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Effects of Continuous and Interval Training on Running Economy, Maximal Aerobic Speed and Gait Kinematics in Recreational Runners

April 2016
The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(4):1059-66

DOI:10.1519/JSC.0000000000001174

Authors:

Fernando González-Mohíno

University of Castilla-La Mancha

Jose Maria Gonzalez Rave

University of Castilla-La Mancha

Daniel Juárez Santos-García

University of Castilla-La Mancha

Francisco De Asís Fernández Phd

Rey Juan Carlos University

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The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects on running economy (RE), VO2max, maximal aerobic speed (MAS), and gait kinematics (step length and frequency, flight and contact time) in recreational athletes, with two different training methods, Interval and Continuous. Eleven participants were randomly distributed in an interval training group (INT; n= 6) or continuous training group (CON; n= 5). INT and CON performed 2 different training programs (95-110% and 70-75% of MAS, respectively), which consisted of 3 sessions per week during 6 weeks with the same external workload (% MAS x duration). An incremental test to exhaustion was performed to obtain VO2max, maximal aerobic speed, running economy and gait variables (high speed camera) before and after the training intervention. There was a significant improvement (p<0.05) in running economy at 60% and 90% of MAS by the CON group; without changes in gait. The INT group significantly increased MAS as well as higher stride length at 80, 90 and 100% of MAS and lower contact time at 100% of MAS. As expected, training adaptations are highly specific to the overload applied with CON producing improvements in running economy at lower percentage of MAS while INT produces improvements in MAS. The significantly increased stride length and decreased contact time for the INT group is an important outcome of favourable changes in running gait.

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DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001174

TITLE: EFFECTS OF CONTINUOUS AND INTERVAL TRAINING ON RUNNING ECONOMY, MAXIMAL

AEROBIC SPEED AND GAIT KINEMATICS IN RECREATIONAL RUNNERS.

RUNNING TITLE: PHYSIOLOGICAL AND KINEMATICS COMPARISON BETWEEN CONTINUOUS

AND INTERVAL TRAINING IN RECREATIONAL RUNNERS.

Sport Training Lab. Faculty of Sport Sciences. University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain).

School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University (Australia).

Authors:

Fernando González-Mohíno Mayoralas

José Mª González-Ravé

Daniel Juárez

Francisco de Asís

Rubén Barragán Castellanos

Robert U. Newton

Full mailing address:

Fernando González-Mohíno Mayoralas

Faculty of Sport Sciences

Avenida Carlos III s/n

45071 Toledo (Spain)

Telephone: 0034 925 268800 ext (5519)

Fax: 0034 925 268846

Email address: fernando.gonzalezmohino1@alu.uclm.es

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects on running economy (RE),

max, maximal aerobic speed (MAS), and gait kinematics (step length and

frequency, flight and contact time) in recreational athletes, with two different training

methods, Interval and Continuous. Eleven participants were randomly distributed in an

interval training group (INT; n= 6) or continuous training group (CON; n= 5). INT and

CON performed 2 different training programs (95-110% and 70-75% of MAS,

respectively), which consisted of 3 sessions per week during 6 weeks with the same

external workload (% MAS x duration). An incremental test to exhaustion was

performed to obtain VO

max, maximal aerobic speed, running economy and gait

variables (high speed camera) before and after the training intervention. There was a

significant improvement (p<0.05) in running economy at 60% and 90% of MAS by the

CON group; without changes in gait. The INT group significantly increased MAS as

well as higher stride length at 80, 90 and 100% of MAS and lower contact time at 100%

of MAS. As expected, training adaptations are highly specific to the overload applied

with CON producing improvements in running economy at lower percentage of MAS

while INT produces improvements in MAS. The significantly increased stride length

and decreased contact time for the INT group is an important outcome of favourable

changes in running gait.

Keywords: maximum aerobic speed; ground contact; stride length; stride frequency;

maximal oxygen consumption; endurance athletes; movement efficiency

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INTRODUCTION

It is well known that maximal oxygen uptake (VO

max) (5), running economy (11, 22),

and anaerobic threshold (15, 21) are the main parameters that have been used to predict

performance during middle and long distance running events. In fact, success in

distance running performance is highly correlated with the athlete’s ability to efficiently

consume high volumes of oxygen (11, 34, 36). However, high VO

max is not the only

performance limiting quality for long distance running and, other physiological factors

are also important (11). These factors depend on the race distance and ability to sustain

a high percentage of VO

max during the race (13) as well as optimal running economy

(11, 32). The speed associated with the attainment of VO

max (Maximal Aerobic

Speed) and speed at the onset of blood lactate accumulation, are also good predictors of

performance in endurance events (6).

While running economy is acknowledged as an important performance quality

underpinning endurance (11, 22) and commonly defined as the steady-state oxygen

uptake (VO

) required at a given submaximal speed, there is currently very few studies

published that have evaluated the effectiveness of different strategies for improving

running economy. It has been reported that strength and/or plyometric training, altitude

exposure and exposure to hot environments improve running economy (35). Other

strategies that have been used are interval training (6, 11, 17), or continuous training

(3).

More recently, research comparing these two methods of training, continuous and

interval, has grown considerably. Studies have found that both methods improve the

MAS (Maximal Aerobic Speed) in a similar way (4, 19, 40), but further improvements

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have been realised from interval training, as reported by Gharbi and colleagues (16).

Other research has found that both methods similarly improve VO

max and running

economy (4, 14) but at least one study concluded that VO

max improves significantly

more with interval training (39). Some of these contrasting results are likely due to

differences in total training load. For example, it has been previously reported (18) that

when the external load of both training groups is not equalized, and therefore they do

not receive the same stimulus, there was significantly greater increases in VO

max with

interval training compared to continuous training (18). Conversely, in some studies

similar improvements in VO

max from each training mode have been observed even

though the external load was not equal (33). Furthermore, other research has found no

improvements in VO

max for either continuous or interval training but report

improvements in running economy for the interval training only (17). Clearly, when

external loads are not equal, i.e. receiving different stimulus, the results are disparate

and difficult to compare. In addition, there are several factors that influence running

economy and performance such as biomechanical variables (35). However, no research

has analysed changes in gait kinematics after a period of continuous or interval training.

The aims of this study were first; to analyse changes in running economy, VO

max and

maximal aerobic speed after 18 sessions resulting from either continuous and interval

training; and second; to determine if changes in gait kinematics are realised from these

interventions. The hypothesis of this study was that both methods of training with

equalized training loads are effective for improving running economy at intensities

close to that of each training method. In other words, the continuous method will

increase performance qualities at lower percentages of MAS. However, the interval

training will increase the MAS, because it can be performed at high intensities around

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the MAS. Finally, the hypothesis was that significant changes in gait kinematics would

occur as a result of either of the training interventions.

METHODS

Experimental Approach to the Problem

Eleven recreational runners were randomly assigned to one of two groups using random

numbers: interval training group (INT; n= 6), and continuous training group (CON; n=

5). The experiment involved the implementation of two different endurance running

training programs (interval vs. continuous) with the same external workload (% MAS x

duration) for three sessions per week over a six-week period for a total of 18 sessions.

