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South–South Technology Transfer of Low-Carbon Innovation: Large Chinese Hydropower Dams in Cambodia
Abstract and Figures
Large dams have been controversially debated for decades due to their large-scale and often irreversible social and environmental impacts. In the pursuit of low-carbon energy and climate change mitigation, hydropower is experiencing a new renaissance. At the forefront of this renaissance are Chinese actors as the world's largest hydropower dam-builders. This paper aims to discuss the role of South–South technology transfer of low-carbon energy innovation and its opportunities and barriers by using a case study of the first large Chinese-funded and Chinese-built dam in Cambodia. Using the Kamchay Dam as an example, the paper finds that technology transfer can only be fully successful when host governments and organizations have the capacity to absorb new technologies. The paper also finds that technology transfer in the dam sector needs to go beyond hardware and focus more on the transfer of expertise, skills and knowledge to enable long-term sustainable development. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment
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... Generally, hydropower dams involve (1) various environmental and social effects and (2) diverse actors. Salient to these two characteristics is the concept of human security, which emphasizes both a multitude of threats (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 1994;Pairs, 2001;Newman, 2001Newman, , 2010 and the actors who contend with them (Howe & Kamaruddin, 2016;Howe & Sims, 2011;Jacob, 2014;Peou, 2005). Through the lens of human security, I argue that the research on hydropolitics in Cambodia reflects a human-centered analytical approach, leading the research to have three important characteristics. ...
... However, in many cases, secure states do not necessarily translate into secure people (Newman, 2001). Many people in the world have encountered the problems of development including poverty, malnutrition, hunger, and low quality-of-life (UNDP, 1994). Indeed, for some people, the biggest threat besetting them is their state (Newman, 2001, p. 240). ...
... Indeed, for some people, the biggest threat besetting them is their state (Newman, 2001, p. 240). Thus, proponents of human security argue that state and nonstate actors should prioritize the safety and living standards of people (Axworthy, 2001;Ogata & Cels, 2003;UNDP, 1994); that is, people should have freedom from fear and freedom from want (UNDP, 1994). In other words, human security consists not only of security but also of development. ...
Research on hydropolitics in Cambodia emerged in the early 2000s. Since then, scholars in the field have diversified their analytical approaches and broadened the scope of the issues being examined. However, no systematic review of this body of research has been published until now. Correspondingly and quite simply, the objective of this paper is to review the research on hydropolitics in Cambodia. Through the lens of human security, I argue that the research has relied on a human‐centered analytical approach and has, thus, acquired three central characteristics: (1) the human‐centered analytical approach gives the research a stronger connection to the reality on the ground than is the case with research rooted in the conventional security approach, which adheres to the Westphalian practice of statism and a militaristic focus; (2) the research has generated some valuable findings (e.g., dam‐affected villagers can be their own security contributors; not all environmental nongovernmental organizations are anti‐dam); and (3) the research has generally overlooked the Cambodian People's Party government's alternately pro‐dam and anti‐dam stances.
This article is categorized under: Human Water > Water Governance
Human Water > Rights to Water
... The second group of most recurrent barriers was financial, with the lack of financial incentives and subsidies for innovative and sustainable technologies as the main identified barrier (Urban et al., 2015). Besides, according to Karakosta et al. (2010a); Karakosta et al. (2010b) and Khan et al. (2017), the high cost of these technologies affect their selection and transfer. ...
... ⎯ Lack of effective communication between partners can generate inefficiencies in the process due to the lack of information (Morgera and Ntona, 2018) and the non-transfer of experiences and know-how (Urban et al., 2015). Using the transferor's ability to provide staff for training and follow-up during the transfer process and implementation as a criterion, these barriers can be addressed; ⎯ Lack of communication due to inefficient channels is a recurring barrier to the process (Ravindranath and Balachandra, 2009). ...
... The planning of these resources can minimize possible failures and barriers to the transfer process, such as the lack of raw material suppliers (Flamos et al., 2010;Kruckenberg, 2015b); the effective non-implementation of the technology due to the lack of trained personnel for handling (Urban et al., 2015;Halili, 2020); lack of training of the personnel involved in the process (Morgera and Ntona, 2018); lack of confidence in technology due to lack of information exchange, awareness and training (Karakosta et al., 2009;Urban et al., 2015), which can also cause resistance to change by the people involved in the project (Chege et al., 2019). With the anticipation of possible barriers, with actions to deal with them, the process can occur more effectively. ...
<https://rdcu.be/cilt2> Until the year 2030, the objectives and targets proposed in the Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals need to be achieved, aiming to minimize various global problems. Bearing in mind this urgency, it is necessary that studies to help achieve these objectives be carried out. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to carry out a Systematic Literature Review of the technology transfer models existing in the literature, since the process can assist in promoting sustainable development, as well as possible barriers and opportunities for sustainable technology transfer processes. The results show that, despite the diversity of models available in the literature, there is an absence of a model that considers the sphere of sustainable development, and the possible barriers and opportunities in the formulation of its stages. Based on this, a conceptual Barriers and Opportunities-based model focused on sustainable development was proposed, aiming to fill the scientific gap found, thus contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals. The model has four macro steps: Plan; Enable; Implement and Evaluate, which range from identifying the technological need to documentation, registration, and feedback on implementation. As a result, the model can anticipate and address possible barriers, making use of opportunities as facilitators. Also, this research contributes to the governmental sphere, since with the use of the model it is expected that it can assist in the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals.
... How to escape carbon lock-in is thus a pressing question for policymakers around the world (Unruh, 2002). Technology transfer and cooperation for low carbon energy technology such as solar PVs, wind energy and hydropower has emerged as one possible response to it (Nakayama and Tanaka, 2011;Urban et al., 2015a). We define low carbon technology transfer and cooperation throughout this paper per the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) definition as a "broad set of processes covering the flows of know-how, experience and equipment for mitigating […] climate change […] The broad and inclusive term'transfer' encompasses diffusion of technologies and technology cooperation across and within countries. ...
... The aim of this paper is to provide a synthesis of the scholarly literature on technology transfer and cooperation for low carbon energy technologies. We specifically focus on solar PV, wind and hydropower as the three main sources of low carbon energy that are technologically mature and widely commercialised (Urban, 2018;Urban et al., 2015a). The three specific research questions addressed in this paper are: ...
... The analysed papers on SSTT reveal the following trends: There is still a small minority of papers on technology transfer and cooperation, as well as on technological capabilities, that are focussing on interactions between countries in the Global South. Most of the papers that exist are focused on Asia, for example by Urban (2018), Siciliano et al. (2016), Urban et al. (2015aUrban et al. ( , 2015b, and on Africa, for example by Shen and Power (2017), Power et al. (2016) and Baker and Shen (2017). Latin America and the Middle East are under-represented in this area. ...
While North-South technology transfer and cooperation (NSTT) for low carbon energy technology has been implemented for decades, South-South technology transfer and cooperation (SSTT) and South-North technology transfer and cooperation (SNTT) have only recently emerged. Consequently, the body of literature on NSTT is mature, while the body on SSTT and SNTT is still in its infancy. This paper provides a meta-synthesis of the scholarly writings on NSTT, SSTT and SNTT from the past 30 years. We specifically discuss core drivers and inhibitors of technology transfer and cooperation, outcomes as well as outcome determinants. We find policies and practices for low carbon development to be the main driver, both pushed by governments and international aid programs, as well as by firms that are interested in expanding overseas. Inhibitors include a non-existent market in the host countries and the abundance of cheap fossil fuel resources that price out renewables. The literature is divided on whether intellectual property rights are inhibitors or drivers of technology transfer to the Global South. Outcomes of technology transfer and cooperation are mixed with approximately one-third of instances reported as successful technology transfer and another one-third reported as failures. Core key success factors were identified as suitable government policies as well as adequate capacities in the recipient country. This analysis is then followed by an introduction of the papers of the special issue 'South-South Technology Transfer and Cooperation for Low Carbon Energy Technologies’. Finally, a research agenda for future work on NSTT, SSTT and SNTT is proposed.
... The second major Chinese dam developer is China Three Gorges Corporation (CTGC) which built the infamous China Three Gorges Dam (Wilmsen and Webber, 2016;Xu et al., 2011). Other major Chinese dam developers are China International Water and Electric Corporation (CWE) and China Gezhouba Group (International Rivers, 2015;Mang, 2012;Urban et al., 2015b). All of these companies are state-owned enterprises (SOEs) (McDonald et al., 2009). ...
... Two observations stand out when examining this body of literature. First, only a single study, Urban et al. (2015b), considers Chinese dam developer' involvement from the perspective of technology transfer despite hydropower dams' alleged role as a (challenging to develop) source of renewable electricity for developing countries aiming to transition to a low carbon economy. Second, current studies focus on dam projects with Chinese involvement in Asia (e. g. ...
