eida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/
74 Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
3. Dyslexia in Japan and Japanese language education
3.1 Japanese students with LD and dyslexia in educational institutions
The terms LD and dyslexia or ‘yomikaki shōgai’ (disabilities in reading and writing)
have become quite common in recent years in Japan and Japanese language
education because of the media and the increasing number of LD and dyslexic pupils.
With the wide recognition of LDs and dyslexia, the number is reportedly increasing in
Japan. According to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology (MEXT) in Japan, diagnosed LDs have increased from 4.5% (2003 survey)
to 6.5% (2012 survey) and dyslexic students account for 4.5% (2012 survey) of
approximately 53,000 children in compulsory education in Japan.
On the other hand, the Japan Student Services Organization (JASSO) survey
(2015) was implemented in questionnaire format to approximately 1000 institutions
in higher education and reported that 0.44 % of students need special support in their
studies. Students with developmental disorder (including LD, ADHD, high functioning
autism and so forth) occupy almost 25% of the whole. Comparing the JASSO survey
with the MEXT survey of 2012, it is estimated that quite a few students are learning
without any special support at the higher education level, even if not all the disabled
students go on to university. The survey also reports that 639 out of 833 schools that
disabled students are enrolled in are carrying out special support for them.
Those surveys present recent changes in the status of students with difficulties in
Japanese education. Japanese students with difficulties at educational institutions are
counted less than in Europe, but are still certainly increasing. The survey reports that
at least three-fourths of Japanese higher educational institutions have a support
system for students with difficulties. Japanese goverment declaired ‘Plan for 300,000
exchange students’ by 2020, and considering such an increase of foreign students at
the level of higher educations, foreign students’ success on study in Japan will
definitely depend much on firm support system for diversifying students at
universities.
3.2 Special arrangements on the JLPT
Special arrangements on the JLPT for Japanese learners were first organized for an
examinee with disabilities in 1994 when a Brazilian with cerebral palsy made a
demand of his helper’s attendance during the test. As for LDs, in 1996 a British
examinee requested special arrangements for taking the JLPT. This was also a time
when LDs came to be accepted in Japan. In 1992, the Ministry of Education, Science
and Culture in Japan (at the time) established the Council of Research Cooperator on
Teaching Methods of Students in Compulsory Education with LDs and Similar
Difficulties, and it defined LD in 1999. MEXT, the former Ministry of Education,
renamed ‘special education’ ‘special support education’. The existing law is the Act on
Support for Persons with Development Disabilities, implemented in 2005 in the
Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: … 75
general society; consequently, the revised School Education Act was enforced in
2007.
Let us have a look at the procedure of examinees and arrangements on the JLPT.
The guidelines for special arrangements on the JLPT were established and carried out
in 1999 (Ueda, 2003). Examinees with disabilities are to submit the Special
Arrangements Request Form and an explanation of their disability written by a
teacher from their current or former educational institution, or certified specialist
such as a medical doctor or a case worker when they register their JLPT application.
The committee at the JLPT head office examines the form sent from the examinee,
accepts/revises to accept, and informs the local institution to let the examinee take
the test with appropriate measures. After taking the exam, the local institution and
the examinee report whether the measures were appropriate.
Here is a list of special arrangements:
Use test booklets in Braille and answer in Braille
Enlarged test papers
Extended test time
Transcription of answers onto answer sheets
Use of personal equipment
Listening test exemption
Seat position (e.g., in front of audio speaker, separate room, etc.)
Other
One of the problems in establishing arrangements was how to judge various
types and degrees of disabilities, as legislative, administrative, and educational
systems for handicapped persons differ from country to country (Ueno and Ōsumi,
2008). Thus, the JLPT found a way to establish criteria not depending on the national
or regional certificate where the examinees are, but by examining submissions of the
actual conditions applied on the examinee at the current institution. It is estimated
that examinees require the same or similar arrangements that have been made
previously. The same goes for educational institutions of learners.