Before and after the training intervention, subjects were evaluated using an incremental

test on a treadmill to measure VO

max, maximal aerobic speed (MAS), running

economy (RE) at 60%, 80% and 90% of MAS. In addition, gait kinematic variables

such as step frequency (SF), step length (SL), contact time (CT) and flight time (FT)

were recorded.

Subjects

Eleven recreational runners were recruited for participation in this study (mean ± SD:

max 56.7 ± 8.4 (ml·kg

¹·min

¹), age 33.1 ± 11.3 years, weight 72.2 ± 12.6 kg, height

173.3 ± 6.6 cm) with a minimum one year of experience in competitive long distance

races. Prior to the study, subjects were informed about the testing and training, possible

risks involved and invited to provide written informed consent. This study was

performed in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (October

2008, Seoul).

Procedures

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The experiment was conducted over an 8 weeks period. Testing sessions were

implemented during weeks 1 and 8, which consisted of a maximal incremental running

test on a treadmill until volitional exhaustion and a kinematic analysis. All participants

had experience with running on treadmill.

All testing sessions were performed under similar environmental conditions (550m

altitude, 20-25

C, 35-40% relative humidity) and all testing and training sessions were

performed at the same hour of the day to avoid any influence of circadian rhythms. The

subjects followed a similar pre-competition diet 24 h before the testing sessions, were

asked to refrain from alcohol and caffeine ingestion and they wore the same footwear

which were their normal running training shoes. The first training session did not

commence until three days after the first testing session. Further, a three day recovery

period of no training was required between the last training session and the post-testing

session.

Data collection

A maximal incremental running test on a treadmill (HP Cosmos Pulsar, HP Cosmos

Sports & Medical GMBH, Nussdorf-Traunstein, Germany) was performed. The test

commenced at a speed of 2.2 m·s

-1

for 5 minutes warm-up and the speed was then

increased by 0.28 m·s

-1

every minute until volitional exhaustion. The treadmill slope

was 1% to imitate external wind conditions (25, 29). During the test, respiratory

variables were continuously measured using an expired gas analysis system (CPX

Ultima Series MedGraphics, Minnesota, US) with gas calibration prior to each test

session performed automatically by the system using both ambient and reference gases

(CO

4.10%; O

15.92%).

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Simultaneous kinematic analysis of running gait was performed using a high speed

video camera (30Hz) (Casio High Speed Exilim EX – FH20, Casio America, Dover,

NJ) situated on the right side of the treadmill (1m distance), perpendicular to the sagittal

plane at a height of 40 cm (29). Each video sequence was analysed with Kinovea

software version 8.15, by the same observer. Ground contact time was defined as the

time from landing to when the foot lost contact with the ground. Flight time was defined

as the time between take off and the initial ground contact of the opposite foot. Step

frequency was measured during the last 30 seconds at each speed to obtain at least 32

consecutive steps and thus reduce the effect of intra-individual step variability (2).

Speed of the treadmill was then divided by the step frequency in order to obtain step

length.

Training Programs

The training programs for the INT and CON groups consisted of 18 sessions distributed

over six weeks (three sessions per week). The total training load for both methods was

the same for each training session and for all weeks, keeping the same criteria for the 2

methods in terms of gradual increase in effort and super-compensation. The total

session workload was obtained by multiplying volume (time in minutes) by intensity

(%MAS) based on the study of Tuimil et al. (40). Thus, the mean intensity of an interval

session was equal to the sum of both work and active recovery intensities divided by 2.

Volume and intensity of an interval session and continuous session are provided in

Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The work-to-rest ratio was maintained at 1:1 for all interval

training.

(Tables 1 and 2 about here)

Statistical Analyses

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The statistical analysis was completed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences

(SPSS v.21 for Windows). All values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD).

Data were screened for normality of distribution and homogeneity of variance using a

Shapiro-Wilk Normality Test. Repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) for

two factors (Group x Test) was performed to compare the training effect on each group.

Criterion for statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Cohen’s D was calculated for

assessment of the effect size (ES) and was interpreted as small (<0.3), moderate (≥0.3

and <0.5) and large (≥0.5).

RESULTS

Results for both groups for all variables pre and post the training intervention are

presented in Table 3. Analysis of the ANOVA results revealed significant differences

after 6 weeks of training for a number of variables although these differed between the

two groups. Six weeks CON training resulted in significant reduction (p<0.05) in VO

when running at 60% and

90% of MAS (Figure 1).

(Table 3 and Figure 1 about here)

60% decreased by 17.8% (p<0.05) and VO

90% decreased by 8.5% (p<0.05).

These were the only significant changes as a result of CON training. The INT training

produced significant increases (p <0.05) in MAS (Figure 2) by 7.9% (p<0.01).

(Figure 2 about here)

In addition, SL 80% increased by 5.3% (p<0.01), SL 90% increased by 5.6% (p<0.001),

SL 100% increased by 5.6% (p<0.05) (Figure 3) and CT 100% decreased by 11.4%

(p<0.01) (Figure 4).

(Figure 3 and 4 about here)

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DISCUSSION

The goal of this study was to determine the effects on running economy (RE), VO

max,

maximal aerobic speed (MAS), and gait kinematics (step length and frequency, flight

and contact time) in recreational athletes resulting from two different training methods.

Interval and Continuous training were compared over six weeks of training and a total

of 18 sessions. The main findings were a differential adaptation in MAS, VO

60% of

MAS, SL 80%, SL 90% and CT 100%. Furthermore, RE was improved by the CON

training as indicated by decreased VO

when running at 60%, 80% and 90% of MAS

(Table 3, Figure 1). This decrease in submaximal VO

means less oxygen is required to

perform the same relative workload and thus improved RE. This may be due to a

physiological adaptation, produced by improved cardiorespiratory function and the

oxidative capacity of the muscular system (31), however this was not measured in our

study and so can only be speculated. Improvements in oxidative capacity of skeletal

muscle are associated with increases in the morphology and function of mitochondria

(34). This allows a reduction in the oxygen used by the mitochondrial respiratory chain

complex during a submaximal workload (31). Therefore, this physiological adaptation

leads to improvements in RE (10). Our results are in accordance to the work of Beneke

et al. (3) that explained improvements in running economy and performance in

recreational athletes after 24 training sessions over three weeks where they observed

decreasing energy cost by 9-10%. In our study, the training stimulus was performed

between 70-75% of MAS in the CON training. Usually, runners would be more

economical running at speeds that they routinely do during training (23), and these

findings are in agreement with our results because decreased VO

80% of MAS, the

effect size was large (ES = 0.62) although not significant. This result indicates

improvements of RE at the training speeds applied.

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MAS only increased with the INT training (7.9%). This is likely because INT training

was performed at intensities close to 100% of MAS and thus a much more intensity

specific overload with greater adaptation effect. This improvement is higher than that

reported by Denadai et al. (12), which involved two sessions of interval training at 95%

of MAS and another group at 100%, for 4 weeks plus 4 weeks of submaximal training.

