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Authors !7&8'9
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'="!>#?!
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 ('D&" !"
$ #  $   ! $ 
  "  ! !!=1 $  ! " A
!!$!!!!'D&#/!!
 ( !  ' !    $#  # 
' !$ #!(  #
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! $!#'!#"
!#")+ " ##!
$ ##$!* A H*"
A>' " ##)(I@
1 9@+%#"'!"!)
  *+ # # $  !#   
  !#     I! )!  *+  =!  $   
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'$ ##!'!#$ 
"#),+ '!" #
#"# !#" 
! 
A !! )#
$+  #     #! " ' '
!    !  )! IJ 
+('$! ##!
!!#!/!!'!#)13+<#
 ! !!#' !'##2$
($!$-$  !'#""
'# )?<+ !   'D" !!# !
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("!!'- $$! 
'!!" =
! !  ' !     
 '" 7 '$  
 $ '"  '$
 "  '     ) 5+ ? '
" !!#(A!1A1
K L ##
  ' )MN<O+
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-F$#  ')5+
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5+
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#);!',NQ*+(!!
=A==#!A = !!
#' '# $#?$ -< ! - (
'#$#$' 7/$"
 ('#$###''#'!"
 "   ! (#"  "  7
O $ $  $#     'D&
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( !' $ ""
"$!'#PD!"?E!/
?E"E"")E+!E!$
'#)E+ (?E  !"   " K#"
#L!#!'!#F!$#$
!!PD!!$!?E #
'  !< "  ?E  ' "!   !# "  J  
).+/!! "
!#$!!$!#)
+<"'"!!#"<'
)4+(! !"!"/
$$"?E""$
#$!D!  !$"(
!! &!!#!! ##
!! '!# ! !  ! # # !! 
"#!!!/  !
'#!!?<#?!!#/
"  !!    !!  =1   !  !!      '
!     !   ! #!2$! '#  "
"#(!;1""E
);1E+ $$R*54):'!!IJ+(
'""#!#'""/ #?
!/ !"#>/
"    !  #    !      #   '!     =
)!!"=+)+1 "!
/ !?E"!!
 "!'?!!#""
#2$    '  !!        &'D  #  ?
 "!%(!#
'Q@);N &2222$2 +
('$"$   
 !'!?" !'
"! #)('?+
 !    " #$ 
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('!!!#)#!#!+
()::+"-#"#4,),S=45-
,.+  ! $  # / ! " 5 <(2$ )T
  "  #2$+  (      "    #      #
$    #      !$  $  S  %     !  
! #!    '   $ ! ( #
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"$2$+! ( " A1 ?( )
?("#!$+"$ )M#
 *N M   *+ ( !   "  
$!!!" !'$-.#"#!
-6*# " $ (      'D
#2$$!- 
# !" '#2$ ! ! "- 
!"" ##(!!'! 'D
!!#$"S!D#
(  ! "  !-    !)/ *S 'D "
#!5S"$+<!!"!#
'  "!   M      )*+  ?!!  ?E  )      E+  
!!!! !'#!F'$
" !"/ #"!=!
'# #E'#;1E
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(! "'!#  "$ !# $ "
#)?!+?$'# A!),+ #!
 !-# ##   " 
!!!!$'"!'"
!!'#!!'!#'!!-
   "  ! " '   $  
  ! !  !' ! !  !! '#
A!  )5N(' '"A!+(  "
!! !"  ! !'! '# ! " '#
)N('5 '"+!
!S"F?!!2#$!'!!-
 !%!'"
!'      '    !'    '  5   !
'!! %!%"?E
#"!!"!#!#
'!    $ )@!   ,,6+ " ! 
'! '"  )+ ! ! "!  $"
!"%!)/+
 ! "#)(
%'!#  $ !  D!   % )+ ! '#
' ! !! A  !  $ D!  '
(!"!"!
  !! ! <!   " '  ) -
!   N  ! !! 6 +  %!
$ ,* )  'N ('*5  
+ ,.)'N('** +
$P5.)('+%!#!
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!6+ !" !#$
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!" ! !# )$ #+
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<! "  ) -!  N
 !!!6+%!$5,) 
'N (' *5     +  54  )
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!# !"!!
$#(! '$"!
!#5,.6)(+!" !#
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($! ."  ! )!#
!5N" #!!N#5+
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  !*4  !$  ' ( !#"
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1 "  !      ' <  
%! '#"<!1""
!% $ "
/')'!+@ "%'
!$ )+(
"  $!<"6^25/6^25
! $   A     ! ! 
  #$$! '"!
!.S" <!!