... The country would thus not be better off in carrying out a specific task (in this case: constructing a dam) despite this task having been carried out within the country's borders. The transfer of know-why skills may be facilitated if a local partner participates in a project (Urban et al., 2015b). Since we found no evidence of know-why transfer in this study, we do not list it in the key tables of this paper, Tables 3-5. ...
Technology transfer is essential for transitioning to a low carbon economy which can include hydropower. Chinese dam developers allegedly dominate the global hydropower industry. Studies have been carried out on technology transfer in their undertakings in Africa and Asia. However, such work is lacking for Europe and Latin America. The aim of this paper is to identify the extent, drivers and inhibitors of technology transfer of Chinese dam developers’ undertakings in Europe and Latin America. We find relatively few Chinese undertakings and thus limited evidence for technology transfer both in Europe and Latin America. Transfers identified are frequently mutual with the Chinese player transferring technology to the host country and vice versa. This transfer is driven by business considerations in Europe (costs, capacities) and Latin America (costs, lacking access to finance), but also geopolitical ones (Europe: creation of a trading area; Latin America: access to (natural) resources). It is impeded by Chinese dam developers’ poor reputation regarding safeguards as well as (only in Latin America) protectionist policies and significant capacities of host country players. Our research provides transparency regarding the European and Latin American hydropower industry, while also highlighting that attempts to influence what kind of technology is transferred by Chinese dam developers may be worthwhile.
... In the past, technology transfer and cooperation was often limited to 'hardware', while other 'software' issues that are essential to create, operate and maintain technologies such as skills, knowledge and experience, were often excluded from the traditional understanding of technology transfer and cooperation (Urban et al., 2015a(Urban et al., , 2015b. Also, for a long time the focus was on the traditional North-South model of technology transfer and cooperation. ...
... China to Asia or Africa) and (4) from North to North (e.g. EU to US or vice versa) (Urban et al., 2015a(Urban et al., , 2015b. ...
... It is important to look at different sectors to examine the issue of technology transfer as each sector has different dynamics. While some earlier work was conducted which focused on one specific sector only (see Urban et al., 2015aUrban et al., , 2015bUrban et al., , 2016, this paper does a cross-sector comparative analysis to synthesise, analyse and make sense of wider trends in the low carbon energy field. This cross-comparison can be helpful in more comprehensively understanding the role of China for global low carbon transitions and climate change mitigation. ...
Historically, technology transfer from the global North to China played a large role in renewable energy pathways in China, particularly for wind energy, partly also for solar energy. Yet, the rise of China and other emerging economies means a shift away from a reliance on technology transfer and production capabilities to strengthening indigenous innovation capabilities. Drawing on evidence from the hydropower, solar and wind energy industry in China, the paper introduces the concept of ‘geographies of technology transfer and cooperation’ and challenges the North-South technology transfer and cooperation paradigm for low carbon innovation and climate change mitigation. The empirical evidence shows that for low carbon innovation, the conception that China is lacking behind in innovation capabilities is partly outdated. Instead, there is an increase in indigenous innovation capabilities, resulting in South-South technology transfer and cooperation as well as elements of ‘reverse’ South-North technology cooperation.
... Chiyemura (2020) indicated that transferring skills and technologies is a political issue, no doubt about it; it is not primarily a technical problem that needs technical solutions. For instance, Urban et al. (2015) considered that China is a major technology transfer country with significant linkages to Africa as well as Southeast Asia, which can be explained by their close political, economic, and geographic ties. Low-carbon energy technology is just one small component of China's vast and diverse trade, assistance, and investment portfolio that it operates in Africa (Baker and Shen, 2017). ...
... According to Kirchherr and Urban (2018), successful technology transfer and cooperation not only provide recipient countries with hardware but also equip them with the skills necessary to operate, maintain, replicate, and innovate this technology. Other researchers (Urban et al., 2015) revealed that if the recipient of the technology is able to use and maintain it but is unable to replicate and develop with it, the technology transfer and cooperation outcome is considered "mixed." In addition to these, Ockwell and Mallett (2012) stated that technology transfer and collaboration would fail if only hardware was made available. ...
... Another research pointed out that the barrier of intellectual property rights could hinder fast, easy, and affordable access to low-carbon technologies because governments with competitive advantages prefer to maintain their international competitiveness [24]. Barriers arising from mismatches between in-country determinants and the scope of technology transfer initiatives [25], the recipient's ability to absorb technologies [26], and the infrastructure or institutional inertia [27] have also been discussed in the literature. Furthermore, some researchers have explored barriers faced by specific sectors or countries, such as technology transfer barriers in the power sector [28] or the agricultural sector [29] in Latin American countries. ...
... Scholars have also demonstrated China's advantages in South-South cooperation through case studies. For the least developed countries, such as Cambodia and Laos, South-South technology transfer from Chinese large dam builders has provided access to modern energy technology and helped reduce energy poverty [26,40]. Concerning wind farms in Ethiopia, China has shared its extensive knowledge and expertise with local engineers and scholars and has challenged South-North cooperation [41]. ...
Climate technology transfer is vital to greening the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and strengthening the BRI cooperative partnership. The major concerns of technology transferrers are to clarify what to transfer and where to transfer. On the basis of technology need assessment reports and the cooperative patent classification system, as well as a set of indicators for measuring urgency and attractiveness, this study identified the priority technology needs of BRI countries from global and regional perspectives. We found that technologies such as photovoltaics, land-use policy measures, and road transportation technologies in the energy, agriculture, and transportation sectors are the priority needs in BRI countries; however, these are not fully recognized by China’s current regional cooperation initiatives. In addition, the regional perspective analysis revealed the urgent need for diverse climate technologies at the regional level. Regional mismatches were also detected between China’s current technology transfer efforts and the BRI countries’ requirements, which may be attributed to the demand-pull and market-driven modes of technology transfer. We suggest that technology transferrers adjust their focus on technology cooperation to reflect the changing needs and regional disparities of BRI countries.
... Several studies, as proposed by Karakosta et al. (2010a), Urban et al. (2015), Husain et al. (2017) and Corsi et al. (2021), point out the importance of technology transfer and sustainable development. However, the number of information, theories, and conceptions dealing with the barriers and opportunities to the technology transfer oriented to sustainable development is limited. ...
... The essence of technology transfer is broad and can have di®erent terms, short or long, between di®erent actors, governments, industries, and research sectors, and with separate agreements, formal or informal (Urban et al., 2015). Considering these diverse elements and compositions, several models can be found in the extant literature, and all of them have as goal the success in the planning and implementation of technology transfer projects. ...
The process of technology transfer is complex and involves a series of factors and variables. Within this process, it is common that transferor and transferee might face several barriers. Furthermore, processes involving innovation and technology transfer must consider the impacts for the sustainable development. Taking these aspects into account, this paper aims to identify the barriers and opportunities in technology transfer oriented to sustainable development. To reach this goal, a systematic review of literature was carried out using the methodology Methodi Ordinatio. A portfolio composed of 107 scientific articles was built. The results demonstrate the main barriers, among which we can mention unavailability of financial resources or subsidies to obtain or implement a certain technology, and bureaucracy to obtain these resources. On the other hand, some opportunities can also be found, like Clean Development Mechanism and policies and regulations that favour the adoption and diffusion of clean technologies. Thus, this paper contributes to the academy by exploring the interconnections of Technology Transfer and Sustainable Development in the literature. This paper also contributes to the presentation of knowledge resources — information regarding barriers and opportunities to technology transfer oriented to sustainable development — so that governments and decision makers could define policies and strategies for a more effective process.
... Another important factor in the analysis of technological innovation systems in developing country settings is the international dimension, in particular the role of technology transfers between countries. Traditionally thought of as a unidirectional movement of knowledge and products from developed countries (the "north") to developing countries (the "south"), the growing importance and capabilities of industries in emerging economies created another movement between developing countries, the so-called "south-south" technology transfer [30]. The international dimension of innovation through technology transfer has gained significant recognition in recent years and added an additional component of comparability in sustainability transition analyses [17,18,20]. ...
... In this way, the Indian case also challenges conventional models of international low-carbon technology transfer, which usually only consider the transfer of technology from developed to developing countries (north-south transfer) [55], or the growing cooperation between developing countries, recently accelerated by an increasingly assertive China (south-south transfer) [30,56,57]. In our case study, we found that there is something in between the north-south (N-S) and south-south (S-S) transfer, which is currently missing in the literature. ...
Electricity consumption from lighting accounts for about 15% of total power demand and 5–6% of greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries. It is therefore a promising avenue to achieve considerable energy savings through technological innovation and upgrading. India has been very successful in recent years with a nationwide roll-out of modern light-emitting diode (LED) applications. This study uses the framework of technology innovation systems to identify the actors, institutions, and processes behind the diffusion of this technology. Our findings indicate that national innovation strategies, along with low-carbon technology (LCT) transfer policies, helped to bring down the cost of LED lamps in a rapidly expanding domestic market. Based on the findings, we further explore lessons for broader issues of low-carbon technology transfer and suggest an emerging intermediate step between north–south and south–south technology transfer.