In the current study the intervention was longer with more sessions per week. In another

study, Gharbi et al. (16) found large increases in MAS after INT compared to CON

(15.1% vs. 10.3%). Participants in this study trained six days per week over six weeks

so the total training exposure (36 sessions) was much higher than in our study (18

sessions). There are other aspects to consider such as training status. MAS at baseline

for the INT group in our study was 16.83 km·h

-1

which was lower than reported by

Denadai et al. (12) (19

km·h

-1

in 95% MAS group and 18.3 km·h

-1

in 100% MAS

group) but higher than the participants of Gharbi et al. (16) which was 15.2 km·h

-1

. It is

likely that both initial fitness and volume of training combined to produce these

differences in adaptation to the training. In contrast to these results however, there are

also reports of no significant difference in MAS increase, comparing these training

methods (4, 19, 40).

It was somewhat surprising that VO

max decreased by 7.8% for CON and 2.7% for INT

training with moderate to strong effect sizes, although these changes were not

significant for either group. This may be due to the known positive relationship between

max and submaximal oxygen consumption, indicating that athletes with poor

running economy, tend to have higher VO

max values, which may also explain the

positive change in running economy and the negative change in VO

max (27). Previous

studies (6, 17, 30) have shown that these training methods (continuous and interval) do

not drive significant improvements in VO

max. However, other studies (1, 20, 33, 40)

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have found improvements in this performance variable. Improvements in VO

max in

endurance athletes could be induced by the increased time at high percentages of

max and the longer distances completed at high speeds (5, 26). Some authors have

suggested that to improve VO

max, runners should train between 90-100% of VO

max

(8). In our study, INT participants performed between 95-110% of MAS, but did not

show improvements in VO

max, coinciding with the results found by Smith et al. (37)

and Laffitte et al. (24). In contrast, two other studies found improvements in VO

max,

with training intensities between 70-85% of VO

max and this research indicates that the

optimal training intensity, for this improvement, may not be in the range of 90-100% of

max (7, 38). Currently, there is no relative effectiveness between these two

approaches of intensities. Training intensities in CON were at 70-75% of MAS but no

improvement in VO

max was realized.

Running gait kinematics during the maximal incremental test changed over the course

of the intervention in a differential manner between the two training programs. One aim

of this study was to determine if there were changes in gait kinematics thought to

improve RE and MAS. CON training, despite improvement in RE at two relative speeds

did not correspond with any significant changes in gait kinematics. In contrast INT

training did not result in any significant improvement in RE, but MAS increased by

7.9% and there were a number of significant changes in gait variables with SL at 80%,

90% and 100% of MAS (Figure 3) increasing by 5.3%, 5.6% and 5.6%, respectively

and CT at 100% of MAS decreasing by 11.4% (Figure 4). In addition, SF at 80%, 90%

and 100% of MAS exhibited moderate to large effect size (ES = 0.33; 0.64; 0.53

respectively) for change over the training intervention. Although, there weren’t

significant differences, these results could be interpreted as a tendency of SF to increase

with the improvement of MAS with INT training. SL, rather than SF, appears to be the

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determining factor in resultant horizontal velocity near to 5 m·s

-1

(18 km·h

-1

). As speed

increases, SL tends to stabilize and further increases in running speed are achieved by

increasing SF (9). In our study, it has been found that improved MAS, above 18 km·h

-1

is achieved by increases SL rather than SF.

CT at 100% of MAS decreased significantly with increasing running speed, coinciding

with the results found by Nummela et al. (28), and CT 60% and 80% also, although not

statistically significant, exhibited moderate to large effect size (ES = 0.80; 0.40 for 60

and 80%, respectively) in the current study. Nummela et al. (28) reported that efficient

runners are characterized by lower CT. In our study, CON training improved RE

significantly without decreases in CT. This may be due to the training and ability level

of the participants, compared to other studies that used more elite athletes and higher

training speeds. Further, with continuous training it is difficult to achieve higher

training speeds so little effect on CT but INT training which encompasses higher

running speed appears to have a positive impact on CT.

In summary, the effects of six weeks of continuous or interval training with the same

external workload produce quite different adaptations in the running economy and gait

variables. Continuous training produced significant improvements in running economy

at intensities close to that of the training programme without changes in gait kinematics.

In contrast, interval training produced significant improvements in maximal aerobic

speed and in the process, step length increased significantly more than step frequency

and contact time decreased at the highest running speed.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Coaches seeking to improve running economy of their athletes should use continuous

training which is fundamental for endurance athletes. On the other hand, to improve

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maximal aerobic speed of their athletes, interval training can be effectively applied

because this allows the athlete to train intensely given the characteristics of this training

method. To change step length and step frequency to improve running performance, the

current study indicates interval training sessions close to 100% of MAS to be effective.

Athletes that use high step frequency could try to increase step length using interval

training sessions. Recreational athletes and coaches should consider the different

adaptations produced by these two training methods to achieve their goals. While this

study involved long distance runners, the outcomes should be applicable to other sports

involving running such as field sports.

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continuous and interval running programs on endurance performance and jump

capacity. J Strength Cond Res, 25: 2205-2211, 2011.

Figure Legend.

Figure 1. Significant changes in running economy at 60 and 90% of the MAS for the Continuous

training * (p<0.05).

Figure 2. Changes in MAS for continuous and interval group. There was a significant effect for

the Interval training ** (p<0.01).

Figure 3. Significant changes in SL at 80, 90 and 100% of MAS for the Interval training *

(p<0.05), ** ( p<0.01), *** (p<0.001).

Figure 4. Significant changes in CT at 100% of MAS for the Interval training * (p<0.05).

ACCEPTED

Table 1. Training program for the interval group.*

*MAS = Maximal aerobic speed.

Week Monday Wednesday Friday

1 10 x 1 min (1:1) (110 : 55% MAS) 5 x 2 min (1:1) (100 : 50% MAS) 3 x 3 min (1:1) (95 : 45% MAS)

2 11 x 1 min (1:1) (110 : 55% MAS) 6x 2 min (1:1) (100 : 50% MAS) 4 x 3 min (1:1) (95 : 45% MAS)

3 12 x 1 min (1:1) (110 : 55% MAS) 7 x 2 min (1:1) (100 : 50% MAS) 5 x 3 min (1:1) (95 : 45% MAS)

4 13 x 1 min (1:1) (110 : 55% MAS) 8 x 2 min (1:1) (100 : 50% MAS) 6 x 3 min (1:1) (95 : 45% MAS)

5 14 x 1 min (1:1) (110 : 55% MAS) 9 x 2 min (1:1) (100 : 50% MAS) 7 x 3 min (1:1) (95 : 45% MAS)

6 15 x 1 min (1:1) (110 : 55% MAS) 10 x 2 min (1:1) (100 : 50% MAS) 8 x 3 min (1:1) (95 : 45% MAS)

ACCEPTED

Table 2. Training program for the continuous group.*

*MAS = Maximal aerobic speed.

Week Monday Wednesday Friday

1 22 min (75% MAS) 20 min (75% MAS) 18 min (70% MAS)

2 24 min (75% MAS) 24 min (75% MAS) 24 min (70% MAS)

3 26 min (75% MAS) 28 min (75% MAS) 30 min (70% MAS)

4 28 min (75% MAS) 32 min (75% MAS) 36 min (70% MAS)

5 30 min (75% MAS) 36 min (75% MAS) 42 min (70% MAS)

6 33 min (75% MAS) 40 min (75% MAS) 48 min (70% MAS)

ACCEPTED

Table 3. Measured variables pre and post the 6–week intervention of continuous or interval training.

