What Works in Corrections. Reducing the Criminal Activities of Offenders and Deliquents
Abstract
What Works in Corrections, first published in 2006, examines the impact of correctional interventions, management policies, treatment and rehabilitation programs on the recidivism of offenders and delinquents. The book reviews different strategies for reducing recidivism and describes how the evidence for effectiveness is assessed. Thousands of studies were examined in order to identify those of sufficient scientific rigor to enable conclusions to be drawn about the impact of various interventions, policies and programs on recidivism. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were performed to further examine these results. This book assesses the relative effectiveness of rehabilitation programs (e.g., education, life skills, employment, cognitive behavioral), treatment for different types of offenders (e.g. sex offenders, batterers, juveniles), management and treatment of drug-involved offenders (e.g., drug courts, therapeutic communities, outpatient drug treatment) and punishment, control and surveillance interventions (boot camps, intensive supervision, electronic monitoring). Through her extensive research, MacKenzie illustrates which of these programs are most effective and why. © Doris Layton MacKenzie 2006 and Cambridge University Press, 2009.
... Despite restricted access to prison programming, research consistently shows the benefits of participating in programs offered in prison (Aos & Drake, 2013;Batiuk et al., 2005;Byrne, 2020;Chappell, 2004;Davis et al., 2013;Duwe, 2017;Duwe & Clark, 2014;MacKenzie, 2006;Wilson et al., 2000). These benefits do not simply correspond to post-release outcomes like recidivism. ...
... Prison programs can also create safer prison environments for both incarcerated individuals and correctional staff by developing more prosocial relationships (Pompoco et al., 2017) and reducing overall levels of strain (Blevins et al., 2010). Additionally, formerly incarcerated individuals who participated in prison programming often have significantly lower chances of recidivism (Aos et al., 2006;Davis et al., 2013;MacKenzie, 2006;Tong & Farrington, 2006;Walters, 2005;Wilson et al., 2000) as well as other positive outcomes post-release (Andrews et al., 1990;Cullen, 2013;Golden et al., 2006;Lipsey, 2019;Lipsey et al., 2007;Lowenkamp et al., 2009;Sperber et al., 2013). ...
... Much of the research on prison programming reveals that participation in programs improves institutional behavior and reduces the likelihood of returning to prison post-release (Aos et al., 2006;Davis et al. 2013;MacKenzie, 2006;Courtney, 2019;Lahm, 2009). However, the results from prior research -the benefits of prison programming -may not be the same for older, life-sentenced incarcerated individuals as this group is often ineligible to participate in prison programs. ...
... Research indicates that education can influence a lower rate of recidivism (Hull et al., 2000;MacKenzie, 2006;Steurer, Smith, 2003;Vacca, 2004). In this paper, we are particularly interested in education focused on the development of socio-emotional competencies, because it has been shown that the program of socio-emotional education is the most effective in terms of reducing the criminal behavior and reintegration of inmates (Casado, Ruano, 2018;Redondo, Mangot, 2017). ...
... These studies speak in favor of planning and developing educational programs aimed at the overall development of the personality, which would represent the core of an adequate approach to resocialization and reintegration of inmates. Research shows that education can reduce recidivism (Hull et al., 2000;MacKenzie, 2006;Steurer, Smith, 2003;Vacca, 2004). This is accomplished by increasing cognitive skills that change behavior and socialization towards a crime-free life (Bozos, Hausman 2004). ...
Imprisonment is a means of depriving a person of his freedom due to behavior that has been assessed as socially harmful and dangerous. The prison sentence should re-educate the inmate so that he no longer behaves in a way that endangers society. However, the prison environment itself has a negative impact on inmates, and education is proposed as a way of influencing inmates to increase the likelihood of positive behavior. Of the various forms of education, the one focused on the development of socio-emotional competencies is particularly effective. Taking into account the theoretical models and research results of the education of inmates, especially socio-emotional education in this work, we will provide a framework for the implementation of socio-emotional education programs in prison.
... Indeed, a large body of research has consistently shown that CBIs are effective at reducing recidivism, regardless of the curriculum. This research also suggests that not only are CBIs effective when implemented with fidelity, but they are one of the most successful treatment options for system-impacted individuals (see, e.g., Andrews & Bonta, 2010;Andrews et al., 1990;Dowden & Andrews, 2000;Landenberger & Lipsey, 2005;Lipsey & Cullen, 2007;MacKenzie, 2006;Pearson et al., 2002). ...