3.3 Support systems at institutions abroad
In this section we will look at the support systems at institutions in England and
France, of which the dyslexic population is considerably high
5
and, therefore, support
systems are well organized in institutions. First, the UK ratified the Salamanca
Statement
6
in 1994, aiming for ‘inclusive education’, which is considered an approach
to special support education, reaching out to the heterogeneity of learners and taking
diversity as a starting point for education. The Special Education Needs and Disability
5
Ten percent (10%) of the population are dyslexic; 4% severely so. (British Dyslexia Association,
Retrieved from http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about)
6
Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF
76 Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
Act (SENDA) 2001 requires educational support for LDs and dyslexia at schools and
The Children and Families Act 2014 guarantees support of children with special
educational needs or disabilities up to the age of 25 (Nishizawa in printing). On the
other hand, in France, special support programs at universities are based on law on
equal rights and opportunities, participation and citizenship of people with
disabilities, ratified on February 11, 2005 (LOI n° 2005-102 du 11 février 2005 pour
l'égalité des droits et des chances, la participation et la citoyenneté des personnes
handicapées), and Charter university / handicap (Charte universite / handicap) in
2012 (Ōshima, 2013).
7
In both countries, domestic laws are well developed to
support students with LDs and dyslexia at universities.
4. Actual conditions and attitudes about LD and dyslexia in Japanese language
education
4.1 Special support for foreign LD and dyslexic Japanese language learner at
universities
In this section we will especially look at the status of special support for LD and
dyslexic students in Japan. Ikeda (2004) seems to be the first report that surveyed
approximately 80 Japanese language teachers at universities, and then Imura (2007)
about 130 teachers at universities in Japan regarding LD supports. Ikeda (2013)
surveyed only 15 teachers in Japanese language schools but especially about support
for dyslexic leaners. Table 1 (see next page) is a comparison of these three surveys.
These three surveys should not be compared short-sightedly, because the topic
and the number of investigated teachers and categories of the answers differ from
each survey. However, at least the table shows the trend of how Japanese teachers
understand LDs and dyslexia. From the surveys, the ratio of language teachers who do
not know about LDs and dyslexia at all has reduced in the past decade, and teachers
with such knowledge are increasing, rising from 57% in 2001 to 81.04% in 2005. The
growing ratio seems to reflect the increased awareness that Japanese teachers
gradually have acquired about LDs and dyslexia in the last decade.
7
Corresponding to these laws in UK and France, Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities, which was adopted by the United Nations in 2007, was ratified in 2015 after several
years of necessary measures in domestic matters, and Act of Discrimination classification of
Persons with Disabilities is going to be put into force in 2017.
Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: … 77
Table 1: Research on the recognition of dyslexia
Report,
year
and theme
Year of
the
research
Sampling
Know very
well
Know what
LD/dyslexia is
Have heard
the term
LD/dyslexia
Have never
heard about
LD/dyslexia
Ikeda
(2004)
on LD
2001
81 Japanese
teachers at
univ. in Japan
4 (5%)
42 (52%)
31 (38%)
3 (4%)
Imura
(2007)
on LD
2005
132 Japanese
teachers at
univ. in Japan
With teaching
experience
30 (22.72%)
68 (51.51%)
13 (9.84%)
9 (6.81%)
Have
knowledge
9 (6.81%)
Ikeda
(2013)
on dyslexia
Not
described
15 Japanese
teachers in
Japan
15 (100%)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
More interesting, however, are teachers’ attitudes about LDs and dyslexia on the
following two points. Firstly, the knowledge about LDs and dyslexia that Japanese
teachers have is not always correct: “LDs are often mixed with ADHD (attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder) or developmental disorder” (Imura, 2007, p. 8) and
“dyslexia is thought not to be hereditary” (Ikeda, 2013, p. 7) and so on. Language
teachers answered that they have knowledge about LDs and dyslexia; however, it is
not always based on positive knowledge, but instead on vague conjecture through
the media or stories without foundation.