... Some papers addressed the transfer flows directly, the South-South relations (Baker and Edmonds, 2004;Urban et al., 2015) and the North-South relations . They also approached partnerships between developed and developing countries, such as Velazquez et al. (2000), who discussed the cooperation between universities from those countries to generate benefits for the population. ...
... Taiwan:Baker and Edmonds (2004). Cambodia:Urban et al. (2015). Iran:Nasri et al. (2010) Africa; Ahmed(2004); Tewfik et al. (2004); Karakosta and Askounis (2010); Nhamo (2011); Aggarwal and Aggarwal (2017). ...
Problems such as resource depletion, climate change, and social and economic contingencies have been generating pressures to create strategies to minimize or mitigate these issues. In this context, where sustainable development and its mechanisms are widely addressed, this paper conducts a systematic literature review on technology transfer for sustainable development, seeking to identify the themes addressed and their convergence, as well as the social impacts mentioned. Not only does this study map out the social impacts found, but it also aims to contribute by disseminating the best strategies to achieve social development. To achieve that purpose, a systematic literature review was conducted using the Methodi Ordinatio methodology. The software programs NVivo 12 and VOSviewer® were employed to make the in-depth content analysis. The results show that there is a denial of social impacts in scientific works. The main approaches addressed in the articles are Strategies, Resources and Technologies, Clean Development Mechanism and Policies, Regulations and Actions. The main social impacts were Health Improvement, Quality of Life and Poverty Alleviation. Moreover, the focus of the papers is noticeably on vulnerable and developing countries/areas. It is possible to infer that the results found are aligned with those provided by the Sustainable Development Goals. The results also show that there are different strategies that bring social benefits, which therefore must be studied and diffused. However, there is a need to address social impacts more widely.
... While the majority of the studies on large dams' impacts focus on the impacts at an aggregated level, such as the county level [40]; on multidisciplinary approaches to model the costs and benefits of dams' construction [8]; or on the local impacts of dams built by Chinese builders in China [40], this paper looks at the impacts experienced by affected communities at the village level and at Chinese engagement in large dams development overseas. Moreover, with respect to other studies published by the authors on China's engagement in large dams in Cambodia [41,42,35] this paper looks for the first time from a Political ecology of the Asian Drivers Perspective at how different channels of interactions between Chinese dam builders and Cambodian authorities have had an influence in the altered human-environment interactions and on the distribution of costs and benefits between different beneficiaries. The analysis is based on extensive interviews and focus group discussions with affected communities, institutional actors, Chinese dam builders and financiers. ...
... Sinohydro is thereby the innovators in large dams' technology while the Cambodian state is the recipient. These issues of innovation and technology transfer have been discussed in detail by Urban et al. 2015 [42]. ...
Given the opportunities offered by foreign investment in energy infrastructure mostly by Chinese firms, the Government of Cambodia is giving high priority to developing hydropower resources for reducing energy poverty and powering economic growth. Using a "Political ecology of the Asian drivers" framework, this paper assesses China's involvement in the development of large dams' in Cambodia and its impacts on the access of natural resources such as water and energy by dam builders, local communities and the government. This analysis is based on 61 interviews and 10 focus group discussions with affected communities, institutional actors, Chinese dam builders and financiers in relation to the first large Chinese dam built in Cambodia: the Kamchay dam. Based on the results of the analysis this paper makes recommendations on how to improve the planning, implementation and governance of future large dams in Cambodia.
... Standardisation also incentivises the creation and dissemination of knowledge, as well as behavioural changes (Prajogo et al., 2012). The concept of TT is multifaceted, encompassing various temporal dimensions and involving diverse stakeholders such as governments, industries and research sectors, often formalised through a range of formal or informal agreements (Urban et al., 2015). Knowledge absorption entails assimilating external information and facilitating the transformation and utilisation of skills within an organisation, while knowledge sharing involves actively acquiring new insights from external sources (Lazarenko, 2019). ...
This paper highlights the significance of centralising innovation within organisations to gain a competitive edge in a rapidly changing world. It emphasises the pivotal role of ISO 56002, a standardised innovation management system, in fostering innovation capacity through diffusion, certification and development. By establishing innovation standards, organisations can consistently generate successful innovations, leveraging their resources and knowledge capital. However, technology transfer faces trust and inter-organisational cooperation barriers. ISO 56002 provides comprehensive guidelines to overcome these challenges and bridge standardisation and innovation perspectives. The proposed framework integrates technology transfer with the ISO 56002 system, consisting of five phases: engagement in innovation processes, certification of technology transferors, overcoming barriers, technology transfer agreements and analysing effectiveness. ISO 56002 facilitates collaboration, resource allocation, strategic planning and adopts a customer-centric approach. This framework fills a literature gap, offering organisations a competitive advantage in technology transfer. The study explores the relationship between ISO 56002 guidelines and technology transfer, emphasising collaboration, leadership, planning, support, operation, performance evaluation and improvement. ISO 56002 aligns with various aspects of technology transfer, emphasising sustainability, connectivity and competitiveness. Implementing ISO 56002 drives organisational growth and successful technology transfer.
... This package involved Chinese contractors, equipment and technology, but also broader capacity building and training, drawing on its domestic comparative advantage of its universities, aid-based vocational training, as well as via the contractors themselves, whose consortium company in the operation and management phase continues its engagement in knowledge and training, despite the fiscal constraints on the ERC. This reflects existing practices in other Chinese projects in infrastructure that involve the transfer of Chinese goods and technologies, supplemented with technical cooperation and training within a single project package (Li 2016;Urban et al. 2015), and demonstrates a long-term commitment to the sustainability and operation of the projects a experiences of the previous TAZARA railway,. ...
In the surge of outward finance that coalesced into the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), this article examines how the intersection of Ethiopia’s industrialisation ambitions, in tandem with Chinese infrastructure investment, can potentially promote processes of structural transformation. Drawing from a comparative case study of the Chinese-built Addis-Djibouti standard gauge railway (SGR) and a subsequent Turkish-built Awash-Weldiya railway, this article highlights the potential channels, and challenges, of railway investment for technology transfer and structural transformation. Railways bring knowledge spillovers through training in construction and operation, though this varies by contractor. We find that, whilst Chinese finance brings a more holistic package of technology transfer, significant barriers remain to long-term capacity building, and spillovers through firm linkages and competitive effects have been weaker. The catalytic potential for rail in Ethiopia’s industrialisation also face domestic challenges that are technical, but also deeply structural, throwing into question the impact, and promise, of China’s BRI.
... The literature on B2B partnerships and the SDGs in a North-South or South-South context is underdeveloped and therefore offers promising avenues for research. Only a few studies highlight some positive spill-overs and linkages that may arise in South-South and North-South B2B partnerships (Newman et al., 2015;Urban, Siciliano, et al., 2015;Urban, Zhou, et al., 2015). When it comes to B2B partnerships involving African companies, a few studies investigated positive spillovers including investment, technology transfer and training (Chen, 2018;Gyamerah et al., 2023;Osabutey & Debrah, 2012). ...
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a collection of 17 global objectives to promote economic, social and ecological development in all parts of the world. While the academic discussion on the contribution of companies to the Sustainable Development Goals has recently gained momentum, the role of business-to-business (B2B) partnerships in reaching the SDGs is underexplored, particularly when it comes to North-South relationships. With our research, we aim to fill this gap in the literature by investigating sales partnerships between German manufacturers and their distributors in African markets. Based on a qualitative analysis of 28 interviews with managers of German and African companies, we show that long-term partnerships and job creation, technology transfer, training as well as high standards are significant contributions of companies to achieve the SDGs. While several SDGs such as goals 4,6,13,16 and 17 are addressed by B2B partnership, we also discuss approaches on how the firms’ engagement could be further leveraged and expanded.
... A study by Weko & Goldthau (2022) denotes that there is an urgent need to address the low-carbon technology gap by promoting initiatives and mainstreaming technology transfer, including intellectual property rights (IPR) sharing platforms (Weko & Goldthau, 2022). Furthermore, successful implementation of technology transfer in developing countries requires capacity development and implementation of innovations, active involvement of end-users, implementation of cost-reflective tariffs, and establish an environment (Urban et al., 2015). However, based on literature searches, data, and information by the author, there have yet to be any best practices or research that specifically raises and elaborates on the issue of the transfer of low-carbon technology in the tourism sector, especially in Indonesia. ...