... In fact, results from the post hoc per-protocol analyses suggest that if the program had been implemented with fidelity, wherein participants engaged in more programmatic hours, the impacts of the program on recidivism reduction could have been greater realized. Indeed, one of the most consistent findings in correctional treatment research is the effectiveness of CBI at reducing recidivism (Andrews & Bonta, 2010;Andrews et al., 1990;Dowden & Andrews, 2000;Landenberger & Lipsey, 2005;Lipsey & Cullen, 2007;MacKenzie, 2006;Pearson et al., 2002). Valentine & Redcross (2015) also speak to the importance of CBI in their evaluation of two TEPs. ...
Objectives
This study examines the effectiveness of a transitional employment program (TEP)—delivered with cognitive behavioral interventions (CBIs)—at improving employment and recidivism outcomes among residents returning to Palm Beach County, Florida, from incarceration.
Methods
A randomized controlled trial (N = 175) with an intent-to-treat approach was used to examine the effects of the TEP on employment and recidivism outcomes. Bivariate statistics examined treatment group status on the dependent variables. Separate logistic regressions models then examined the effects of programmatic hours and employment on recidivism outcomes.
Results
Results suggest that participation in the TEP increased employment but did not reduce recidivism. Logistic regression results, however, showed that obtaining employment significantly reduced the odds of recidivating.
Conclusion
Participation in the TEP itself did not reduce recidivism; however, certain programmatic aspects appear to be worthy of consideration moving forward, including improving implementation fidelity, increasing CBI buy-in, and assisting formerly incarcerated people obtain employment.
... Her findings reveal that sentencing reform can have a substantial impact on crime rates, emphasizing the potential of policy changes in shaping criminal behavior. MacKenzie (2006) explores the impact of rehabilitation programs on crime, demonstrating that such programs can effectively reduce recidivism and prevent future crimes. Similarly, Umbreit et al. (2007) finds that restorative justice approaches can be effective in reducing recidivism and fostering community healing. ...
Este estudio investiga los patrones espaciales del crimen en Ecuador y sus factores asociados, enfatizando el rol del sistema judicial. Utilizando datos de 218 cantones entre 2015 y 2021, se realiza un análisis exploratorio de datos espaciales y consecuentemente se estiman modelos econométricos espaciales con datos de sección transversal y panel de datos. Nuestro análisis reveló clústeres espaciales tanto de altas tasas de criminalidad como de bajas tasas de criminalidad, así como áreas aisladas (islas de crimen) de criminalidad y áreas aisladas de seguridad (islas de no crimen). Los hallazgos ofrecen una visión detallada de la situación del crimen en Ecuador y enfatizan en la importancia de los elementos geográficos en la formulación de medidas efectivas de prevención del crimen. La investigación también identificó cambios en la dinámica del crimen a lo largo del tiempo, e indica que los cantones que experimentan típicamente tasas bajas de criminalidad pueden pasar a ser áreas de mayor criminalidad, lo que sugiere un efecto de contagio dentro de los clústeres espaciales. El estudio subraya, además, la influencia del sistema judicial en la prevalencia del crimen, donde las ineficiencias sistémicas como el atraso en los casos y una alta proporción de reclusos sin sentencia se asocian con el aumento del crimen. Para los hacedores de políticas públicas, estos resultados subrayan la necesidad de adaptar las intervenciones a los contextos y dinámicas específicas de cada región, considerando tanto las condiciones locales como el entorno delictivo que lo rodea.
... Indeed, research indicates that drug treatments can be effective (Belenko et al., 2005;Boyum et al., 2011); several meta-analyses report average declines in re-offending ranging between 10% and 40% among rehabilitating offenders (Cullen & Jonson, 2011;Lipsey, 2009;Lipsey & Cullen, 2007). Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which focuses on altering behaviors linked to offending, is particularly effective in drug treatment (Lipsey, 2009), and more broadly, treatments incorporating CBT or punitive and reward measures can decrease drug misuse (Mackenzie, 2006;Sherman et al., 1997). ...
Attrition from drug treatment programs is a ubiquitous concern, but less is known about effective strategies to assist people with an addiction in arriving at the initial intake meeting. This study investigates whether text message reminders sent to drug-positive arrestees to participate in mandated drug treatment appointments increase attendance rates. We conducted a randomized controlled trial in London, and participants were randomly assigned to either a treatment group ( n = 403) receiving a text message reminder or a control group ( n = 410) receiving no text message. Participants were arrestees with a verified mobile phone number who tested positive for Class A drugs at intake across 25 custody suites and were scheduled for a drug treatment assessment at one of London’s 28 treatment facilities. The primary outcome was the attendance rate at drug treatment centers, which was analyzed using an ordinary least squares regression model. Results suggest that nudges have the potential to increase attendance at drug treatment centers among drug-positive arrestees. Although we have no additional outcome variables, the intervention shows promise as a cost-effective strategy for enhancing compliance with mandated rehabilitations. Future research should explore this intervention’s broader implications and effectiveness across diverse and more extensive samples.