Continuous (n=5) Interval (n=6) Interaction Group x Test

Pretest Postest Pretest Postest

Mean ± SD Cohen's ES Mean ± SD Cohen's ES f p

VO2 max (ml·kg¯¹·min¯¹) 55.48 ± 8.45 51.66 ± 6.68 0.57 57.71 ± 8.92 56.20 ± 6.85 0.22 0.98 0.35

MAS (km·h

-1

) 16.20 ± 1.48 16.40 ± 1.81 0.11 16.83 ± 1.47 18.16 ± 1.47 ** 0.90 7.63 0.022*

VO2 60 % (ml·kg¯¹min¯¹) 38.46 ± 2.46 32.66 ± 4.54 * 1.28 37.55 ± 4.92 38.55 ± 4.23 0.24 5.92 0.038*

VO2 80 % (ml·kg¯¹·min¯¹) 45.62 ± 3.77 43.22 ± 3.88 0.62 48.3 ± 5.41 46.81 ± 6.44 0.23 0.25 0.631

VO2 90 % (ml·kg¯¹·min¯¹) 50.86 ± 5.68 46.86 ± 5.77 * 0.69 52.6 ± 6.96 51.8 ± 5.19 0.15 3.06 0.114

SL 60 % (cm) 97.04 ± 7.54 103.47 ± 14.47 0.44 99.52 ± 9.08 104.86 ± 9.42 0.57 0.02 0.881

SL 80 % (cm) 123.31 ± 5.08 122.76 ± 8.91 0.06 126.73 ± 11.03 133.87 ± 10.99 ** 0.65 7.78 0.021*

SL 90 % (cm) 132.03 ± 7.11 133.61 ± 8.05 0.20 138.24 ± 12.06 146.47 ± 14.94 *** 0.55 6.38 0.033*

SL 100 % (cm) 142.68 ± 13.34 145.96 ± 12.45 0.26 149.52 ± 11.92 158.37 ± 13.39 * 0.66 1.04 0.334

SF 60 % (Hz) 2.79 ± 0.22 2.82 ± 0.18 0.17 2.83 ± 0.14 2.84 ± 0.14 0.07 0.10 0.758

SF 80 % (Hz) 2.92 ± 0.22 2.98 ± 0.25 0.24 2.96 ± 0.14 3.00 ± 0.12 0.33 0.07 0.801

SF 90 % (Hz) 3.02 ± 0.15 3.03 ± 0.23 0.04 3.01 ± 0.14 3.10 ± 0.14 0.64 1.58 0.241

SF 100% (Hz) 3.16 ± 0.31 3.11 ± 0.20 0.25 3.12 ± 0.12 3.21 ± 0.17 0.53 1.30 0.284

CT 60 % (s) 0.312 ± 0.02 0.316 ± 0.03 0.13 0.301 ± 0.03 0.285 ± 0.02 0.80 0.80 0.393

CT 80 % (s) 0.264 ± 0.035 0.256 ± 0.028 0.29 0.256 ± 0.025 0.250 ± 0.015 0.40 0.01 0.935

CT 90 % (s) 0.262 ± 0.024 0.256 ± 0.028 0.21 0.235 ± 0.012 0.230 ± 0.018 0.28 0.01 0.933

CT 100 % (s) 0.25 ± 0.030 0.25 ± 0.030 0.00 0.245 ± 0.016 0.22 ± 0.024 ** 1.04 6.02 0.037*

FT 60 % (s) 0.062 ± 0.024 0.050 ± 0.030 0.40 0.063 ± 0.031 0.061 ± 0.022 0.09 0.29 0.606

FT 80 % (s) 0.090 ± 0.03 0.076 ± 0.021 0.67 0.080 ± 0.021 0.086 ± 0.035 0.17 2.25 0.168

FT 90 % (s) 0.084 ± 0.021 0.084 ± 0.021 0.00 0.093 ± 0.016 0.093 ± 0.016 0.00 0.00 1

FT 100 % (s) 0.068 ± 0.017 0.076 ± 0.021 0.38 0.086 ± 0.020 0.086 ± 0.020 0.00 0.35 0.568

VO2: Oxygen consumption; MAS: Maximal aerobic speed; SL: Step Length; SF: Step Frequency; CT: Contact Time; FT: Flight time.* (p≤0.05),

** (p≤0.01), *** (p≤0.001).

ACCEPTED

Figure 1. Significant changes in running economy at 60 and 90% of the MAS for the

Continuous training * (p<0.05).

ACCEPTED

Figure 2. Changes in MAS for continuous and interval group. There was a

significant effect for the Interval training ** (p<0.01) .

ACCEPTED

Figure 3. Significant changes in SL at 80, 90 and 100% of MAS for the Interval

training * (p<0.05), ** ( p<0.01), *** (p<0.001).

ACCEPTED

Figure 4. Significant changes in CT at 100% of MAS for the Interval training *

(p<0.05).

ACCEPTED

Effects of 20 Weeks of Endurance and Strength Training on Running Economy, Maximal Aerobic Speed, and Gait Kinematics in Trained Runners

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2025

Objective: This study aims to evaluate the effects of a 20-week endurance and strength training program on running economy and physiological, spatiotemporal, and neuromuscular variables in trained runners. Methods: A total of 18 runners (13 males and 5 females) completed a running economy test (2 bouts of 5 min at 3.06 m·s −1 for females and at 3.61 m·s −1 for males) and a graded exercise test (5 min at 2.78 m⋅s −1 , with speed increasing by 0.28 m⋅s−1 every 1 min until volitional exhaustion). During the training program , the participants completed different low-intensity continuous running sessions, high-intensity interval running sessions, and auxiliary strength training sessions. Results: Running economy, measured as oxygen cost and energy cost, increased by 4% (p = 0.011) and 3.4% (p = 0.011), respectively. Relative maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) increased by 4.6%. There was an improvement in the speed associated with the first (VT1) and the second ventilatory threshold and with the maximal aerobic speed by 9.4, 3.7, and 2.8% (p = 0.000, p = 0.004, and p = 0.004, respectively). The %VO2max value of VT1 increased by 4.8% (p = 0.014). Conclusions: These findings suggest that a 20-week endurance and strength training program significantly improves performance and physiological factors without changing the runner's biomechanics.