Secondly, the present status is reported that teachers obtain measures and
supporting methods for LDs and dyslexia through their own experience, not within
the institutional supporting division, and it remains unchanged in the past decade.
Ikeda (2004) and Imura (2007) pointed out that the teachers learn by themselves how
to support and arrange for LD learners through their trials and efforts. Ikeda (2013)
reports that all 15 respondents recognize the needs of instruction on dyslexia in
training courses for Japanese teachers. It shows that the institutional supporting
system, that the JASSO reported is increasing, does not function to help them
efficiently.
4.2 Educational institutions in Japan and dyslexia
Unfortunately, this is not the scene found only in Japanese language education.
According to Hiroshima’s survey (2007) of 75 teachers for special support education
at elementary and secondary school, they answered that they do not have proper
information about the mechanism of dyslexia: only 4% of them had already known
about dyslexia and others had not known or understood properly. The teachers, as
well as the Japanese language teachers, try to find better support measures at
78 Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
schools through their experiences without certain foundations. The present scene
may be different from the survey in 2007, because the present status for LDs is
changing every year as the new School Education Act was enforced in 2007 and LD
and ADHD students, who had not previously been targeted for support, can now
qualify for special support at school. However, at least in 2007, each teacher was
isolated at school, and when faced with dyslexic students, searched independently for
strategies without any organizational support; such is the case now in Japanese
language education.
4.3 Conclusions from these surveys
In this section I will discuss future schemes of supporting dyslexic learners in Japanese
language education, which can be obtained through the surveys.
First of all, they tell us that teachers need to have proper and accurate knowledge
about dyslexia based on scientific and positive grounds. The media can help to diffuse
information and understanding about dyslexia, but it is not enough for teachers to
support dyslexic students. What they need is an understanding of the neurobiological
mechanism that causes dyslexia, proven supports based on the mechanism, and
teaching methods which should be effective on dyslexic students. Teachers are
required to have knowledge about dyslexia before facing dyslexic students in class so
that they can identify and deal with the problem as soon as possible. I believe it is
vital that teachers have some knowledge of dyslexia since it is based on a
neurobiological deficit. I will discuss this in the next section.
Besides teachers’ preparation for dyslexia, it is also essential that supporting
divisions at educational institutions function properly. As shown in MEXT and JASSO
surveys, it is true that the number of supporting divisions is increasing, but there is
room for doubt whether they function properly for supported students, supporting
teaching staff, as well. The supporting division at educational institutions should be a
place, as is the case in England and France, to evaluate the status of students and
provide the direction and methods necessary to solve problems and allow for
continued studies.
Additionally, cooperation among teachers tightens the supporting system.
Dyslexic students at Japanese language institutions are enrolled in ordinary classes
and study with other students. The special supports outside the regular classes are
only a part of their studies, and this is not enough if only teachers for special supports
teach and support them. Another reason that cooperation with other teachers is
required is because teachers’ lack of understanding of dyslexia can cause dyslexic
students’ to suffer from low self-esteem. Dyslexic students are usually not disabled in
mental ability, nor lazy, but they do have neurobiological deficits in the phonological
component. Attention and support with positive knowledge for all teachers leads the
way to effective learning without absence of self-esteem, insecurity, pressure and
feelings of alienation.
Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: … 79
5. Discussion – why do we need perspective of dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that affects only a small percentage of Japanese
language learners. So, why do teachers have to learn about dyslexia? Below are three
beneficial points which dyslexia presents to Japanese language education.
5.1 Neurobiological approach to reading-writing process
The neurobiological approach, which is considered a basis for dyslexia, promotes
better understanding of literacy and different processes underlying neural circuits.