The tourism and travel sector has contributed significantly to Indonesia’s economic growth and robust development. Despite its positive impact, tourism and travel business activities also potentially impact environmental loss. In order to reduce these negative impacts, the new concept of tourism, namely low-carbon tourism, which focuses on environmental sustainability, can be implemented as the enabler. One of the factors that can support the implementation is the existence of environmentally friendly technology that requires a technology transfer process. This paper aims to overview the role and implication of technology transfer for enabling low-carbon tourism in Indonesia and outlining a conceptual framework for addressing the political (P), economic (E), social (S), technological (T), environmental (E), and legal (L) factors that constrain and support in enabling low-carbon tourism through technology transfer in Indonesia. A qualitative library research method and PESTEL analysis were employed to analyze and map the implications of external factors influencing the development of low-carbon tourism through technology transfer in Indonesia. The paper denotes that all the factors (political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal) were interrelated. Nevertheless, the economic factor was the only one with a moderate policy to encourage businesses to use green practices, particularly for the carbon tax policy. Consequently, there was still an opportunity for monetary policy to promote low-carbon tourism.
... Africa has yet to learn from the booming Chinese economy, particularly the processes it undertook to facilitate scientific and technological development. Such developments can help less-developed and developing African countries to address most of their third world socio-economic, political, and environmental challenges (Urban et al., 2015). Likewise, such underlying issues have not been evaluated by researchers who have only concentrated on determining the rate of the technology transfer and its benefits, leaving behind the possible problems that affect the entire process (Tambo et al., 2017). ...
... Among Chinese contractors working on construction projects in foreign countries, 77 per cent of them would recommend their own or China's engineering quality standards if they are higher than the host country's standards (UNDP, 2015). Previous empirical studies investigating technology transfer in China's hydropower projects around the world find limited evidence for technology transfer between China and the host countries because technology transfer also depends on the capacities of the host countries to absorb new technologies (Hensengerth, 2018;Kirchherr and Matthews, 2018;Urban, 2018;Urban et al. 2015). ...
President Xi Jinping launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. In total capital, China is now the largest investor in least‐developed countries and in developing Asia, and the fifth‐largest investor in Africa. Motivated by concerns about the climate change consequences of China’s overseas investments, this paper identifies and evaluates Chinese policies governing China’s overseas investments and analyzes how those policies influence environmental outcomes in recipient countries. Policies governing domestic investments are analyzed in order to clarify inconsistencies between domestic and overseas policies. Key findings are that the Chinese government’s environmental policies governing domestic investments are more stringent than those governing overseas investments. Chinese environmental overseas investment policies are mostly voluntary in nature so long as firms comply with host country regulations. Disclosure and transparency of information about China’s investments is opaque. Even if there is a failure to comply with host country regulations, there do not appear to be serious enforcement consequences. Finally, China encourages overseas investments in clean energy as well as exploration and development of higher carbon industries and fails to specifically restrict or prohibit investment in carbon‐intensive and fossil fuel industries in its overseas investments, revealing a discrepancy between policy for domestic and overseas investment. The bottom line is that while multilateral initiatives and speeches about the need to green the BRI are important, concrete and enforceable policies do not yet match the rhetoric.
... Moreover, in countries in the Global South, energy low-carbon transitions are usually highly dependent on foreign financial support and technology transfer for renewable infrastructure development, which directly links to issues of energy security, such as the capacity to become independent from energy imports by increasing domestic energy production. In terms of jobs creation, the development of renewable energy infrastructures can surely have a positive effects on the creation of new job opportunities for the local population (SDG 8), however, the literature has also showed that often this is only a temporary change for the duration of the projects' construction and for low-skilled workers, especially in the Global South(Calzadilla & Mauger, 2018;Urban et al., 2015). Instead, long-term employment and structural change requires the creation and improvement of skills and knowledge over longer periods of time. ...
Governments and civil society are increasingly aware that the decarbonization of energy systems needs to be aligned with justice principles of recognition, distribution, and process. This paper establishes a conceptual linkage between “sustainable development”, “low‐carbon energy transitions” and “energy justice” and examines social priorities to address peoples' competing priorities associated with low‐carbon energy interventions. By analyzing a renewable energy project in Vietnam as a case study, the paper shows that linking social priorities to energy justice provides a useful contribution for energy policy makers toward a better understanding of the multidimensional and complex aspects of low‐carbon energy transitions, and how different segments of society prioritize and perceive them for the achievement of socially just energy decisions.
... The article also found that any technology has transferred in the dam and power grids of economic infrastructures were required to meet the real of strategic position in needs of going beyond hardware and focusing more on the transferring of expertise, skills and knowledge to enabling short term and long term sustainable development [34]. Chinese foreign aid to Cambodia, Cambodia R. Chum DOI: 10.4236/oalib.1107330 ...
... Research on Chinese-linked overseas hydropower projects has therefore increased (e.g. Yu, 2003;McDonald et al., 2009;Urban et al., 2013Urban et al., , 2016Urban et al., , 2018Tan-Mullins et al., 2017;Brautigam and Hwang, 2019) examined the role of technology and knowledge transfer from China to other countries in the hydropower sector. ...
From the sectoral systems of innovation perspective, the windows of opportunity (hereafter referred to as WoOs) for industrial latecomers to catch-up could be opened up through abrupt changes in the technological, market, and institutional dimensions. Existing literature discusses different dimensional changes in isolation. Nevertheless, for green industries, the systemic interplay of these dimensions is of key importance; yet few studies have probed into this. These limitations in the literature are largely rooted in the lack of novel methods to detect and specify these abrupt changes, especially in a quantitative way. This paper, therefore, proposes a framework combining natural language processing methods with experts’ knowledge to detect these abrupt changes—named turbulences—by using multi-source heterogeneous data, in order to better identify the co-occurrences and interactions of turbulences across the technological, market, and institutional dimensions that have a high probability to open up WoOs. We apply this framework to analyze China’s hydropower sector as a case study. The hydropower sector is considered a “green” energy sector, in which China, as this study finds, has recently gained technological leadership. By analyzing the interactions between these multiple dimensions of WoOs, we discover that institutional turbulences proactively intertwine with other turbulences, and collectively form Green WoOs for the successful catch-up of China’s hydropower sector.
... Beijing has expressed a keenness to enhance Lower Mekong Countries' capacity building in this regard (Ministry of Water Resources 2017). China has developed a strong capacity in the provision of aid and technological assistance to countries through international cooperation (Urban et al. 2015), which has appeared a weakness in the Mekong River Commission (MRC). Both the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Chinese Ministry of Water Resources have led training and workshops to share its know-how and management experiences on flood prevention with the MRC and professionals from individual Lower Mekong Countries (Xinhua News 2011; Dali Daily 2018). ...
Managing transboundary river basins proves a challenge for China when encountering disagreements with its neighbors that experience different political and social conditions. This paper analyses what happens when China characterizes water as a security issue. Unlike past studies that mostly understand China’s water security practices through the prism of normal national politics, this study examines China’s fluid securitization practices, where changes can be identified indicating that the Chinese government values the various water security concerns differently.
Two cases are adopted for comparison. In the case of China’s sharing the Mekong River with the Lower Mekong Countries, the Chinese government has shown a willingness to incorporate more issues found both inside and outside of the water sector. In contrast, in the case of the sharing of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna, China’s security agenda has been limited to the consideration of water availability and has then led to military security concerns. A comparison of the cases indicate that China’s water security agenda is not only driven by a concern for water management over specific rivers, but also judgements that incorporate strategic military consideration from the military sector with regard to countries that they are involved with. The case of China thus suggests that water security is a complex domain that demonstrates competing values and concerns in (de)politicizing water. Therefore, water-related security issues cannot be understood solely from an environmental policy perspective.
... In the hydropower sector, most powerplants will operate for more than 25 years and their maintenance depends on local skills and expertise, not just the transfer of hard technology or equipment [89]. By comparing World Bank financed Lom Pangar dam and Chinese financed Memve'ele dam in Cameroon (both contracted by Chinese companies), Chen and Landry [90] argue that both projects involve hardware and software TT. ...
China is playing an ever important role in Africa's energy transition, mainly via its massive investment and loans on various energy infrastructure projects ranging from extractive activities in oil and gas industries, power generation facilities including both traditional and renewable energy sources, and transmission and distribution networks. These activities have generated profound economic, social and environmental impacts to the recipient countries and local communities, which has attracted tremendous academic interests in the past decade. In this critical review, the focus has been given to the power generation sector to understand implications of Chinese activities on African countries’ energy development pathways. Three groups of studies are reviewed in specific, which focusing on the estimation of Chinese activities in the Sub-Sahara region, the governance structure of development finance and overseas energy activities in China, and the economic, social and environmental impacts of Chinese projects. I argue that a new research agenda is needed to further develop a precise estimation regarding the size and trend of Chinese activities in the power generation sector in the SSA region, and to unpack the complex actor network and power relations among Chinese actors and with recipient countries. Future researches should also establish more robust evidence regarding the impacts of Chinese activities on energy sector development, economic growth at national level, and local environmental and social benefits at the local level. A more standardised assessment criteria is also required to evaluate these impacts due to the unique characters of Chinese activities compared to traditional OECD practices.