Effects of continuous, interval, and combined training methods on middle- and long-distance runners’ performance: English

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2024

Yared Tegegne Nigussie

Introduction: Running performance is largely influenced by training methods, including Continuous, Interval, and combined training methods. However, which training method that best improves the performance has not been identified. Aim: This study was to investigate how training methods continuous, interval, and combined training affect distance running performance. Methods: A total of thirty (n=30) athletes from the Ethiopia Hotel Athletics Club were selected as subjects. The studies included trained runners without previous injuries. Interventions lasted at least 12 weeks, with participants allocated to Interval, Continuous or combined training groups. The athletes' performance was assessed through cooper 12 min run test, wall squat test and multiple sprint test using pre- and posttest interventions. MANOVA was performed using SPSS to determine the mean difference with 95% confidence intervals (CIS) between continuous, interval (CIS), and combined training, and the effect sizes were calculated. Results: All training methods significantly improved VO2max, strength endurance, and speed. Moreover, there was no significant difference between the interval and combined training during the VO2max test (MD = 0.2, P > 0.1). There was no significant difference between continuous and interval training during the posttests VO2max test. During the wall squat test, there was no significant difference between the training methods (p > 0.1). Moreover, there were no significant differences between the continuous and combined, training groups or between the interval and combined training groups at the level of the multiple sprint test (p = 1, MD = 0.53). However, there was a significant difference between the continuous and interval training groups on the multiple sprint test (P = 0.024, MD = -1.75), with an effect size was 0.356.Conclusion: Interval and combined training are better strategies than continuous training for improving athlete performance. Key words: Athletics, continuous, interval, combined training methods, performance

The effects of high-intensity interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training on athletes’ aerobic endurance performance parameters

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024
EUR J APPL PHYSIOL

Objective To systematically evaluate and meta-analyze the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on athletes of aerobic endurance performance parameters. Methods PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched. The assessment of quality was conducted employing The Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool, while heterogeneity examination and subgroup analysis were performed. Moreover, regression and sensitivity analyses were executed. Results There was no significant difference between the effects of HIIT and MICT on the enhancement of athletes’ running economy (RE) (P > 0.05); 1–3 weeks and 4–9 weeks of HIIT were more effective in improving athletes’ maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) (P < 0.05), and 10 weeks and above were not significant (P > 0.05); 1–3 weeks of HIIT was more effective in improving athletes’ anaerobic threshold (AT) (P < 0.05), and 4–10 weeks was not significant (P > 0.05); 3 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) did not significantly enhance athletes’ minute ventilation (VE) (P > 0.05), whereas a duration of 6–10 weeks yielded superior results (P < 0.05); 8 weeks of moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) did not significantly enhance athletes’ hemoglobin (Hb) level (P > 0.05), whereas a duration of 2–3 weeks yielded superior results (P < 0.05). Conclusions (1) HIIT and MICT have similar effects on enhancing athletes’ RE. (2) 6–9 weeks’ HIIT was more effective in improving athletes’ VO2max and VE, and 3 weeks’ HIIT was more effective in improving athletes’ AT. (3) Within 3 weeks, MICT was more effective in improving the Hb level of athletes. Registration number on PROSPERO CRD42024499039.

Comparison of Polarized Versus Other Types of Endurance Training Intensity Distribution on Athletes’ Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

May 2024
SPORTS MED

Background Polarized training intensity distribution (POL) was recently suggested to be superior to other training intensity distribution (TID) regimens for endurance performance improvement. Objective We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze evidence comparing POL to other TIDs on endurance performance. Methods PRISMA guidelines were followed. The protocol was registered at PROSPERO (CRD42022365117). PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to 20 October 2022 for studies in adults and young adults for ≥ 4 weeks comparing POL with other TID interventions regarding VO2peak, time-trial (TT), time to exhaustion (TTE) or speed or power at the second ventilatory or lactate threshold (V/P at VT2/LT2). Risk of bias was assessed with RoB-2 and ROBINS-I. Certainty of evidence was assessed with GRADE. Results were analyzed by random effects meta-analysis using standardized mean differences. Results Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 437 subjects). Pooled effect estimates suggest POL superiority for improving VO2peak (SMD = 0.24 [95% CI 0.01, 0.48]; z = 2.02 (p = 0.040); 11 studies, n = 284; I² = 0%; high certainty of evidence). Superiority, however, only occurred in shorter interventions (< 12 weeks) (SMD = 0.40 [95% CI 0.08, 0.71; z = 2.49 (p = 0.01); n = 163; I² = 0%) and for highly trained athletes (SMD = 0.46 [95% CI 0.10, 0.82]; z = 2.51 (p = 0.01); n = 125; I² = 0%). The remaining endurance performance surrogates were similarly affected by POL and other TIDs: TT (SMD = – 0.01 [95% CI -0.28, 0.25]; z = − 0.10 (p = 0.92); n = 221; I² = 0%), TTE (SMD = 0.30 [95% CI – 0.20, 0.79]; z = 1.18 (p = 0.24); n = 66; I² = 0%) and V/P VT2/LT2 (SMD = 0.04 [95% CI -0.21, 0.29]; z = 0.32 (p = 0.75); n = 253; I² = 0%). Risk of bias for randomized controlled trials was rated as of some concern and for non-randomized controlled trials as low risk of bias (two studies) and some concerns (one study). Conclusions POL is superior to other TIDs for improving VO2peak, particularly in shorter duration interventions and highly trained athletes. However, the effect of POL was similar to that of other TIDs on the remaining surrogates of endurance performance. The results suggest that POL more effectively improves aerobic power but is similar to other TIDs for improving aerobic capacity.

Changes in running economy and running technique following 6 months of running with and without wearable‐based real‐time feedback

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024
SCAND J MED SCI SPOR

Background An increasing number of commercially available wearables provide real‐time feedback on running biomechanics with the aim to reduce injury risk or improve performance. Objective Investigate whether real‐time feedback by wearable insoles (ARION) alters running biomechanics and improves running economy more as compared to unsupervised running training. We also explored the correlation between changes in running biomechanics and running economy. Methods Forty recreational runners were randomized to an intervention and control group and performed ~6 months of in‐field training with or without wearable‐based real‐time feedback on running technique and speed. Running economy and running biomechanics were measured in lab conditions without feedback pre and post intervention at four speeds. Results Twenty‐two individuals (13 control, 9 intervention) completed both tests. Both groups significantly reduced their energetic cost by an average of −6.1% and −7.7% for the control and intervention groups, respectively. The reduction in energy cost did not significantly differ between groups overall (−0.07 ± 0.14 J∙kg∙m⁻¹, −1.5%, p = 0.63). There were significant changes in spatiotemporal metrics, but their magnitude was minor and did not differ between the groups. There were no significant changes in running kinematics within or between groups. However, alterations in running biomechanics beyond typical session‐to‐session variation were observed during some in‐field sessions for individuals that received real‐time feedback. Conclusion Alterations in running biomechanics as observed during some in‐field sessions for individuals receiving wearable‐based real‐time feedback did not result in significant differences in running economy or running biomechanics when measured in controlled lab conditions without feedback.