*S '#)'! QN%
Q+A$!!'#5
  !# )P *+ ! ! $ " !
$!'  !'#$ # !$!  '# '"
#$%  (
 '$  !  <  )_<+ ! 
!!'#'$(!!E #$!
'!        "  . \ -* ),S=  6 \ -* U , \ -5+
E2 2#2^ <25 )    N  ! %! N
#+/$!'# #E$
;1E <'!#  $              #  !    <
/ /  " 
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55
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+  !                $
#$ %&'(
("#!) +"
   /  !   " "  '#  $
):#!+ ( " #G!'#! 
$" !#$"7!
!'#  #$ !!
  ! !)
  +$   #' ! 
    $ ! # # ) + A
!! " $""
'$(<$!) +
/ !$" !<'#
 '     ' ! '  '
):'!!IJ+("<"
! "#$*'!-#
):3-:!+"!!)?!N?!
'NM+)!IJ+?)V'
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)+ !!!F'$ !  
   P   < $ ! # $ 
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#!/ <). ^<25N,S=*-
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!);!*+? #"!"
-  #        ''  #  !    !  
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"!   !        )+  E  "  "    E  $  !  '#
 #''!'#!F"!!!
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! D?E2!"#$9!)%5
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 !"#!$"!-"%#"
 !6S "  % $"  !
6S"  $  "# # '!#!
$"$##!("6S$
"$!%#/"#!$!'
!#!'!#F
./#$(
($ 3    # !! $    &
#  !         #   !  #!
")<! ! ; 6+ I  #   "
    $      !  F          =#  
$!"!/ "!
 3#)#/#2$+(
! !" >$44
2"#):!-??*+(!"
'$!7%! !"
6.2  )<'  4N :' 9 ! IJ+(
 '!  ! !# !    !   D
 "'!"F)<`4+
 !  "   ! '$!F $
!a'!"(!'!!$#=#
!-  !!"/ !
0-1#$(
Q'  D    /            ! 
# # ''
)==  6+  ?!!  =1     '  !  "      !
$6452">:1*2>:1
!  '#  =1:(*  (  !"      !  "    G  $  P
"  !!  ' '!3! '
GG( !=1$
R'#):'!!IJ+
(/"=1"62(
 '$"42!!'# <)+$
!"=1"62 !R2)%@;+
  !    " =1   '  $!  F  $    !a  '
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?  " ! $ F '# 2 !    $ "
! "?   # "   $ $   
$ # >#   ! 
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!=1$!"?'D&
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'$$$!!(
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5 # $    "  $  / 
      'D&    $!  '  '    A
!$!'"#
!   # /!  %  - $# 
'D&$! "!!.*)$
"6+%?$ -<$#$!"
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!#5-,# ( !$""('5
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! ##!!!#!'!#
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#?! $?E  !!%?
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!!?!##F"P"#
 !-F '$  ! 'D " # $ ! "  
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 "$##!'D
" !#"$""#
3#!L
('* !!"/"
"?$ -<$#$ !"#Q
!!!=1!! !!!
$  !!   (      
 #     $  " =1    9
)('?+('/ !2#!
( !!?!(2
#! !"#(/ 
$  * # ( " # '#!!    
'   " $  !!! 
 ?"'  
# %$ P "  < 
!'# "'!1'"%7 
 <#$
'DF"#$!/#"
<  # / ! '# ' '  " '
   "     )5N Q
*+  ?        !# " :3-:!     )5+     
'"?E! ! '#
$'##!!! 
'#    ) (' 6  :3-:!   5+  
 #=19!!)('?5+
+%
A'! # ""
" J!   !   !   # !
$1 ! !# 'D'!# F " !
###!!?(!!'D
$'D"!!#$
#  / !  ?Ea   /     
 &'D"#"''#$#$
$#"'
(3"!"'!!
"  $ $   ) =  ( I!+ 
A%!#!F"
A);!',+$$
#'D
1!#!$? "
!!- '!F'!
   ! ' #2$ ! !  ' !
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'"/A"!   '#
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!'!!( !$!'$
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#! ! !!"!
'!"  $#!$!!' #"
# !$ : ! '  ! $  "  "
 ""'$!#
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 ! $   $ $ '  3D!
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#
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;1E(" !"#$ !1
'!A#)A(+"!!-!  !
!!!)>@?,,,N=6+$"7
!' !7"#"'
" "   !" * #$   !
 "!!)!  + ):'!!IJ+
(;1E "!I$
!# '#
"  '#    %!     /   "  #
$#    '# " J! 7 !   
"$"$
' $ !" " '# 7 ! !"
'##'!!"#'DA!