... The project was based on a build-operate-transfer arrangement under which sinohydro would build the dam and manage it for 44 years before transferring ownership to the Cambodian government in 2050. Technology transfer via the project was essentially limited to capital goods and equipment, and the project imparted very little in the way of skills, knowledge, or expertise that would enable the Cambodian workforce to independently operate and maintain the dam or to implement similar projects in the future Urban et al. 2016). The preconstruction consultation process was incomplete, and it involved little participation from local stakeholders. ...
... The project was based on a build-operate-transfer arrangement under which sinohydro would build the dam and manage it for 44 years before transferring ownership to the Cambodian government in 2050. Technology transfer via the project was essentially limited to capital goods and equipment, and the project imparted very little in the way of skills, knowledge, or expertise that would enable the Cambodian workforce to independently operate and maintain the dam or to implement similar projects in the future Urban et al. 2016). The preconstruction consultation process was incomplete, and it involved little participation from local stakeholders. ...
... The project was based on a build-operate-transfer arrangement under which sinohydro would build the dam and manage it for 44 years before transferring ownership to the Cambodian government in 2050. Technology transfer via the project was essentially limited to capital goods and equipment, and the project imparted very little in the way of skills, knowledge, or expertise that would enable the Cambodian workforce to independently operate and maintain the dam or to implement similar projects in the future Urban et al. 2016). The preconstruction consultation process was incomplete, and it involved little participation from local stakeholders. ...
... The project was based on a build-operate-transfer arrangement under which sinohydro would build the dam and manage it for 44 years before transferring ownership to the Cambodian government in 2050. Technology transfer via the project was essentially limited to capital goods and equipment, and the project imparted very little in the way of skills, knowledge, or expertise that would enable the Cambodian workforce to independently operate and maintain the dam or to implement similar projects in the future Urban et al. 2016). The preconstruction consultation process was incomplete, and it involved little participation from local stakeholders. ...
... In the hydropower sector, most power plants will operate for more than 25 years and their maintenance depends on local skills and expertise, not just the transfer of hard technology or equipment (Urban et al., 2015). By comparing the World Bank financed Lom Pangar dam and the Chinese financed Memve'ele dam in Cameroon (both contracted by Chinese companies), Chen and Landry (2018) argue that both projects involve hardware and software TT. ...
This paper will review the current debates around China’s involvement in and contribution to Africa’s urgently needed energy transition. It tries to provide an answer regarding the ways in which Chinese government actors, investors, financiers, and project developers are shaping the transition pathways in various SSA countries, and helps to identify issue areas that require further investigation.
... China has developed a strong capacity in provision of aid and technological assistance to countries through international cooperation (Urban et al., 2015). In China's relations with the the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, financial assistance is a strong element of China's water diplomacy. ...
China itself is vulnerable to environmental threats. With its sheer size and population, China faces immense potential threats from global warming and uneven access to natural resources. At the same time, the legitimacy of the central government heavily relies on the country’s economic performance which in turn relies on the exploitation of natural resources. China is faced with growing pressure as to how it effectively manages natural resources on an international scale.
This paper examines a dilemmatic situation that great powers are faced with the participation in international environmental cooperation. The formation of multi-lateral environmental agreements requires that nation states comply with environmental responsibilities when exercising sovereign rights over environmental resources. Great powers confront more pressure as they are expected to commit to greater responsibilities in international affairs. Adopting the sharing of the Mekong river basin as a case study, this paper examines the role China plays as a great power when exercising its right to appropriate natural resources. Changes are found in China’s international water policy including the establishment of the multi-lateral mechanism. This paper concludes that China’s policy developments in resource governance facilitate China to promote coordinated actions over the shared water resources. At the same time, such balancing acts serve to legitimize China’s dominance over the management of the Mekong river basin, which is embedded in the country’s Belt and Road Strategy.
... 503-504). 42 Urban et al. (2016). 43 Lybbert and Sumner (2012, p. 114). ...
The impact of climate change has emerged as a major threat to the sustainable growth and economic development of South Asia. The use of clean technologies is crucial for countries in the region to address climate change and achieve a low-carbon economy. At one end of the spectrum, the development of clean technology requires extensive research and investment; a strong patent system and the promise of substantial financial revenues in return are of paramount importance. At the other end, stringent intellectual property rights (IPRs) increase the cost of technological acquisition, making it difficult for economically unstable developing countries to make use of the patented technology. The role of IPRs in the transfer of climate change technologies to developing countries has therefore emerged in recent years as a highly controversial issue. This book chapter presents a critical analysis of how IPRs affect diffusion of clean technology into countries in South Asia.
... In a similar vein, Urban et al. (2015a) pointed to a lack of social sustainability policies in technology transfer, resulting in continued marginalization of the rural poor who suffer from the economic and social impacts of a transferred technology but receive few or none of the benefits. Phillips et al. (2013Phillips et al. ( : 1595 argued that technology transfer processes are laden with power relationships that influence 'what types of technology get transferred and on whose terms.' ...
The literature on technology transfer has focussed on North-South transfer and has analysed transfer as a largely technical process. This is despite the increasing influence of rising powers in technology transfer, specifically in the area of energy generation. China is an important player in this field. This article has two aims: firstly, it adds to the small but emerging literature on South-South technology transfer by exploring the role of Chinese actors, using the Bui dam in Ghana as a case study. Secondly, the article develops an expanded notion of technology transfer by arguing that technology transfer is not only a technical process, but it is inherently political as it includes crucial issues on decision-making regarding the type of technology that is transferred, who is granted access to the decision-making process, and who benefits from the new technology. In examining technology transfer from this perspective, the article draws on the sociology of technologies approach and the sustainable transitions literature arguing that technology transfer is a contested process that takes place within complex political, economic, social and cultural settings and actor networks. This determines the technology that is transferred, who benefits most, and who is marginalized in the process.
... While the majority of the studies on large dams' impacts focus on the impacts at an aggregated level, such as the county level [13]; on multidisciplinary approaches to model the costs and benefits of dams' construction [11]; or on the local impacts of dams built by Chinese builders in China [13], this paper looks at the impacts experienced by affected communities at the village level and at Chinese engagement in large dams development overseas. Moreover, with respect to other studies published by the authors on China's engagement in large dams in Cambodia [29][30][31] this paper looks for the first time from a Political ecology of the Asian Drivers Perspective at how different channels of interactions between Chinese dam builders and Cambodian authorities have had an influence in the altered human-environment interactions and on the distribution of costs and benefits between different beneficiaries. The analysis is based on extensive interviews and focus group discussions with affected communities, institutional actors, Chinese dam builders and financiers. ...
Given the opportunities offered by foreign investment in energy infrastructure mostly by Chinese firms, the Government of Cambodia is giving high priority to developing hydropower resources for reducing energy poverty and powering economic growth. Using a "Political ecology of the Asian drivers" framework, this paper assesses China's involvement in the development of large dams' in Cambodia and its impacts on the access of natural resources such as water and energy by dam builders, local communities and the government. This analysis is based on 61 interviews and 10 focus group discussions with affected communities, institutional actors, Chinese dam builders and financiers in relation to the first large Chinese dam built in Cambodia: the Kamchay dam. Based on the results of the analysis this paper makes recommendations on how to improve the planning, implementation and governance of future large dams in Cambodia.
Industry 4.0 represents an enormous potential for organizations, but its successful implementation requires a thorough analysis of Technology Transfer (TT) activities. This paper’s purpose is (1) to build on the state-of-the-art literature on Industry 4.0 and Technology Transfer, (2) to identify key characteristics of recent studies, (3) to develop a framework illustrating the relationship between Technology Transfer and Industry 4.0 and demonstrate its practical application in companies. For that purpose, the databases Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Scopus were selected for the search of relevant papers on industry 4.0 and technology transfer. This search encompassed the 2010 to 2022 period and, after the application of the Methodi Ordinatio, a total of 70 papers were analyzed. The review examined the publication timeline, leading publishers, geographical distribution, keyword co-occurrence, and clusters. Based on this literature review, a framework that presents how the influence of technology transfer facilitates the Industry 4.0 implementation process was elaborated, named the I4.0-TT framework. The results show that Technology Transfer, jointly with 4.0 concepts and technologies, acts in five dimensions (People, Process, Technology, Strategy and Organization, and Integration). Applying these five dimensions and their respective components leads to the so-called Industry 4.0. Therefore, the conclusion reached is that Technology Transfer reveals itself as a support to apply 4.0 concepts and technologies in the organization.
Deep decarbonisation of energy-intensive industries, such as steel production, will be required to achieve the European Union’s climate targets. Green hydrogen technology has the potential to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions from iron and steelmaking to nearly zero and mitigate climate change from the industrial sector. The paper is based on an ongoing case in Sweden, where the established firms SSAB, LKAB, and Vattenfall are operating the HYBRIT joint venture. This paper aims to explore the conditions for transferring this technology from Sweden to three primary steel producing countries in Europe: Germany, France and Italy. As a theoretical point of departure, we integrate some concepts from the multi-level perspective and technology transfer theories to better understand transition pathways for hydrogen-based steel production in Europe. We use a case study methodology, including the analysis of more than 20 qualitative interviews and secondary data. The findings of the study conclude that the Swedish iron and steel industry is unique in many ways, yet other European countries are rapidly catching up in hydrogen-based steel production, particularly Germany. Sweden however remains unique in its nearly zero carbon electricity generation and low-cost electricity prices, which can enable green hydrogen production throughout the country. In order to overcome the barriers and create an enabling environment for hydrogen-based steel production, it is key that energy and industry transitions are aligned, that a policy framework that supports these transitions is in place, and that key actors representing all aspects of these transitions cooperate, from industry and research, to academia, policymakers, and civil society.