Regular soccer training improves pulmonary diffusion capacity in 6 to 10 year old boys

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Background Soccer is one of the most attractive sports around the globe for children and adolescents, and the benefits of soccer training are often shown. Due to the intermittent character of soccer with random changes between high-intensity activity and low-intensity play, athletes’ aerobic (respiratory) capacity is specifically stimulated. However, little is known about the effects of regular soccer practice on pulmonary diffusion capacity (TL) in young players, even though it is the most popular sport in the world. Objectives To analyze the effects of 28 weeks of regular soccer training versus a non-activity control period on the TL, the alveolar-capillary membrane diffusion capacity (DM) as well as the capillary blood volume (Vc) in healthy prepubertal boys aged 6 to 10 years. Methods For this purpose, boys were randomly assigned to a soccer training group (SG, n = 40) or a control group (CG, n = 40). Pre and post-intervention, all participants performed an all-out graded bicycle ergometer test to measure maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and maximal aerobic power (MAP). A respiratory maneuver was performed at rest and just at the end of the test to measure the TL for carbon monoxide (TLCO) and nitric oxide (TLNO), DM, as well as Vc. Results There were no significant baseline between-group differences for any of the assessed parameters (p > 0.05). Significant group-by-time interactions were found for most pulmonary parameters measured at rest (p < 0.05), with effect size (ES) values ranging from small-to-large (0.2 < ES < 4.0), except for VA (p = 0.3, ES = 0.006). Post-hoc tests indicated significant DM (p < 0.05; 0.2 < ES < 4.0), TLNO (p < 0.01; 0.22 < ES < 4.0), TLCO (p < 0,01; 0.24 < ES < 4.0) and Vc (p = 0.01; 0.404 < ES < 0.6) improvements for SG but not CG. Significant group-by-time effects were identified for HRmax and VO2max (p < 0.001; ES = 0.5 and p = 0.005; ES = 0.23 respectively). The post-hoc analyses indicated a significant decrease in HRmax and a significant increase in VO2max in the SG (p < 0.001; ES = 0.5 and p = 0.005, ES = 0.23, respectively) but not in CG. Values for TLCO increased by almost 20%; Vc of 14% DM of 8% and VA of 10% at the end of maximal exercise in SG. Furthermore, the percentage improvement was less notable in the control group (7.5% for TLCO; 2% for Vc; 5% for DM and 4% for VA). Conclusion Regular soccer training significantly improves pulmonary vascular function and increases DM and Vc after exercise in prepubertal boys. The observed adaptations are most likely due to better recruitment of additional pulmonary capillary function. However, the stepwise linear regression analyses indicated that increases in pulmonary vascular function were not related to improvements in VO2max and MAP.

Effects of a Regular Endurance Training Program on Running Economy and Biomechanics in Runners

Article

Oct 2023

A regular endurance training program may elicit different adaptations compared to an isolated training method. In this study, we analyzed the effects of 8 weeks of a regular endurance training program on running economy (RE), particularly neuromuscular and biomechanical parameters, in runners of different athletic abilities. Twenty-four male runners were divided into two groups: well-trained (n=12) and recreational (n=12). Both groups completed a 4-min running bout at 13 and 17 km·h-1, respectively, for the recreational and well-trained group, and a 5-jump plyometric test pre-post intervention. During the training program, participants completed low-intensity continuous sessions, high-intensity interval training sessions, and auxiliary strength training sessions. RE, measured as oxygen cost and energy cost, decreased by 6.15% (p=0.006) and 5.11% (p=0.043), respectively, in the well-trained group. In the recreational group, energy cost of running, respiratory exchange ratio, and leg stiffness decreased by 5.08% (p=0.035), 7.61% (p=0.003), and 10.59% (p=0.017), respectively, while ground contact time increased by 3.34% (p=0.012). The maximum height of the 5-jump plyometric test decreased by 4.55% (p=0.018) in the recreational group. We suggest that 8 weeks of regular endurance training leads to an improvement of ~5% in RE in recreational and well-trained runners with different physiological adaptations between groups and few changes in biomechanical and neuromuscular parameters only in recreational runners.

Training Methods of Long-Distance Runners for 5-10 Km Competitions: A Bibliometric Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024

This study aimed to map the scientific production on training methods for 5 to 10 km long-distance running by means of a bibliometric analysis. PubMed, SciELO and Lilacs databases were used, and data were collected until December 31, 2019. The analysis included experimental studies with the intervention of training methods in runners. Data were analyzed descriptively. It was found that the first article was published in 1981 and 2018 was the year with the highest number of publications. The United States was the country with the highest number of publications, authors and journals. The most frequently cited methods were continuous execution and interval execution. Consequently, the main results were an increase in running economy, VO2max and a reduction in time trial.

Overestimation of maximal aerobic speed by the Université de Montréal track test and a 1500-m-time trial in soccer

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Introduction: Maximal aerobic speed (MAS), usually measured by cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) on a treadmill, is gaining popularity in soccer to determine aerobic performance. Several field tests are used to estimate MAS, although, gold standard methods are still not clarified. Therefore, this work aims 1) to compare two different CPET based methods to assess MAS and 2) to investigate the convergent validity of two common field tests to estimate MAS in soccer. Methods: Thirteen trained male soccer players completed an CPET on a treadmill to determine two VO2-kinetic based definitions of MAS (MASPlateau = speed at onset of VO2-plateau = gold standard; MAS30s = first speed of 30-s-interval of VO2max), the Université de Montreal Track Test (UMTT; VUMTT = speed of the last stage), and a 1500-m-time trial (1500-m-TT; V1500m = average speed). MASPlateau, MAS30s, VUMTT, and V1500m were compared using ANOVA. Additionally, limits of agreement analysis (LoA), Pearson’s r, and ICC were calculated between tests. Results: MAS30s, VUMTT, and V1500m significantly overestimated MASPlateau by 0.99 km/h (ES = 1.61; p < 0.01), 1.61 km/h (ES = 2.03; p < 0.01) and 1.68 km/h (ES = 1.77; p < 0.01), respectively, with large LoA (-0.21 ≤ LoA≤3.55), however with large-to-very large correlations (0.65 ≤ r ≤ 0.87; p ≤ 0.02; 0.51 ≤ ICC≤ 0.85; p ≤ 0.03). Discussion: The overestimation and large LoA of MASPlateau by all estimates indicate that 1) a uniform definition of MAS is needed and 2) the UMTT and a 1500-m-TT seem questionable for estimating MAS for trained soccer players on an individual basis, while regression equations might be suitable on a team level. The results of the present work contribute to the clarification of acquisition of MAS in soccer.

Maximum aerobic speed, maximum oxygen consumption, and running spatiotemporal parameters during an incremental test among middle- and long-distance runners and endurance non-running athletes

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Background Maximal aerobic speed (MAS) is a useful parameter to assess aerobic capacity and estimate training intensity in middle- and long-distance runners. However, whether middle- and long-distance runners reach different levels of MAS compared to other endurance athletes with similar V̇O 2max has not been previously studied. Therefore, we aimed to compare V̇O 2max , MAS and spatiotemporal parameters between sub-elite middle- and long-distance runners ( n = 6) and endurance non-runners ( n = 6). In addition, we aimed to compare the maximal blood lactate concentration [BLa] experienced by participants after conducting these tests. Methods Telemetric portable respiratory gas analysis, contact and flight time, and stride length and rate were measured using a 5-m contact platform during an incremental test at a synthetic athletics track. V̇O 2 , heart rate, respiratory quotient values in any 15 s average period during the test were measured. [BLa] was analyzed after the test . Running spatiotemporal parameters were recorded at the last two steps of each 400 m lap. A coefficient of variation (%CV) was calculated for each spatiotemporal variable in each participant from 8 km h ⁻¹ onwards. Results Whereas runners reported faster MAS (21.0 vs. 18.2 km h ⁻¹ ) than non-runners ( p = 0.0001, ES = 3.0), no differences were found for V̇O 2max and maximum blood lactate concentration during the running tests (p > 0.05). While significant increases in flight time and stride length and frequency (p < 0.001, 0.52 ≤

{\eta }_{p}^{2}

≤ 0.8) were observed throughout the tests, decreases in contact time (p < 0.001,

{\eta }_{p}^{2}=0.9

) were reported. Runners displayed a greater %CV ( p = 0.015) in stride length than non-runners. We conclude that middle- and long-distance runners can achieve a faster MAS compared to non-running endurance athletes despite exhibiting a similar V̇O 2max . This superior performance may be associated to a greater mechanical efficiency. Overall, runners displayed a greater ability to modify stride length to achieve fast speeds, which may be related to a more mechanically efficient pattern of spatiotemporal parameters than non-runners.