),+  "!   ! 7 3# '!  ! # 
 # # $       )" 
"!   ! !2 2#+  # $ $
"'!"#--'-# #'!)'
5+
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%!"   a$$
  "    !  <        "  '!  !  $
" D " !
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!#" '#! '<
!'#!F!!!<
!!'! 
@!  'F !
!# "? F!!$ 
KL"#".#
'D " ##!!#
'('#!
 "!!)/!!+ !(
)!!+! !!2"
 " .  !  * # )!  5+ '  '
'a !! ##
A"! !)"
  K !L+ / ! 2
$ ##/ ! 2
('!- " 'D)"!!#
S#!D#+!A2#
#!  )  "  !  '  "  2$+        
2!(!! ###
/'D!"#!'
/"2!$!(
/'D"#'"!!)/!!+""
*S    /      /    !  .  2    
/# ' ! A   !     
F'D&/ "$!
"###$!5
#     'D&  "  "
@-')#!
$!+$!!  ?!'
'!- "F"D # "$ !
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 !+!'!!'#!
" !
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!;1E=#aR*54!'
 ' )+ >$
F"!'3"!#
  '#  $#  D&    "        
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# ( ! '  !  #  %
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$ 3'D  ! " =1-
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
Evi Dons holds a PostDoc fellow from the Flemish Research Fund FWO. We thank
Tina Caers at the Province of Antwerp and Steven Fagard at the Province of
Brabant for providing statistics on cycling data. We thank Stijn Dhondt for
providing detailed data on crash risks.
The authors received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework
Programme under EC-GA No. 602624.
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
# $%&' ()

##)!!
#+ ::"?()M
*+ ::"?()M
*+!
 ;1E
##)!!
'!#+ ::"A!
)5+N#&
@!),,6+N
!&
)+9$"
%
)
5+
::"A!
)5+N!9!
)$"%

5+
:!! 
#  "-
#9<
/ )#
+
 "-
#9<
/ )#
+! 
;1E
!!!
/  
!?<
::-#9
</ )A1
5+
::-#9
</ )A1
5+! 
;1E
= ?!! D
?E2)!
5+
?!! D
E9E2)!
5+N#&
"2
)Q*+N
$&"
2)<
*+N 
;1E
:!! - 442
):!-??*+
:!!=1- 62):'
!!IJ+
:!! - 6.2):!-
??*+

66
64
6,
6
7%#4(
#)(4
-4$
8894
-!
$ $

#
*
+



,-.
 5. 55,
= 55,5 .
'(#  4 4
  ,4* 6
 45 -

!
6 5
&! !!!#!#!
" ##U #!-  
'&!!"=N&
 &22  22$!Z!T X X!9T
5
6
6
65
6*
6
6.
66
64
6,
7,7:9$:48
<#(
# 
##)!!#+ \6
##)!!'!#+ 5\.
:!! #
)#+ 6*\*
? '# -4,\
= -*\.
 5! 6!78
" -.\.
01  7
&@$'!"'#$#5\R2)('5+
7.): $$"
<#(
# 9
##)!!#+ 6.
##)!!'!#+ 556
:!! #
)#+ 
?   -5
= -
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7#(
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6*
6*.
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#7<73()?72
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 4
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?("$)M#*NM
*+
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6*#)$+
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"$
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S #
?E I'"\#\!
@#"'!$
)@!,,6+
'!!! '
")+
I! "
/ :"#
;1E"R*54
!!!
"'#
$# R5\-4\ ) 
"?$ +
?  !
 '$!
<!!!
'#'$
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/ !"*
<$#
/ !):3-:!+
= !
="#5S"
)#!'!#+"%!#
)Q*+
="$6S"
)#!'!#+'!>@!#
)<*+
55
6,
6.
6.
6.
77:9$:48
<#(
-19
# 
:!!=1*6\
:!! \6
:!!"   ,\
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:!! #
)#+ 6*\*
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= -*\.
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01 !7 -
&@$'!"'#$#5\R2)('5"
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<#(
-19
# 9
:!!=16
:!! 6
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A1= 
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Ke#" "! !
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 &22$$$!2!'222Df!g
?;=%<6>D" &$"
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;@#;M=Q<=
('M<1;(;<
@I<<<#(< 
;!?!!( ;<<;<
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Q?@M<:*
="#!3'#!%!)+&
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?(":<:?  !#
!#?!?
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#$Z 4,U.
IJ?I$3<?h<<-
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I<F<?!VM 
M@M'I#!M<<<<
Q<!J<I"1h:iJM:'?:
<:!jJ:3:J@%($(-%
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 &$"! !