The rapid deployment of modern renewable energy generation capacity in the fast-growing Southeast Asian region will be crucial to ensure that the region can meet its increasing future energy demand in a sustainable way. However, many countries will need assistance through international cooperation and foreign aid to develop their sustainable energy sources. The three East Asian donor states Japan, South Korea and China are particularly crucial because they account for a large share of aid disbursement to the region and serve as development role models for many recipient countries. All three states are signatories of the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and thus committed to the global goals of climate protection and sustainable energy development. This paper is based on an analysis of official aid databases and second-party data to explore the details of the energy-related aid contributions of the three key donor states to Southeast Asia during the last 15 years. The findings indicate that all three states contradicted their own international pledges by financing fossil-fuel power generation projects in many countries in the region. Although recent policy changes in Japan and South Korea are cause for optimism, the opacity of China's energy-related aid flows combined with its renewed support for domestic coal power generation are worrying signs for the future of energy development in Southeast Asia and beyond.
Purpose of Review
This article first demonstrates the natural potential of renewable energy development in BRI countries; second, the Rising Power Framework is introduced to investigate the improvement brought by BRI for renewable energy development in host countries. Finally, the political and economic challenges as well as those caused by the COVID-19 pandemic for renewable energy development are also identified.
Recent Findings
The review shows that the BRI project indeed improved the renewable energy development in host countries, while the scale of renewable energy development, especially solar and wind energy, is heavily dependent on the amount of funding; moreover, the degree of technological improvement is determined by host countries’ development needs and absorption capacity.
Summary
In conclusion, this paper proposes a consideration related to the structure of energy investment under the BRI.
The “4 per Thousand” and “Adapting African Agriculture” are bold and innovative initiatives adopted at COP21 in Paris and COP22 in Marrakesh, respectively. These initiatives are soil-centric and based on adoption of soil-restorative and improved agricultural practices. The objective of this article is to discuss the merits and challenges of South–South Cooperation (SSC) in promoting the adoption of best management practices (BMPs) such as conservation agriculture (CA) and sustainable intensification (SI). Basic principles of CA are: retention of crop residue mulch, incorporation of cover crops and complex rotations, integrated nutrient management and elimination of soil disturbance. The strategy of SI is to produce more from less by enhancing the eco-efficiency, reducing waste, and restoring soil health. Whereas CA has been successfully adopted in Brazil, Argentina, Chile and other regions of South America, its potential of harnessing agronomic and ecologic benefits has not been realized in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and elsewhere in The Global South. The strategy of SSC is pertinent because of the ten basic principles or tenets: lack of hierarchy, equal participation in all decision-making processes along with transparency, trust, mutual respect, and accountability. However, several concerns have been raised regarding issues such as land grab, and access to resources etc. Based on the scientific concepts of SI, producing more from less, even a triangular cooperation (TAC) or South-South-North (SSNC) cooperation can be developed to achieve adaptation and mitigation of climate change, advance food security, improve degraded soils and restore soil health through soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration, and advance Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the U.N. A widespread adoption of CA and SI through SSC, TAC or SSNC can advance SDGs including #1 (end poverty), #2 (eliminate hunger), #6 (clean water), #13 (climate action), and #15 (life on land). Of the global cropland area under CA estimated at ∼180 million hectare (Mha) in 2015–16, land area under CA is only 2.7 Mha in Africa and 13.2 Mha in Asia. SSC, TAC and SSNC can build upon the existing and on-going initiatives by national and international organizations.
The water-energy-food nexus concept is criticized as not yet fit for deeply integrated and contested governance agendas. One problem is how to achieve equitable risk governance and management where there is low consensus on priorities, poor inclusion and coordination of risk assessment procedures, and a weak emphasis placed on cross-scale and sectoral interactions over time. Participatory system dynamics modeling processes and analyses are promising approaches for such challenges but are currently underutilized in nexus research and policy. This paper shares our experience implementing one such analysis in the Mekong river basin, a paradigmatic example for international nexus research. Our transdisciplinary research design combined participatory causal loop diagramming processes, scenario modeling, and a new resilience analysis method to identify and test anticipated water-energy-food risks in Kratie and Stung Treng provinces in northeastern Cambodia. Our process generated new understanding of potential cross-sectoral and cross-level risks from major hydropower development in the region. The results showed expected trade-offs between national level infrastructure programs and local level food security, but also some new insights into the effects local population increases may have on local food production and consumption even before hydropower developments are built. The analysis shows the benefit of evaluating risks in the nexus at different system levels and over time because of how system dynamics and inflection points are taken into account. Additionally, our case illustrates the contribution participatory system-thinking processes can make to risk assessment procedures for complex systems transitions. We originally anticipated that any new capacity reported by partners and participants would come from our modeling results produced at the end of the process. However, participants in the modeling procedures also found the experience powerful the information sharing, rapid risk assessment, and personal learning it enabled. A lesson from our experience reinforces a message from the transdisciplinary research field that has not yet been absorbed into the nexus research and policy field wholeheartedly: we do not have to wait for perfect data and incontestable results before making a positive contribution to anticipating and responding to risks that emerge from nexus relations if we apply participatory and systems-thinking informed approaches.
Countries in the global South, or developing and emerging economies, are experiencing rapid economic growth, and increased economic integration with other countries in the global South, including trade. Some analysts have raised concerns that such South-South trade might encourage the use of outdated conventional energy technologies, and lock developing countries into high carbon growth paths. Here, trade data from the UN Comtrade database is analyzed with a gravity model of trade. Results show that levels of clean energy technologies in South-south trade were relatively low up until the first half of the 2010's, but that these are entirely comparable to North-North or other trade flows in recent years. The analysis thus finds no evidence to support concerns that South-South trade might encourage high carbon development. South-South trade contains particularly high levels of solar PV, hydropower, and electric two-wheeler technologies, whilst exporters in the global North are more competitive in markets for wind power equipment and electric vehicles. Trade in electric vehicles is the fastest growing class of clean energy technologies, and the dominance of Northern countries in their exports may mean that South-South trade could, in the foreseeable future, once again lag behind in levels of clean energy technologies.
Amidst rising infrastructure investment across the Asia‐Pacific, glaring accountability deficits have raised questions about governments’ capacity to contain corruption in infrastructure development in the region. Recent developments in the Philippines, however, indicate the presence of challenges related to the ability of digitally enhanced transparency measures to bridge such accountability deficits. This article presents the shifting emphasis in transparency and accountability reforms related to Philippine infrastructure development beginning from the 1990s and assesses transparency innovations under the Duterte administration. While milestone measures such as the establishment of an electronic freedom of information (eFOI) platform have provided convenient access to public information, major hurdles remain in obtaining critical documents concerning infrastructure projects. As borne out in an exercise to request the feasibility studies of 48 flagship infrastructure projects, access to information is still obstructed by factors ranging from technical constraints, uneven service delivery, coordination failures, as well as active legal restrictions against the public’s right to know.
China has emphasized the importance of implementing the concept of green development into the process of the Belt and Road initiative. Therefore, in the process of promoting the initiative, it is necessary to clarify its impact on the green development of the participating countries. Based on such consideration, this paper establishes Green Development Capability (GDC) index to measure the green development level, and uses the Spatial Durbin Model for empirical testing basing on relevant data on different cooperative patterns between China and participating countries. The results show: (i) Economic Development Cooperation, Environmental Governance Cooperation and Sustainable Cooperation are conducive to enhancing the GDC, while the cooperation of Resource Utilization based on fossil energy trading has adversely affected on GDC. (ii) The current cooperation approaches have spillover effects, but not yet broken the Spatial Club imbalance. (iii) Economic Development Cooperation, Environmental Governance Cooperation and Sustainable Cooperation contribute to the promotion of developing countries' GDC, but over-reliance on mineral exploitation has caused these countries to fall into Resource Curses and hinder them from playing Backward Advantage.
Environmental questions are at the heart of many development dilemmas in Southeast
Asia. New actors and technologies, changing domestic politics, policies, and economies - as well as shifting geopolitical contexts, are remaking nature-society relations in the region. A failure to address transnational environmental challenges could not only undermine ASEAN’s legitimacy but also have drastic consequences for the region’s security and its political and economic stability. In addressing these questions in Work Package 1 (WP1), we are particularly concerned with contested knowledges of “the commons” and competition over resources. We consider the environment as a driver of processes of regional integration, but also of conflicts between various actors in the region. Our research focuses on three environmental contexts namely: sea;
rivers; and air. In addressing all three our emphasis is on the transition to a low-carbon economy.