Training to Enhance the Physiological Determinants of Long-Distance Running Performance

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2007

This article investigates whether there is currently sufficient scientific knowledge for scientists to be able to give valid training recommendations to longdistance runners and their coaches on how to most effectively enhance the maximal oxygen uptake, lactate threshold and running economy. Relatively few training studies involving trained distance runners have been conducted, and these studies have often included methodological factors that make interpretation of the findings difficult. For example, the basis of most of the studies was to include one or more specific bouts of training in addition to the runners’ ‘normal training’, which was typically not described or only briefly described. The training status of the runners (e.g. off-season) during the study period was also typically not described. This inability to compare the runners’ training before and during the training intervention period is probably the main factor that hinders the interpretation of previous training studies. Arguably, the second greatest limitation is that only a few of the studies included more than one experimental group. Consequently, there is no comparison to allow the evaluation of the relative efficacy of the particular training intervention. Other factors include not controlling the runners’ training load during the study period, and employing small sample sizes that result in low statistical power. Much of the current knowledge relating to chronic adaptive responses to physical training has come from studies using sedentary individuals; however, directly applying this knowledge to formulate training recommendations for runners is unlikely to be valid. Therefore, it would be difficult to argue against the view that there is insufficient direct scientific evidence to formulate training recommendations based on the limited research. Although direct scientific evidence is limited, we believe that scientists can still formulate worthwhile training recommendations by integrating the information derived from training studies with other scientific knowledge. This knowledge includes the acute physiological responses in the various exercise domains, the structures and processes that limit the physiological determinants of long-distance running performance, and the adaptations associated with their enhancement. In the future, molecular biology may make an increasing contribution in identifying effective training methods, by identifying the genes that contribute to the variation in maximal oxygen uptake, the lactate threshold and running economy, as well as the biochemical and mechanical signals that induce these genes. Scientists should be cautious when giving training recommendations to runners and coaches based on the limited available scientific knowledge. This limited knowledge highlights that characterising the most effective training methods for long-distance runners is still a fruitful area for future research.

Lactate Kinetics After Intermittent and Continuous Exercise Training

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2008
J SPORT SCI MED

The purpose of this study was to assess, the effects of continuous and intermittent exercise training on lactate kinetic parameters and maximal aerobic speed (MAS) using field tests. Twenty-four male sport students were equally divided into continuous (CT) and intermittent (IT) physically trained groups. Another six participants acted as non-trained controls (CG). The trained participants practiced 6-days per week for 6 weeks. Before and after training, all participants completed an incremental exercise test to assess their MAS, and a 30-second supramaximal exercise followed by 30 minutes of active recovery to determine the individual blood lactate recovery curve. It was found that exercise training has significantly increased MAS (p < 0.001), the lactate exchange and removal abilities as well as the lactate concentrations at the beginning of the recovery ([La]-(0)); for both CT and IT groups; this was accompanied by a significant reduction of the time to lactate-peak. Nevertheless, the improvement in MAS was significantly higher (p < 0.001) post-intermittent (15.1 % ± 2.4) than post-continuous (10.3 % ± 3.2) training. The lactate-exchange and removal abilities were also significantly higher for IT than for CT-group (P < 0.05). Moreover, IT-group showed a significantly shorter half-time of the blood lactate (t-1/2-[La]) than CT-group (7.2 ± 0.5 min vs 7.7 ± 0.3 min, respectively) (p < 0.05). However, no significant differences were observed in peak blood lactate concentration ([La]peak), time to reach [La]peak (t-[La]peak), and [La]-(0) between the two physically-trained groups. We conclude that both continuous and intermittent training exercises were equally effective in improving t-[La]peak and [La]peak, although intermittent training was more beneficial in elevating MAS and in raising the lactate exchange (γ1) and removal (γ2) indexes.

Effects of High Intensity Training and Continuous Endurance Training on Aerobic Capacity and Body Composition in Recreationally Active Runners

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2012
J SPORT SCI MED

The aim of the study was to examine the effects of two different training programs (high-intensity-training vs. continuous endurance training) on aerobic power and body composition in recreationally active men and women and to test whether or not participants were able to complete a half marathon after the intervention period. Thirty-four recreational endurance runners were randomly assigned either to a Weekend-Group (WE, n = 17) or an After-Work-Group (AW, n = 17) for a 12 week-intervention period. WE weekly completed 2 h 30 min of continuous endurance running composed of 2 sessions on the weekend. In contrast, AW performed 4 30 min sessions of high intensity training and an additional 30 min endurance run weekly, always after work. During an exhaustive treadmill test aerobic power was measured and heart rate was continuously recorded. Body composition was assessed using bio-impedance. Following the intervention period all subjects took part in a half-marathon. AW significantly improved peak oxygen uptake (VO 2 peak) from 36.8 ± 4.5 to 43.6 ± 6.5 [mL·min -1.kg -1], velocity at lactate threshold (V LT) from 9.7 ± 2.2 to 11.7 ± 1.8 [km .h -1] and visceral fat from 5.6 ± 2.2 to 4.7 ± 1.9 In WE VO 2 peak significantly increased from 38.8 ± 5.0 to 41.5 ± 6.0 [mL .min -1.kg -1], V LT from 9.9 ± 1.3 to 11.2 ± 1.7 [km .h -1] and visceral fat was reduced from 5.7 ± 2.1 to 5.4 ± 1.9 (p < 0.01). Only the improvements of VO 2 peak were significantly greater in AW compared with WE (pre/post group interaction: F=15.4, p = 0.01, η 2 = 0.36). Both groups completed a half marathon with no significant differences in performance (p = 0.63). Short, intensive endurance training sessions of about 30 min are effective in improving aerobic fitness in recreationally active runners.

Rearfoot Striking Runners Are More Economical Than Midfoot Strikers

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2014

PURPOSE: To analyze the influence of foot strike pattern on running economy and biomechanical characteristics in sub-elite runners with a similar performance level. METHODS: Twenty sub-elite long-distance runners participated and were divided into two groups according to their foot strike pattern: rearfoot (RF, n= 10) and midfoot strikers (MF, n= 10). Anthropometric characteristics were measured (height, body mass, BMI, skinfolds, circumferences and lengths); physiological (V˙O2max, anaerobic threshold and running economy) and biomechanical characteristics (contact and flight times, step rate and step length) were registered during both incremental and submaximal tests on a treadmill. RESULTS: There were no significant intergroup differences in anthropometrics, V˙O2max or anaerobic threshold measures. RF strikers were 5.4, 9.3 and 5.0% more economical than MF at submaximal speeds (11, 13 and 15 km·h respectively, though the difference was not significant at 15 km·h, p=0.07). Step rate and step length were not different between groups, but RF showed longer contact time (p<0.01) and shorter flight time (p<0.01) than MF at all running speeds. CONCLUSIONS: The present study showed that habitually rearfoot striking runners are more economical than midfoot strikers. Foot strike pattern affected both contact and flight times, which may explain the differences in running economy.