 566..U66
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
!/@(":a(A#<
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"$@!! !
;< 3);<<+;(1<
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73!&#" 356*U4
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Q(=!'D"'#!1
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  &"1 <!
4U5*
M=MM@J<:,F"-
'! ##'!#!/!&-
#=<?46,U.
!*V?Ea&A!'3!"Z&
;J!!(;IM ;J!!
:;<I!
<,,=#$!!"#)? "
<!?+1/"!>#1/"!
QM:<:?1"
M"5- / !!- #
#&$*5
!<* ":?!"
 ?=?$<:=>M
!<*'=-'D#"D #">
 <:=>M
#%?=$!<<#@A
<!#  );+"@"#-
'D#"P#! =?%
 )=?%+ ??(#1/>M
=#&'D! 
,*N #*U
!Q;!'QA$/I
<;(<:/  
7&? "#! ?**
.5U6
==6=6&( #'='"
$ " "
='!>#='!>!
M!
'5@"#'&$!'#"
$!'#3,U,
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A!Q7>M='V!$!:'
?F"'!!A
I@56,,4U
[=="! I@ 
U5
M@M#%=Q[(=I!A!
@$J=:'=13: %*
)?(+"$!"#!!
!* !" "!
A1:17" 
M@: %=I:13K
L &!!P"#F"
#!$#?6@ @U
M!?!$@@A'/ !
'!"!!>@!
@"!>M
M@I$3<=:/ "
#<D !'
/!=!>M?5,5.,U5.*
M#M@Q[(1I:!:'I
@'%=*@#$!-#"
!-#"$!#! "!
  I#?5
@@;(%/?? "
'!"!!3#''.6"!"
,,-&##"Q'
!"@!#54*U.
(5 ''3 !-
?45U4
 J?<=JJ<(<#=.Q'
!'!"!!"&##"
 !5.66*6U6
-%!J:Q#?@:5'!"
 >&  -'!#
1*.U6*
QQ@A>'-;!QA
(Q:1@?Q,"/ #
"# !' ! #)V1?=-+
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<`;<mno<4$"!
 "!- &!#
<(@?3!'*
<'<@#=@;@:
@?=$$<4!'
"/ :  !!$
!#<!"?/="
( )<?=(+=!'# =Q(:I
="(I!
<JIA!=@1%?%#5
'D! -!!
@%#?'565U,
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" A1= 
<<: #7$!'#$# 
#!"'#!"7!-@
@*4*,U*
<!<;6?'$"- ! 
!'!'!#" !!
"*!@ <!U
<(:V3$?=!%?
*!! !#3#>!@'#
!3##???!?<!*4.U4*
<I:3-:!=-(!IJ?Q:
Q[(M@I$3<
 " &?#$<!
)+6.5U*
13(J@?!QM:-IM'
('D"#&#$@!<!@
@ *,.U,
=?!'$Q='@I@ #
!-! p;?M>

 =?:((<=M$M(Q
! ##!-/ 
D  ?<?465U*
:'?!IJ?D""" 
( #,U5
:#!=A<:%Q? '
&/ 'D!I='="
;=!
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:!-??*> !"!'/" 
:3-:!)?(+"#!
$&:$A1= 
:3-:!!IJ?(<I$3<(
!'D"#' !$&
 !#<5*5!*
:3-:!!IJ?(/!h1I$3<5
 " ' !#
&'!#!'!"! <!)+
665U,
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!!?I.4U*
@<:*
&(!';65,6U*
@'%Q!(:M3%A@M
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... A net benefit-cost ratio of 1.92 was found when a 10% active mobility mode share was reached. In Flanders (Belgium), the impact of two bicycle superhighways was studied by Buekers et al. (2015). The effect on health was considered from a modal shift from car to cycling and walking. ...
... In contrast, most studies assess modal shifts and benefits at the city level. Only Buekers (2015) estimated the benefits of the area of influence near the project. A common approach is to calculate the benefit-cost ratio; however, this is only possible if infrastructure or public policy implementation costs are available (e.g., Buekers et al., 2015;Gotschi, 2011;Li and Faghri, 2014). ...
... Only Buekers (2015) estimated the benefits of the area of influence near the project. A common approach is to calculate the benefit-cost ratio; however, this is only possible if infrastructure or public policy implementation costs are available (e.g., Buekers et al., 2015;Gotschi, 2011;Li and Faghri, 2014). In Latin America, the reviewed articles calculated health benefits or pollutant reductions without implementing an S-CBA mainly because they are related to hypothetical scenarios and do not contemplate infrastructure projects with a detailed budget (de Sá et al., 2015(de Sá et al., , 2017Espinosa et al., 2018). ...