The process of phonological and semantic understanding may suggest more effective
learning for language learners, as well as dyslexic learners. This leads teachers to
reconsider their teaching methods, whether their ways to teach characters, words
and their meanings are proper from the point of neurobiological mechanism. The
neurobiological approach also gives another perspective to research how a learner
recognizes characters, phrases, sentences and then texts, with regarding to
understanding the meanings and listening the sounds.
Thus, the neurobiological approach may uncover different pathways of
understanding of literacy, which will enable language teachers to design a different
possible pathway of language learning. The approach should also suggest a way of
teaching and dealing with characters in Japanese classes at the present when digital
life with computer and smart phone makes us possible to live our lives without
writing characters but with only recognizing then. The process and pathway may
differ in Japanese language from in alphabetic language, but such a pathway
underlying the neurobiological result should be effective for language education,
which is inclusive rather than selective with potential consequences.
5.2 Reform of Japanese language learning in teaching method and institutional
system
Dyslexic learners have, in the past, been labeled as ‘lazy’ and ‘hindering’ in the
classroom. However, research on dyslexia uncovered neurobiological foundations,
and language teachers can now design effective and more targeted interventions in
language learning. It is an alternative way to achieve the same end goal for the
acquisition of literacy. The methods in language learning based on linguistics research
and teachers’ experiences are undoubtedly effective, but the research results on
dyslexia give us other efficient ways of literacy process underlying neural circuits.
Here are two examples to prove one’s literacy: the DAISY and a reading system on IDA
homepage. First, the DAISY (Digital Accessible Information System) is a digital system
for audio library which offers a recorded sound and a text synchronically colored with
the voice. The second example, on the IDA homepage, provides a text and sound that
one highlights the phrase or the sentence, and he can hear the sound. Those two
digital methods help a person to reach to the end goal – to read and understand the
meanings. Though they are aimed for dyslexic people and people with visual and
80 Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
hearing disabilities, they suggest new ways to learn a language to the field of
language education.
Research on dyslexia also makes us reconsider supporting systems at language
learning institutions. Previous research uncovers the status that inadequately
organized supporting systems in language institutions do not serve as well-
functioning tools for teachers trying to solve problems. Language institutions should
improve their status under a nationally endorsed instruction program, so that dyslexic
learners and teachers supporting them can learn and develop to the best of their
abilities.
5.3 Inclusive education and learner autonomy
To reconsider learning methods and institutional systems leads us to reconsider the
interaction and relationships between teachers and learners. To find better methods
for a singular dyslexic learner leads us to consider inclusive education and learner
autonomy, which is currently the strong stream in language education as in Tumposky
(1982), Thanasoulas (2000) and others.
Inclusive education is an alternative thought to special education because it
integrates learners with disabilities into regular society. Inclusive education, which is a
basic thought of the Salamanca statement adopted in 1994, aims to enroll all children
even those with disabilities, into mainstream schools and regular classes, unless there
are compelling reasons for doing otherwise. With the shift of educational ideology,
inclusive education became a reforming process of the whole education system to
welcome diversity and to benefit all learners. Meanwhile, the integration of special
education students and forced assimilation into regular classes has resulted in the
oversight of some learners’ particular needs and identities. Integration demands that
all teachers be involved in supporting all learners in education, even in regular
classes. Thus, knowledge of dyslexia is needed for all teachers to cooperate in
supporting dyslexic learners.
When teachers are aware of learners’ problems in learning, learning methods,
goals of study and so on, it encourages learners’ autonomy in learning. Though there
is no room to discuss learners’ autonomy in this paper, thinking about dyslexic
learners allows teachers to reconsider teaching methods in which ‘teachers teach
leaners Japanese language in a class’ and instead to think of each learner and his
background as part of that learner’s lifelong study.
Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: … 81
6. Conclusion
In this paper, we discussed the status of accepting dyslexic learners in Japanese
language teaching and why Japanese teachers need to have a perspective of dyslexia.