The aim of this paper is to present the theoretical framework of our work as well as the three main strands of our research. In the first section, we explain our understanding of the concept of ecological knowledge. This is followed by a presentation of our methodological approaches, while the last section presents the individual research projects in the WP, arranged in three modules.
Since 2008 the Japanese government has become more responsive to the exercise of Chinese economic, diplomatic and military power in Southeast Asia, suggesting an intensifying rivalry. The Japanese government has thrown off any reticence about self-promotion by more forcefully positioning Japan as a sensitive and sustainable strategic partner for Southeast Asian nations in a strategic contrast with the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Rather than trying to contain China, Tokyo is seeking to mediate how China turns its material resources into influence. Despite an increasing asymmetry in material resources between China and Japan, this article argues that Japan maintains a surprising ability to influence the preferences of Southeast Asian nations and responses to exercises of PRC power, which in turn has allowed Japan to influence China’s regional strategy.
Governments increasingly look to the private sector for the financing, design, construction, and operation of infrastructure projects, and as a result, public-private partnerships ( ppp s) have emerged as a valuable source for investment funds and expertise. ppp s involving new uses of transboundary waters require giving particular attention to the huge potential for environmental and social impacts. This monograph examines what ppp s are and how they, and environmental and social ‘safeguards,’ function in a transboundary waters context and with each other. This examination is undertaken through the prism of the Nam Theun 2 and Xayaburi hydroelectric power projects in Lao pdr . This monograph discusses and draws some important lessons from these ppp s contractual arrangements, costs, financing, and risk mitigation, for ppp s to be contemplated in other transboundary waters contexts.
This article investigates China’s role as the world’s largest builder of and investor in large dams, focussing on the Greater Mekong Sub-Region in South-East Asia. It addresses the role Chinese actors play in dam-building as well as the environmental, social, economic and political implications by drawing on case studies from Cambodia and Vietnam. The article finds that China’s dam-building is perceived very differently in different countries of South-East Asia. In Cambodia, the dams in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region are considered instruments of economic growth and development, whereas downstream in Vietnam the dams are seen as potentially undermining national growth, development and security.
Hydropower dams are back in the spotlight owing to a shifting preference for low carbon energy generation and their possible contribution to mitigating climate change. At the forefront of the renaissance of large hydropower dams are Chinese companies, as the builders of the world's largest dams at home and abroad, opening up opportunities for low- and middle-income countries. However, large hydropower dams, despite their possible developmental and carbon reduction contributions, are accompanied by huge economic costs, profound negative environmental changes and social impacts. Using fieldwork data from four hydropower projects in Ghana, Nigeria, Cambodia and Malaysia, this paper evaluates the behaviour of Chinese stakeholders engaged in large hydropower projects in Asia and Africa. We do this by first exploring the interests of the different Chinese stakeholders and then by investigating the wider implications of these Chinese dams on the local, national and international contexts. The paper concludes that hydropower dams will continue to play a prominent role in future efforts to increase energy security and reduce energy poverty worldwide, therefore the planning, building and mitigation strategies need to be implemented in a more sustainable way that takes into account national development priorities, the needs of local people and the impacts on natural habitats.
China has re-emerged to become a dominant foreign player in Cambodia. Politically, Cambodia is one of China's oldest and closest allies. Economically, China is Cambodia's top foreign investor, a major donor, and an increasingly important trading partner. Culturally, Chinese values are deeply embedded in many aspects of Cambodian society. However, China's dominance is surrounded by renewed controversies. While the government warmly welcomes Chinese aid, saying that it comes with no strings attached, many experts are concerned that China is providing aid for more nefarious reasons. Critics also accuse Chinese investment and aid of having exacerbated corruption, weakened governance and harmed human rights, and of ruining Cambodia's natural resources and environment. With such controversies, it is relevant and significant to assess the roles that China has played and continues to play in Cambodia's socio-economic development. Using expert interviews, media analysis and an extensive literature review, this paper uniquely contributes to the existing discussion on China–Cambodia relations by closely examining the controversies of China's investment and aid, critically analysing China's interests in Cambodia, and asking if the relationship between the two nations is a positive-sum game.
To say that technologies and institutions evolve together means that they evolve in interaction. This ought to be hardly surprising if looked at from the vantage point of a systems approach. Such an approach has lately acquired a considerable weight both at a theoretical and at a policy level, in particular by means of the concept of innovation system. Innovation systems have been studied at different levels, ranging from national innovation systems (Lundvall 1992; Freeman 1987; Nelson 1992; Edquist 1997) to regional innovation systems (Braczyk et al. 1998) to sectoral innovation systems (Carlsson and Stankiewicz 1991; Carlsson and Jacobsson 1997; Breschi and Malerba 1997). The common assumption underlying all these approaches is that innovation is not created simply by pouring money into an R&D bucket from which innovations come out. On the contrary, innovations are created by a system, constituted by different parts or components interacting and determining the final outcome. Amongst the evidence that led to the concepts of innovation systems mentioned above is the strong specificity, or persistent asymmetry, shown by several of these systems in the course of time. Thus, for example, some national innovation systems acquire a particular pattern of specialisation, or areas of strength, that show a high persistence in the course of time. The strength of the German chemical and pharmaceutical industry dates from the second half of the XlXth century. Likewise Japanese specialisation in electronics, motor cars and photographic equipment, or Italian industrial clusters specialising in ceramic tiles, leather products or optical equipment, show a considerable persistence. Furthermore, each of these innovation systems shows an institutional specificity that is even stronger than the output asymmetries mentioned above, with patterns of institutions and institutional interaction differing sharply amongst countries, regions or sectors.
The Mekong River’s natural resources offer large benefits to its populations, but it also attracts the interest of foreign investors. Recently, Chinese firms, banks and government bodies have increasingly invested in large hydropower projects in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. Due to China’s rapid economic growth, its rapid industrialisation and its limited domestic natural resources, the Chinese government has issued the ‘Going Out Strategy’ which promotes investments in overseas natural resources like water and energy resources. In search for climate-friendly low-carbon energy, cheap electricity and access to a growing market, Chinese institutions turn to Southeast Asia where Chinese institutions are currently involved in more than 50 on-going large hydropower projects as contractors, investors, regulators and financiers. These Chinese institutions have influence on environmental and social practices as well as on diplomatic and trade relations in the host countries. Currently, there are major gaps in understanding who is engaged, why, how and with what impacts. This paper therefore aims to assess the motives, actors, beneficiaries and the direct and indirect impacts of China’s investment in large hydropower projects in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. The authors use the ‘Rising Powers Framework’ to assess these issues, which is an adapted version of the Asian Drivers Framework.
The paper examines the role of environmental norms in Chinese overseas investment in hydropower dams, exemplified by Sinohydro’s involvement in the Bui Dam in Ghana. While the investment of Western companies in hydropower dams in the global South is decreasing owing to changing notions of sustainability in the West, the investment of Chinese companies in hydro dams in Africa, Southeast Asia and Latin America is accelerating at great speed. The emergence of Chinese companies in international markets in the context of China’s Going Abroad strategy has sparked a debate on whether China can be considered a norm-changer in international development. The paper considers this question in the context of the status of environmental norms in Sinohydro’s investment in Ghana’s Bui Dam. The paper argues that the role of international norms in Chinese investment is dependent on two factors: the contractual arrangements under which Chinese companies operate abroad and the political institutions of host countries.
We describe a study to estimate the potential GHG emissions from a projected 765 MW hydroelectric dam in the southern part of Mexico, near the port of Acapulco. We describe the methods used to estimate the biomass to be flooded, the procedures to measure and estimate current fluxes of GHG from soils. This will enable to build a base line of emissions without the dam to extract the net emissions from the dam. Surrogate measurements of GHG emissions from an eight years old similar dam will be used to test emission models applied to the project.
The role of China must be understood in the context of competing and intensified global energy politics, in which the US, India and China are among the key players vying for security of supply. Contrary to popular representation, China's role in Africa is much more than this however, opening up new choices for African development for the first time since the neo-liberal turn of the 1980s. As such it is important to start by disaggregating 'China' and 'Africa' since neither represents a coherent and uniform set of motivations and opportunities. This points to the need for, at minimum, a comparative case study approach which highlights the different agendas operating in different African states. It also requires taking a longue durée perspective since China-Africa relations are long standing and recent intervention builds on Cold War solidarities, in polemic at least. It also forces us to consider Chinese involvement in Africa as ambivalent, but contextual. We focus on the political dimensions of this engagement and set out a research agenda that focuses on class and racial dynamics, state restructuring, party politics, civil society responses and aid effectiveness.