Article
Active mobility projects can potentially initiate paradigm shifts in population and urban planning decision-makers. This paper aims to conduct a social cost-benefit analysis of an active mobility project in a Colombian city. The increase of physical activity, reduction of CO2 emissions, and traffic crashes were measured in an area with suitable slopes to promote bicycles for commuting. A social cost-benefit ratio of 1.14 was found, with physical activity and road safety as the most important outcomes of the active mobility infrastructure. Furthermore, a big room for the increase and promotion of cycling as a mode of transport is addressed.
... There are tentative plans to use the connectivity plan and HIA as the basis of an application for TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery) funding Branas et al. 2011[37] Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA A program to clean, green, and maintain abandoned vacant lots in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This program involved removing trash and debris, grading the land, planting grass and trees to create a park-like setting, and installing low wooden post-and-rail fences 1. Vacant lot greening was associated with consistent reductions in gun assaults and consistent reductions in vandalism 2. Vacant lot greening was associated with residents' reporting less stress and more exercise in select sections of the city Buekers et al. 2015[38] Flanders, Belgium New bicycle highways Antwerp-Mechelen and Leuven-Brussels, which were built near important traffic axes to provide the densely populated region with an alternative to car use 1. Increased PA outweighed air polution and traffic incidents 2. The benefit:cost ratio was mainly positiveBuregeya et al. 2020[39] Quebec, Canada Analyzing a HIA tool's impact on the revitalization of road infrastructure, parks and green spaces, and residential housing HIA acted in synergy with other policies or plans at the local level to foster actions favourable to health. For instance, the city's active travel plan supported the HIA recommendations for additional cycling infrastructure. ...
Article
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Background Urban environments are important determinants of human health. The term walkability summarizes features of the urban built environment that promote walking and other types of physical activity. While the beneficial effects of active and public transport have been well established, the health impact of other features of walkability are less well documented. Methods We conducted a systematic review of health impact assessments (HIAs) of walkability. Studies were identified through PUBMED and Science Direct, from two German websites related to urban health and reference tracking. Finally, 40 studies were included in the present review. We applied qualitative thematic analysis to summarize the major results from these studies. Results Most of the HIAs (n = 31) reported the improvement of health or health behaviour resulting from an investigated project or policy. However, three HIAs reported a lack of improvement or even a decrease of health status. In parallel, 13 HIAs reported a gain in economic value, whereas one reported a lack or loss of economic effects. Moreover, three HIAs reported on social effects and six HIAs gave additional recommendations for policies or the implementation of projects or HIAs. Conclusions Most HIAs investigate the impact of increasing active or public transport. Other features of walkability are less well studied. With few exceptions, HIAs document beneficial impacts of improving walkability on a variety of health outcomes, including reductions of mortality and non-communicable diseases.
... Another measure is to construct cycling and pedestrian paths that are separated by at least some metres from road traffic, while reductions in motorised traffic designed to effectuate a model shift can also significantly reduce exposure to air pollution during commuting (Lonati et al. 2016;Pankow et al. 2014;Karanasiou et al. 2013). The benefits of creating cycling infrastructure and cycling lanes far outweigh the initial expenditure thanks to amongst others reduced healthcare costs (increased physical activity, improved air quality), diminished traffic Uncovering Spatio-temporal Air Pollution … 119 congestion and potentially reductions in the number of traffic accidents (Buekers et al. 2015). ...
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The problem of waste disposalCoastal area in the Kornati archipelago is clearly an issue of hidden geography since it is often neglected in the scientific literature and media alike. This paper summarises a realised joint preparation of the methodology for the inventory of solid wasteSolid waste in the coastal zoneCoastal zone. The methodology was used and tested for the inventory of solid waste in Kornati National ParkKornati National Park which encompasses a large part of the Kornati archipelago located in the central part of the Croatian Adriatic coast. Inventory of solid waste is the first and crucial step in the management of this often-overlooked issue. Approximately two-thirds of the land and the waters of the Kornati archipelago (217 km2) in Central Dalmatia were proclaimed as a national park in 1980. It is a place of exceptional natural values, cultural heritage and occasional population, which is at the same time very attractive for visitors. The purpose of the National Park’s management plan for the area was to maintain high aesthetics of the landscape and the extremely rich marineMarine pollution ecosystem. The observed natural conditions (windsWind and currents) and socio-economic features (environmental pressures during the peak tourist season) are causing specific problems within the park in terms of waste pollution. Human activities and their influence seem to be concentrated in the coastal zoneCoastal zone: (a) areas with (occasional) settlements and infrastructure intended for the predominant nautical tourism, and (b) uninhabited areas mostly with bays and coves accessible only from the sea. Data show different origins of the waste according to the country of their production: CroatiaCroatia, Turkey, Albania, Poland, Italy, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Germany, France, Greece, Hungary and North Macedonia with prevailing household plastic waste and solid wood waste. Evidently, waste has not stopped accumulating there.