Potential dyslexic learners in Japanese language are very few, however, the
perspective of dyslexia brings about both reform of Japanese language education and,
as OECD mentioned, results in change ‘more accurately conceptualized as an
alternative developmental pathway’ (OECD, 2007, p. 92). This results in the reform of
institutional systems to support learners with disabilities or other problems and to
investigate whether or not such systems are functioning properly. Dyslexia is a
disability of the phonological component bound to semantic understandings, but
includes future suggestions in widespread subjects.
References
British Dyslexia Association. About the British Dyslexia Association. Retrieved
from http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about-us.html
Hiroshima, S. (2007). Disurekushia ni tsuiteno rikaino genjō – kōkai kōza jukōsha o taishō
ni shita ankeeto chōsa yori—(Analysis of Knowledge of Dyslexia and Dyslexic Children
among School Teachers). Jinbun kagaku, 56 (1), 205-214. Faculty of Education, Gifu
University. http://www.ed.gifu-u.ac.jp/kyoiku/info/zinbun/pdf/560115.pdf
Ikeda, N. (2013). Nihongokyōshi wa disurekushia o dō ninshiki shiteirunoka –
Nihongokyōin yōsei puroguramu kaihatsu no tameno kisokenkyū – (How do Japanese
Instructors Recognize Dyslexia? – Basic Research for Development of Japanese
Language Teacher Program. Nihongo kyōiku jissen kenkyū, 1, 1-15. Rikkyō University.
http://www2.rikkyo.ac.jp/web/i7nobuko/2013/20131NI.pdf
Ikeda, N. & Moritoki, N. (2013). Surovenia kyōwakoku ni okeru yomikaki shōgai shien
seisaku no enkaku: Disurekusia no gakushūsha o taishō to shita nihongo kyōiku shien
no kiso to shite (Supporting Learning Disabilities in Slovenia : Building a Social System
for Japanese Language Learners with Dyslexia). Kotoba, bunka, komyunikeeshon, 5,
141-152. Rikkyō University.
https://www.rikkyo.ac.jp/ibk/faculty/PDF/AA12405898_05_08.pdf
Ikeda, Y. (2004). Gakushūshōgai o motsu ryūgakusei no ukeire to shien (Accommodation
Students with Learning Disabilities in a Japanese Language Program). Nihongo kyōiku,
120, 113-118. The Society for Teaching Japanese as a Foreign Language.
Imura, M. (2007). Gakushūshōgai o motsu ryūgakusei eno kojin, soshikiteki taiō ni
kansuru ichikōsatsu (A Study on Individual and Systematic Accommodations for
International Students with Learning Disabilities: A Comparison between Readiness
of Host Universities and Student's Expectations). Center for Student Exchange
journal, 10, 3-10. Hitotsubashi University. http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-
u.ac.jp/rs/handle/10086/14357
82 Nagisa MORITOKI ŠKOF
Ishii, K. (2004). Yomikaki nomino gakushū konnan (disurekishia) eno taiōsaku
(Accomodation for dyslecsia). Science & Technology Trends, December 2004. National
Institute of Science and Technology Policy, MEXT. Retrieved from
http://www.nistep.go.jp/achiev/ftx/jpn/stfc/stt045j/0412_03_feature_articles/2004
12_fa01/200412_fa01.html
Japan Foundation. (2013). Survey Report on Japanese-Language Education Abroad 2012.
Kuroshio shuppan. Tokyo, Japan.
Japan Student Services Organization (JASSO). (2015). Daigaku, tankidaigaku, kōtō senmon
gakkō ni okeru shōgai no aru gakuseino shūgaku shien ni kansuru jittai chōsa kekka
hōkokusho (Survey Results on Learning Supports for Disabled Students at
Universities, Colleges and Technical Colleges). Retrieved from
http://www.jasso.go.jp/tokubetsu_shien/documents/chosa05_houkoku.pdf
Kavkler, M. (2002). Poročilo o delu društva za leto 2002. Retrieved from
http://www.drustvobravo.si/web/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=cat
egory&id=4&Itemid=40
Lerner, J. (1989). Educational interventions in learning disabilities. Journal of the American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 326–331.