This paper discusses emissions by power-dams in the tropics. Greenhouse gas emissions from tropical power-dams are produced underwater through biomass decomposition by bacteria. The gases produced in these dams are mainly nitrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. A methodology was established for measuring greenhouse gases emitted by various power-dams in Brazil. Experimental measurements of gas emissions by dams were made to determine accurately their emissions of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gases through bubbles formed on the lake bottom by decomposing organic matter, as well as rising up the lake gradient by molecular diffusion.The main source of gas in power-dams reservoirs is the bacterial decomposition (aerobic and anaerobic) of autochthonous and allochthonous organic matter that basically produces CO2 and CH4. The types and modes of gas production and release in the tropics are reviewed.
Greenhouse gas emissions from hydroelectric dams are oftenportrayed as nonexistent by the hydropower industry, and havebeen largely ignored in global calculations of emissions fromland-use change. Brazils Tucuru Dam provides an example with important lessons for policy debates on Amazonian development and on how to assess the global warming impact ofdifferent energy options. Tucuru is better from the pointof view of power density, and hence greenhouse gas emissions per unit of electricity, than both the average for existing dams in Amazonia and the planned dams that, if all built, wouldflood 3% of Brazils Amazon forest. Tucurus emission of greenhouse gases in 1990 is equivalent to 7.0–10.1 106 tons of CO2-equivalent carbon, an amount substantially greater than the fossil fuel emission of Brazils biggest city, So Paulo. Emissions need to beproperly weighed in decisions on dam construction. Althoughmany proposed dams in Amazonia are expected to have positivebalances as compared to fossil fuels, substantial emissionsindicated by the present study reduce the benefits often attributed to the planned dams.
To improve the quality and efficacy of the transfer of environmentally sound technologies for the purposes of the UNFCCC, these trends need to be set in a broader context. That context implies multi-faceted enabling environments in both developed and developing countries. Such enabling environments for technology transfer include national institutions for technology innovation, the involvement of social organizations, human and institutional capacities for selecting and managing technologies, macro-economic policy frameworks, the underpinnings of sustainable markets for environmentally sound technologies, national legal institutions that reduce risk and protect intellectual property rights, codes and standards, research and technology development, and the means for addressing equity issues and respecting existing property rights.
Using case study analysis across three sectors in China (cement, electric vehicles and coal fired electricity generation) and theoretical insights from the innovation studies literature, this paper analyses the development of China’s technological capabilities in low carbon technologies and the ways in which public policies have contributed to developing these capabilities. It finds that China has developed significant capabilities via a strategic approach. The paper’s findings have significant implications for international policies designed to support low carbon technology transfer to developing countries and broader processes of low carbon technological change and development. Such policies should go beyond the traditional focus on the transfer of technology hardware to focus on the development of low carbon technological capabilities in developing country firms.
The research was undertaken to better understand the current policy and plans of the Cambodian government for the electricity sector; map the decision-making process; develop a greater understanding of the key actors involved; outline the extent of Chinese investment in Cambodia’s hydropower sector; and determine any social and environmental implications. A fieldtrip to the Kamchay Dam was undertaken to better understand the project’s impact at this early stage of development. [IRN Report]. URL:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/cambodia_hydropower_and_chinese_involvement_jan_2008.pdf].
This article proposes a shift to a paradigm that is more extensive than the current narrow focus on North-South climate change technology transfers, towards a more inclusive 'global' paradigm. An implication of the paradigm shift is that there should be a concomitant expansion of the policy agendas of the international climate and trade regimes. The traditional North-South paradigm of technology transfer ignores the increasing importance of developing countries as sources of advanced climate-friendly technologies, and therefore ignores South-North and South-South transfers. Further, whereas the North-South paradigm has emphasized developing countries' intellectual property rights policies as barriers to technology transfers, the 'global' paradigm focuses attention on trade and investment policy barriers, including developed countries' policies that inhibit technology transfer from developing countries. The analysis is relevant to international negotiations in the post-2012 climate regime, and is also relevant to the future development of the trade regime - not only at the multilateral level in the WTO, but also at the regional and bilateral levels.
Sustainable water resource management has become a critical issue for the development of cities that suffer scarce water resources. Tianjin City, located in China's Huaihe basin, one of the most polluted and water-scarce river basins in the country, is a typical example in which water is posing a major constraint to the development. This paper examines the current status of the use of water resources, and the current practices and policy measures taken for water resource management in Tianjin, with a view to drawing lessons through an evaluation of these measures. The study illustrates the role of cities and their complex interaction with their peripheries for the allocation of scarce water resources, and it suggests that a systems approach should be adopted in order to analyse and understand the complexity of the entire picture. Based on this review and evaluation of Tianjin's experience, the authors propose a framework for sustainable water resource management in cities, emphasizing the importance of taking full consideration of resource/environmental capacity and an integrated systems approach for problem solving. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment
Sustainable development requires the balancing of economic growth with environmental protection. Since the late 1970s, China's government has been exploring a new path to improve its economic efficiency and decrease resource consumption and environmental pollution. Remarkable progress has been made due to the success of Deng's reform oriented to the market economy and the strengthening of environmental management. However, China has a long way to go to achieve the new development pattern because of the constraints imposed by its unbalanced economic structure and difficulties of moving from a planned to a market economy. China's experience in the 1980s shows that the two processes, sustainable development and economic reform, are closely related.
Intellectual property rights (IPRs) and the transfer of low carbon technologies to developing countries have been the focus of sustained disagreement between many developed and developing country Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). We argue that this disagreement stems from two conflicting political discourses of economic development and low carbon technology diffusion which tend to underpin developing and developed countries’ respective motivations for becoming party to the Convention. We illustrate the policy implications of these discourses by examining empirical evidence on IPRs and low carbon technology transfer and highlight how the two discourses are based on an incomplete understanding of the role of technological capacity in either economic development or technology diffusion. This has important implication for the success of post-2012 international climate agreements.
At present, China's economic development faces energy challenge, and the appropriate solution of energy bottleneck is the key to healthy, rapid and sustainable development. China's gross amount of hydraulic resource ranks first in the world; however, because of low level of development, hydraulic resource has a broad development prospect. Now, China's hydropower development is in its peak period. By the end of 2004, the gross installed hydropower capacity of China broke through 100 million kW. From there, it has remained in the top slot worldwide. The vigorous development of hydropower is necessary because of the energy shortage and environmental pollution in China in order to attain sustainable development of China's economy. Abundant hydraulic resource, huge market demands, the strategy of western development and the favorable environment of economic development provide hydropower construction with unprecedented advantages and opportunities. Chins hydropower development aims at an installed hydropower capacity of up to 194 million kW by 2010, accounting for 23.1% of the gross installed power capacity and 35% of hydropower resource. Finally, we present the general condition of Three Gorges project as well as the new mode of hydropower development of Three Gorges Project Corporation, i.e., cascade development.
This paper will discuss the benefits and needs for renewable energy technology transfer to developing countries. It will also assess and discuss the different models or channels of renewable energy technology transfer for successful dissenination in developing countries.
The Mekong River is a critical shared resource between China and five Southeast Asian countries, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Over 80 million people depend on the river for their livelihoods, but recent large-scale resource development, especially in the form of hydropower development, pose serious problems within the river basin. This paper focuses on China's plans for hydropower development on its portion of the upper Mekong basin (Lancang Jiang) and their ecological, political and economic implications for Southeast Asian riparians. It shows that the economic imperative prevails among all riparian states, and that China and other countries tend to confine their cooperation to infrastructural development rather to consultation or management of potential adverse transboundary impacts of upstream development. However, the paper argues that 'securitising' this upstream-downstream problem is not the answer; rather, the way forward must involve first reconceptualising regional security in terms of comprehensive, human and economic security.
Large dams represent a whole complex of social, economic and ecological processes, perhaps more than any other large infrastructure project. Today, countries with rapidly developing economies are constructing new dams to provide energy and flood control to growing populations in riparian and distant urban communities. If the system is lacking institutional capacity to absorb these physical and institutional changes there is potential for conflict, thereby threatening human security. In this paper, we propose analyzing sustainability (political, socioeconomic, and ecological) in terms of resilience versus vulnerability, framed within the spatial abstraction of a powershed. The powershed framework facilitates multi-scalar and transboundary analysis while remaining focused on the questions of resilience and vulnerability relating to hydropower dams.
In line with China's "going out" strategy, China's dam industry has in recent years significantly expanded its involvement in overseas markets. The Chinese Export-Import Bank and other Chinese financial institutions, state-owned enterprises, and private firms are now involved in at least 93 major dam projects overseas. The Chinese government sees the new global role played by China's dam industry as a "win-win" situation for China and host countries involved. But evidence from project sites such as the Merowe Dam in Sudan demonstrates that these dams have unrecognized social and environmental costs for host communities. Chinese dam builders have yet to adopt internationally accepted social and environmental standards for large infrastructure development that can assure these costs are adequately taken into account. But the Chinese government is becoming increasingly aware of the challenge and the necessity of promoting environmentally and socially sound investments overseas.
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