... Raifman, Lambert, Levy, and Kinney (2021) argue that transportation infrastructure such as mobility investment reduces the mortality rate year out and year in. Also, the health benefit of improving cycling infrastructure is enormous and includes the health benefit of increasing physical activity and reducing exposure to air pollution (Bigazzi and Figliozzi, 2014;Buekers et al., 2015;Gerike et al., 2019;Schepers et al., 2015;Woods and Masthoff, 2017). ...
Article
This study examines the interplay between transport infrastructure, CO2 emissions, and health outcomes. The study focuses on economies in the Global South from 2006 to 2016 periods. To achieve the study's aims, CO2-induced health outcomes are generated, and the effects of transport infrastructure on CO2-induced life expectancy and mortality are assessed. The instrumental variable and system GMM estimates suggest that the quality of transport infrastructure in these economies has not improved the reduced life expectancy induced by CO2 emissions. A similar conclusion follows when mortality is analysed, such that transport infrastructural quality in these economies worsens the death rate caused by CO2 emissions. Further improvement in infrastructural facilities and a reduction in CO2 emissions will be necessary for achieving a good health outcome.
... On the one hand, the GHG emissions of trips on bicycles are almost negligible compared to car trips 19 . On the other hand, the frequent use of bicycles can change the car-based sedentary lifestyles 20,21 , increase physical activity, and thus lead to a lower risk of all-cause mortality, especially chronic diseases like obesity and cardiovascular diseases [22][23][24][25][26] . ...
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Bicycles are widely recognized as an effective solution for reducing short-distance trip-related climate impacts and addressing sedentary lifestyle-caused chronic diseases. Yet, the historical patterns of global bicycle production, trade, stock, and use remain poorly characterized, preventing thorough investigation of its role in sustainable road transport transition. Here, based on a dynamic model and various data sources, we have compiled, to our knowledge, the first global dataset for bicycle ownership and use by country from 1962 to 2015. Our comparison between the historical development of per-capita bicycle ownership and car ownership reveals five varying types in an S-curve among different countries. High bicycle ownership does not necessarily lead to high bicycle use, which is instead still marginal in daily trips worldwide (<5% for most countries). A worldwide pro-bicycle policy and infrastructure development enabled modal shift like the Netherlands and Denmark can lead to significant untapped climate and health benefits. High bicycle ownership does not necessarily correlate with high bicycle use, with substantial health and environmental gains possible by worldwide pro-bicycle policy implementation, suggests a global compilation of bicycle ownership, production, trade and stock.
... Minute ventilation rates for different leisure (i.e. sleep, rest) and transport activities were available from previous studies (Bourne et al., 2018;Buekers et al., 2015;Rojas-Rueda et al., 2012b). For the motorcycle, e-moped and escooter, we calculated the minute ventilation rates ourselves, based on the PA intensities (i.e. ...
Article
Mobility in cities is changing with the appearance of electric micro-mobilities (EMMs), i.e. e-bikes, e-scooters, e-mopeds. We conducted a health impact assessment (HIA) of EMM use on the health of Barcelona adults. Assuming a 5% (S1) and 10% (S2) increase in EMM use, we modelled changes in physical activity (PA), personal air pollution exposure and the risk of fatal traffic accidents. We estimated attributable mortality and morbidity burdens. Health impacts depended on the specific mode shift studied. For S1 and S2, respectively, shifting from cars and motorcycles to EMMs translated into 13 (95% CI: 10;16) (0.13%) and 26 (95% CI: 20;32) (0.25%) preventable deaths annually. Shifting from walking and cycling to EMMs, translated into 17 (95% CI: 20;15) (0.16%) and 35 (95% CI: 41;29) (0.34%) additional deaths annually. Shifting from public transport to e-bikes and e-scooters resulted in 23 (95% CI: 34;12) (0.22%) and 46 (95% CI: 67;24) (0.44%), and 4 (95% CI: 5;3) (0.04%) and 8 (95% CI: 10;5) (0.08%) preventable deaths, respectively, while shifting to e-mopeds resulted in 7 (95% CI: 5;9) (0.07%) and 14 (95% CI: 9;18) (0.14%) additional deaths annually. The gain/loss of PA when shifting from passive/active transport modes to EMMs, contributed strongly to the overall health impact and outweighed air pollution and traffic accident impacts. Trends for morbidity outcomes were similar. If mode shifts happen from passive transport modes, EMMs can provide health (and environmental) benefits.