... Despite the great importance attributed to prisoners' integration into the labour market (Newton et al. 2018;Sampson and Laub 1997;Uggen 1999;Uggen and Staff 2001;Visher et al. 2005;Weisburd et al. 2017;Wilson 1997;Wilson et al. 2000), studies reveal a large number of barriers and restrictions, impeding the prisoner population's integration into the labour market following their release (Holzer et al. 2003;MacKenzie 2006;Newton et al. 2018;Shoham and Peled-Laskov 2020). For instance, in many countries, offenders convicted of criminal offences have been prohibited by law from assuming government or public positions (Bloom 2006;Holzer et al. 2003;Pager 2003). ...
In the quest for effective prisoner rehabilitation, while there is existing literature that predominantly emphasizes recidivism rates, it is important to recognize that this singular focus may sometimes overshadow the broader dimensions crucial for successful societal reintegration. This study, therefore, investigates the multifaceted outcomes of an employment training programme offered by the Israel Prison Service. Employing propensity score matching, we compared outcomes between programme participants and non-participants. Our analysis encompassed recidivism rates, employment stability, income levels, tax-paying behaviour and welfare service engagement. While recidivism rates remained largely unaffected, our findings unveiled promising results in other domains. Programme participants exhibited enhanced employment stability, realized higher incomes, demonstrated increased engagement in tax-paying and accessed welfare services more frequently. This study underscores the need for a comprehensive approach to assessing rehabilitation effectiveness, extending beyond the singular metric of recidivism. While acknowledging certain limitations, our research highlights that employment training programmes may not have a direct impact on recidivism but can significantly contribute to labour market reintegration and promote more productive and socially responsible behaviours. It advocates further exploring diverse outcome measures to develop holistic rehabilitation strategies.
... They also found that less educated offenders are more likely to reoffend even if they participated in programs while in custody . Also, several meta-analyses reported that correctional education resulted in the reduced likelihood of recidivism (Aos et al., 2007;Davis et al., 2014;MacKenzie, 2006;Wilson et al., 2000). The magnitude of effects ranges from 7% to 43% recidivism reduction, depending on the definition of recidivism and the rigor of study designs. ...
Research consistently demonstrates the benefits associated with the provision of education in correctional facilities. These examinations typically focus on prison-based education, enhanced employment opportunities, and recidivism reduction. There is considerably less attention afforded to jail-based education and other benefits associated with institutional education opportunities. This study focuses on a criminal justice college course based on the Inside-Out Prison Exchange Model taught at the Washoe County (Nevada) Detention Center in the spring 2016 semester. This course brought together outside students (i.e., college students) and inside students (i.e., incarcerated men) for a semester-long course held once per week in the jail. The results highlight the transformative aspects of a single course that may generate the foundation for functional changes among people who are incarcerated and the value of experiential education for college students.
... Access to learning aids and resources for inmates in vocational educational and training programmes in correctional facilities remain critical aspect of rehabilitation and reintegration efforts within the criminal justice system. Providing educational opportunities to incarcerated individuals aims to reduce recidivism, improve life skills, and enhance the overall well-being of prisoners (MacKenzie, 2006;Khoabane, 2018). Many correctional facilities offer educational programmes, including basic literacy, high school diploma/ general educational eevelopment programmes, and Technical and Vocational Education and training. ...
This research study aims to improve access to learning aids and resources for inmates in Technical, Vocational Education and Training (TVET) within the confines of the Windhoek Correctional Facility, aiming to facilitate the rehabilitation and successful reintegration of incarcerated individuals, as well as suggest possible recommendations to achieve enhanced access to learning Aids and Resources at correctional facilities in Namibia. The study used a qualitative-method approach, including case study, interviews, and observations, to evaluate the facility's existing learning environments and assess the sufficiency and accessibility of resources. It also explores the impact of restricted access on inmates' educational and personal growth. The research seeks inspiration from successful models in other correctional facilities and identifies innovative approaches, such as technology integration, partnerships with educational institutions, and community involvement. The findings will inform policy recommendations and practical interventions.