The Physiology of the World Record Holder for the Women's Marathon

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2006

Andrew M Jones

The purpose of this paper is to review the physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance by using the data of the World Record holder for the women's marathon (PR), to illustrate the link between an athlete's physiology and success in distance running. The maximal oxygen (O2) uptake, O2 cost of running at sub-maximal speeds (running economy), and blood lactate response to exercise can all be determined using standard physiology laboratory exercise tests and the results used to track changes in ‘fitness' and to make recommendations for future training. PR's data demonstrate a 15% improvement in running economy between 1992 and 2003 suggesting that improvements in this parameter are very important in allowing a distance runner to continue to improve their performance over the longer-term. PR's data demonstrate how 15 years of directed training have created the ‘complete’ female distance runner and enabled the setting of an extraordinary World record of 2:15:25 for the Marathon.

Distribution of Training Volume and Intensity of Elite Male and Female Track and Marathon Runners

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2011

The aim of this study was to compare training volume and the distribution of training intensity of six of the best long-distance runners in Norway from the last decade. Three international-level long-distance runners (two males and one female) and three marathon runners (one male and two females) were included. The runners' training diaries for one of the seasons they competed in an international championship were analysed. The reported running volume (km/week) was used to estimate the distribution of training at the prescribed intensity zones in representative weeks in the preparation period and in the competition season. During the preparation period (November - February) the marathon runners ran an average of 186.6 ± 25.7 km/week and the track runners 161 ± 11 km/week. For all runners, 80 ± 5% of the weekly training distance (km/week) in this period was continuous running with a heart rate (HR) between 65–82% of maximum. The remaining 20% of total training volume (km/week) was performed at intensities near and above the anaerobic threshold (82–92% of HRmax). This was done in three to five weekly interval sessions or continuous running sessions. All athletes ran 11 – 13 sessions per week. The training volume (km/week) in the pre-competition period and the competition season did not differ much from the volume in the preparation period. The track runners increased the amount of high-intensity training at specific race pace in the pre-competition period (March and April), and in the track competition season (May - September).

Determinants of time trial performance and maximal incremental exercise in highly trained endurance athletes

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2011
J APPL PHYSIOL

Human endurance performance can be predicted from maximal oxygen consumption (Vo(2max)), lactate threshold, and exercise efficiency. These physiological parameters, however, are not wholly exclusive from one another, and their interplay is complex. Accordingly, we sought to identify more specific measurements explaining the range of performance among athletes. Out of 150 separate variables we identified 10 principal factors responsible for hematological, cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, and neurological variation in 16 highly trained cyclists. These principal factors were then correlated with a 26-km time trial and test of maximal incremental power output. Average power output during the 26-km time trial was attributed to, in order of importance, oxidative phosphorylation capacity of the vastus lateralis muscle (P = 0.0005), steady-state submaximal blood lactate concentrations (P = 0.0017), and maximal leg oxygenation (sO(2LEG)) (P = 0.0295), accounting for 78% of the variation in time trial performance. Variability in maximal power output, on the other hand, was attributed to total body hemoglobin mass (Hb(mass); P = 0.0038), Vo(2max) (P = 0.0213), and sO(2LEG) (P = 0.0463). In conclusion, 1) skeletal muscle oxidative capacity is the primary predictor of time trial performance in highly trained cyclists; 2) the strongest predictor for maximal incremental power output is Hb(mass); and 3) overall exercise performance (time trial performance + maximal incremental power output) correlates most strongly to measures regarding the capability for oxygen transport, high Vo(2max) and Hb(mass), in addition to measures of oxygen utilization, maximal oxidative phosphorylation, and electron transport system capacities in the skeletal muscle.

Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power

Article

May 1999

To investigate the effects of simultaneous explosive-strength and endurance training on physical performance characteristics, 10 experimental (E) and 8 control (C) endurance athletes trained for 9 wk. The total training volume was kept the same in both groups, but 32% of training in E and 3% in C was replaced by explosive-type strength training. A 5-km time trial (5K), running economy (RE), maximal 20-m speed ( V 20 m ), and 5-jump (5J) tests were measured on a track. Maximal anaerobic (MART) and aerobic treadmill running tests were used to determine maximal velocity in the MART ( V MART ) and maximal oxygen uptake (V˙o 2 max ). The 5K time, RE, and V MART improved ( P < 0.05) in E, but no changes were observed in C. V 20 m and 5J increased in E ( P < 0.01) and decreased in C ( P < 0.05).V˙o 2 max increased in C ( P < 0.05), but no changes were observed in E. In the pooled data, the changes in the 5K velocity during 9 wk of training correlated ( P< 0.05) with the changes in RE [O 2 uptake ( r = −0.54)] and V MART ( r = 0.55). In conclusion, the present simultaneous explosive-strength and endurance training improved the 5K time in well-trained endurance athletes without changes in theirV˙o 2 max . This improvement was due to improved neuromuscular characteristics that were transferred into improved V MART and running economy.

Biomechanical Profile of Elite Women Marathoners

Article

Nov 1985

Extensive study has been done on male subjects dealing with gait analysis, but similar investigations of women runners are limited. The purpose of this study was to quantify the essential characteristics and alterations in gait mechanics of women marathoners. Forty elite women marathoners were filmed at four camera locations during the first U.S. Olympic Women's Marathon Trial. Data were quantified with a microcomputer and digitizing system. Quantification of 11 kinematic and temporal variables of gait were obtained. Five variables were examined bilaterally to determine degree of symmetry. Results showed remarkably consistent characteristics of gait across the four camera locations. However, substantial changes did occur between the third and fourth camera locations in stride length and horizontal velocity. All subjects displayed little asymmetry throughout the race. Minimal differences between the top and bottom 10 finishers were noted. There are differences between the gait patterns of men and women distance runners. Stride length, support/nonsupport time ratio, and percent overstride appear to be important factors for success of women distance runners. Most alterations in gait mechanics appear to occur between the 20- and 24-mile marks of the marathon.

Effect of Equated Continuous and Interval Running Programs on Endurance Performance and Jump Capacity

Article

May 2011
J STRENGTH COND RES

We evaluated the effect of 2 different interval and continuous training programs on the maximal aerobic speed (MAS), time limit at MAS (T(lim)), and on the countermovement jump (CMJ). Twenty-two physically active men were randomly distributed in an interval training group (ITG), continuous training group (CTG), and control group. The CTG and ITG performed 2 different training programs (65-70 and 90-100% of the MAS for CTG and ITG, respectively) that consisted of 3 sessions per week during a period of 8 weeks with an identical external workload (% MAS × duration in minutes). The MAS, the T(lim) and the CMJ were recorded before and after the running training programs. The data analysis showed a significant and similar improvement (p < 0.01) of the MAS for both the ITG (5.8%) and CTG (8.3%). The T(lim) and CMJ did not change significantly for either group after the training period. Our results indicate that 8 weeks of continuous or interval running programs with externally equated load led to similar improvements in the MAS without changing T(lim) and CMJ performance in moderately trained nonrunners.