Article
Introduction Active modes of transport can be defined as means of travel and transport at reduced speed, which take up little space on public roads and do not emit air pollutants or noise, being seen as an economic, social, and environmental asset, and a real alternative to motorized vehicles. Given its characteristics, the environmental benefits retrieved from active modes of transport should not serve only as a justification for its promotion but as a decisive and active factor in the scope of its actual use, which translates into the provision of pleasant and less polluted routes. Thus, the main objective of this paper is the development of a model for planning and generating urban routes for active modes that have a less negative influence on active users (pedestrians and cyclists) regarding their exposure to air and noise pollution. Methods Conventional route planners are mostly designed to find the shortest, fastest, or less expensive route. In this research, the model to assign the best route will be presented for pedestrians and cyclists from an environmental point of view, by defining the least polluted, less noisy, and most health-friendly path. Based on the production of noise and air pollution maps, the model proposes the contamination of the network routes, which are used to determine health-oriented routes. The model is carried out through the calculation of the noise and pollution exposure for the routes found, compared to the shortest route. Conclusion It was possible to conclude that less polluted routes may imply a small increase in the length of routes, but a significant gain in terms of reduction in exposure to PM10 and noise for active modes. Thus, the use of health-friendly routes can be seen as a matter of public health and a way for promoting more sustainable mobility.
Article
One commonly proposed strategy for reducing urban air pollution is transitioning from single-occupancy vehicle (SOV) travel to alternative transportation (AT) modes, such as walking, biking, and using public transportation. While many studies have addressed the benefits of switching from SOV to AT, fewer studies have examined the potential for negative outcomes due to increased exposure to heat when using AT modes. This work uses Maricopa County, Arizona, USA, home to the Metropolitan Phoenix area, as a test case to examine the potential impacts of heat on commuters who utilize AT. First, regions of the county with the most candidates for switching from SOV to AT were identified and used to develop an AT candidate index. This index was based on both the current rates of AT use and the number of SOV commuters with the shortest commuting times in the dataset (< 10 min). Next, typical weather conditions during warnings for high ozone (O 3 ) pollution are examined. From 2017-2020, over a quarter of all days with an O 3 warning also were subject to an excessive heat warning. Finally, land surface temperature (LST) data were used to determine the potential for increased heat exposure during AT commuting at both the ZIP Code and AT infrastructure (public transit stops and bikeways) scales. While this work focuses on Maricopa County, the issues presented here are increasingly relevant for cities across the world subjected to poor air quality, hotter temperatures, and heat waves.
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sec> Objective To examine the relationship between the numbers of people walking or bicycling and the frequency of collisions between motorists and walkers or bicyclists. The common wisdom holds that the number of collisions varies directly with the amount of walking and bicycling. However, three published analyses of collision rates at specific intersections found a non-linear relationship, such that collisions rates declined with increases in the numbers of people walking or bicycling. Data This paper uses five additional data sets (three population level and two time series) to compare the amount of walking or bicycling and the injuries incurring in collisions with motor vehicles. Results The likelihood that a given person walking or bicycling will be struck by a motorist varies inversely with the amount of walking or bicycling. This pattern is consistent across communities of varying size, from specific intersections to cities and countries, and across time periods. Discussion This result is unexpected. Since it is unlikely that the people walking and bicycling become more cautious if their numbers are larger, it indicates that the behavior of motorists controls the likelihood of collisions with people walking and bicycling. It appears that motorists adjust their behavior in the presence of people walking and bicycling. There is an urgent need for further exploration of the human factors controlling motorist behavior in the presence of people walking and bicycling. Conclusion A motorist is less likely to collide with a person walking and bicycling if more people walk or bicycle. Policies that increase the numbers of people walking and bicycling appear to be an effective route to improving the safety of people walking and bicycling. </sec
Technical Report
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This Handbook presents the state of the art and best practice on external cost estimation to make this accessible for those who are not familiar with the issue. It covers all environmental, accident and congestion costs and considers all transport modes. The focus is on marginal external costs of transport activity as a basis for the definition of internalisation policies such as efficient pricing schemes. The handbook does not include information on the existing taxes and charges and does not include information on Infrastructure costs. The handbook is based on the existing scientific and expert work mainly done at EU level and within European countries. It has been reviewed by a panel of more than thirty experts, including experts who were designated by Member States. The handbook recommends: − Methods for calculating external cost figures. − Best available input values for such calculation (e.g. value of one life year lost). − Estimated default unit values of external cost for different traffic situations (e.g. air pollution cost of a vehicle in Euro per kilometre).