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of
dyslexia, 53(1), 1-14.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan (MEXT). (2003).
Tūjō no gakkyū ni zaisekisuru tokubetsuna kyōikuteki shien o hitsuyō to suru jidō seito
ni kansuru zenkoku jittai chōsa – Chōsa kekka (Survey Results of National Survey of
Students who Require Special Educational Supports Enrolled in Regular Classes.
Retrieved from
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/shotou/018/toushin/030301i.htm
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan (MEXT). (2012).
Tūjōno gakkyū ni zaisekisuru hattatsu shōgai no kanōsei no aru tokubetsuna
kyōikuteki shien o hitsuyō to suru jidō seito ni kansuru chōsa kekkani tsuite. (On
Result of Survey Related to Students that Require Special Educational Supports that
might Developmental Disabilities Enrolled in Regular Classes). Retrieved from
http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/tokubetu/material/__icsFiles/afieldfile/201
2/12/10/1328729_01.pdf
Nishizawa, K. (in printing). Disurekushia to nihongo kyōiku – eikoku ni okeru taiō to
kadai—(Dyslexia and Japanese Language Education – Support and Problems in
England –) Disurekushia gakushūsha ni taisuru kyōjuhō kaihatsu hōkokusho (Report
on Development of Teaching Method on Dyslexic Learners). Grants-in-Aid for
Scientific Research, No. 24652105.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2007). Understanding
the Brain: The Birth of a Learning Science. OECD. MA, U.S.A.
Japanese Language Education and Dyslexia: … 83
Ōshima, H. (2013). Furansu no daigaku ni okeru shōgai gakusei shien seisaku to
disurekushia gakusei: Pari didoro daigaku no baai (Dyslexic Students and the French
Policy toward University Students with Disabilities: Example of Paris Diderot
University). Journal for the study of Japanese Language education practice, 1, 42-50.
Rikkyō University. http://www2.rikkyo.ac.jp/web/i7nobuko/2013/20134HO.pdf, 15.
4. 2015
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for
reading problems at any level. Knopf, New York, U.S.A.
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2004). Reading disability and the brain. Educational
Leadership, 61(6), 6-11.
Thanasoulas, D. (2000). What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered? The
Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 11.
Tumposky, N. (1982). ‘The learner on his own’. In M. Geddes and G. Sturtridge (eds.).
Individualisation, 4-7. London: Modern English Publications.
Ueda, K. (2003). Nihongo nōryoku shiken ni okeru shōgaisha juken tokubetsu sochi taiō
no genjō to kadai (A Report on “Non-standard Testing Arrangements for People with
Disabilities”). Nihongo kyōiku sentaa kiyō, 13, 99-115. Kokusai kōryū kikin (The Japan
Foundation).
Uno, A., Haruhara, N., Kaneko, M. & Wydell, T. N. (2006). Shōgakusei no yomikaki keisan
sukurīningu kensa – Hattatsusei yomikaki shōgai (hattatsusei dyslexia) kenshutsuno
tameni (Screening Test of Reading and Writing for Japanese Primary School Children).
Interuna shuppan. Tokyo, Japan.
Ueno, K. and Ōsumi, A. (2008). Nihongo nōryoku shaken ni okeru hattatsusei disurekushia
(shikiji shōgai) eno tokubetsu sochi (A Report on Special Testing Arrangements for
People with Developmental Dyslexia on Japanese Language Proficiency Test). Kokusai
kōryūkikin nihongo kyōiku kiyō, 4, 157-167. Kokusai kōryū kikin (The Japan
Foundation).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2005).
Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All. Paris, France. Retrieved
from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001402/140224e.pdf