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Background and objective Walking and cycling have shown beneficial effects on population risk of all-cause mortality (ACM). This paper aims to review the evidence and quantify these effects, adjusted for other physical activity (PA). Data sources We conducted a systematic review to identify relevant studies. Searches were conducted in November 2013 using the following health databases of publications: Embase (OvidSP); Medline (OvidSP); Web of Knowledge; CINAHL; SCOPUS; SPORTDiscus. We also searched reference lists of relevant texts and reviews. Study eligibility criteria and participants Eligible studies were prospective cohort design and reporting walking or cycling exposure and mortality as an outcome. Only cohorts of individuals healthy at baseline were considered eligible. Study appraisal and synthesis methods Extracted data included study population and location, sample size, population characteristics (age and sex), follow-up in years, walking or cycling exposure, mortality outcome, and adjustment for other co-variables. We used random-effects meta-analyses to investigate the beneficial effects of regular walking and cycling. Results Walking (18 results from 14 studies) and cycling (8 results from 7 studies) were shown to reduce the risk of all-cause mortality, adjusted for other PA. For a standardised dose of 11.25 MET.hours per week (or 675 MET.minutes per week), the reduction in risk for ACM was 11% (95% CI =4 to 17%) for walking and 10% (95% CI =6 to 13%) for cycling. The estimates for walking are based on 280,000 participants and 2.6 million person-years and for cycling they are based on 187,000 individuals and 2.1 million person-years. The shape of the dose-response relationship was modelled through meta-analysis of pooled relative risks within three exposure intervals. The dose¿response analysis showed that walking or cycling had the greatest effect on risk for ACM in the first (lowest) exposure interval. Conclusions and implications The analysis shows that walking and cycling have population-level health benefits even after adjustment for other PA. Public health approaches would have the biggest impact if they are able to increase walking and cycling levels in the groups that have the lowest levels of these activities. Review registration The review protocol was registered with Prospero (International database of prospectively registered systematic reviews in health and social care) PROSPERO 2013: CRD42013004266.
Article
Background There is growing interest in “Health in All Policies” approaches, aiming at promoting health through policies which are under the control of nonhealth sectors. While economic appraisal is an established practice in transport planning, health effects are rarely taken into account. An international project was carried out to develop guidance and tools for practitioners for quantifying the health effects of cycling and walking, supporting their full appraisal. Development Process A systematic review of existing approaches was carried out. Then, the products were developed with an international expert panel through an extensive consensus finding process. Products and Applications Methodological guidance was developed which addresses the main challenges practitioners encounter in the quantification of health effects from cycling and walking. A “Health Economic Assessment Tool (HEAT) for cycling” was developed which is being used in several countries. Conclusions There is a need for a more consistent approach to the quantification of health benefits from cycling and walking. This project is providing guidance and an illustrative tool for cycling for practical application. Results show that substantial savings can be expected. Such tools illustrate the importance of considering health in transport policy and infrastructure planning, putting “Health in All Policies” into practice.
Conference Paper
Utilitarian cycling is recognized as an excellent way of being physically active on a regular basis and maintaining good health [1]. Unfortunately, some cyclists will be involved in an accident, will need medical care and may incur temporal or permanent physical injuries, which will induce costs to the cyclist and society. Aertsens [2] estimated, in Belgium, the average total cost of minor bicycle accidents at 841 euro (95% CI: 579‐1205) per accident or 0.125 euro per kilometre cycled. The aim of this study is to provide more insight into the resulting costs of major bicycle accidents in Flanders (Belgium). Data were collected in a retrospective study design. In 2008, 2364 bicycle accidents in Flanders were registered by the National Trust for Accidents (FAO). From those 2364 invited participants, 289 returned the questionnaire and 26 were classified as a major accident (hospitalised > 24 hours) and used for data analysis. Direct costs (e.g. material damage and medical costs), as well as indirect costs (e.g. productivity loss), intangible costs and Willingness To Pay (WTP) are calculated. For calculating of costs a differentiation was made between a recovery phase and a permanent disability phase. Costs were calculated over a period of 3 year after the accident. Nine respondents fully recovered and 17 had permanent damage. The average cost excluding WTP (€2011) per respondent (N=26) is €60,776±69,433, €35,190±39,317 for those who fully recovered and €74,322±78,718 for those who had permanent damage. When including WTP, the cost increases with +35% for the total group, +53% for those who fully recovered and +31% for those who had permanent damage. Total annual bicycle injury costs are huge, but these costs must be balanced against the benefits of bicycling, related to health and environment.