... In addition, several states have passed laws prioritizing or mandating EBPs, which include providing incentives for using them, requiring agencies to inventory and categorize existing programs, and prohibiting funding ineffective programs (Hsieh et al., 2016;Ingel et al., 2021;Pew-MacArthur Results First Initiative, 2015. The importance of EBP has been established and EBP will guide future criminal justice policy and practices (Bogue et al., 2004;Engel et al., 2022;MacKenzie, 2006;Miller, 2012;Weisburd et al., 2023), but challenges remain within criminal justice agencies with adopting the philosophy of EBP and moving forward with routine program implementation. ...
Immense pressure is being put on criminal justice agencies to adopt and implement evidence-based practices (EBP). Empirical evidence highlights the need for leadership support to make agencies more evidence-based. The current study is an empirical examination of how criminal justice leaders understand EBP and its correlates or predictors in the domains of agency characteristics, individual characteristics, and openness to research partnerships. Data were collected through a statewide survey of police chiefs and chief probation/parole officers in Pennsylvania. Using a multinomial logistic regression model and a binary logistic regression model, correlates and predictors of familiarity and accuracy with EBP were identified. About 32% had never heard of EBP, 27% were familiar with it but did not define it correctly, and 41% held some knowledge of it. Results showed that EBP training may have introduced EBPs to leaders, but it failed to teach them what EBP actually is, and their lack of knowledge of EBP may be contributing to their lack of participation in research partnerships. By providing recommendations based on findings related to EBP training and research partnerships, the current research contributes to the ongoing discussion regarding challenges associated with EBP implementation and acceptance of EBPs among criminal justice practitioners.
... Project HOPE might have remained a local reform had it not been evaluated by Angela Hawken and the late Mark Kleiman. In an emerging era of evidence-based corrections (Cullen & Gendreau, 2001;MacKenzie, 2006), showing that an intervention "worked" boosted its appeal. Their design involved a quasi-experimental "pilot program among high-risk probationers" which was expanded to a "randomized controlled trial among general-population probationers." ...
Research Summary
Originated nearly two decades ago in Hawaii by Judge Steven Alm, a community supervision‐court model known as “Project HOPE” proposed to reduce probation failure by responding to violations with immediate but short jail terms. Despite negative evidence from Lattimore and colleagues’ 2016 Demonstration Field Experiment (DFE) across four locations, advocates continued to trumpet programs based on Project HOPE's core principles of swift, certain, and fair (SCF) sanctions, arguing that these deterrence‐oriented interventions—now known under the acronym SCF programs–reduce recidivism. To assess this claim, a meta‐analysis was conducted of 18 studies reporting on 24 separate evaluations of programs falling under the Project HOPE/SCF umbrella. The analysis revealed that the intervention had a statistically significant but substantively small impact on recidivism (the main overall effect = −.058). Moderator analyses revealed weak to null findings across variations in methodological and HOPE/SCF program characteristics.
Policy Implications
At present, evaluation evidence is weak and not robust enough to support the continued government funding and implementation of SCF programs in their current form on grounds of recidivism reduction. Such deterrence‐oriented programs may be based on a flawed theory of recidivism that fails to identify criminogenic risk factors for change. SCF programs might prove more effective if integrated with treatment modalities, though this remains to be demonstrated. More broadly, a range of community supervision approaches now exist that emphasize building relationships with individuals under supervision and guiding their prosocial development. These alternatives might offer a more promising avenue for reform than current programs based on SCF principles.
This paper explores the classic questions of whether social reintegration programs are successful and, if so, which correctional program yields better results. We seek to respond to these questions with information gathered from the most recent national incarcerated population survey in Mexico, based on the imprisoned persons’ perspectives regarding their expectations for social reintegration and prison reentry. The empirical strategy consisted of two steps: identifying the characteristics of programs considered useful for social reintegration and exploring the association between perceptions of these tools and expectations for prison reentry. A propensity score matching analysis and the estimation of two classification methods were implemented, while an instrumental variables analysis was used for the latter. Results show that incarcerated persons perceive those programs aimed at providing them with work skills and furthering their education to be more helpful. These are also associated with a decreased expectation of prison reentry.
Thai correctional institutions face budget constraints that hinder facility improvements. This study proposes a decentralized management approach using in-kind donations rather than central funding. The strategy includes partnering with manufacturers for rejected but usable materials and reusing excess construction materials from nearby projects. Benefits include tax breaks, lower disposal costs, improved prison facilities, inmates’ skill development, and environmental sustainability. A case study at the Thonburi Detention Center showed significant improvements at lower costs. Future research involves refining the approach with service design principles, a digital exchange platform, and introducing environmental credits to enhance participation and impact.
The new normal. This catchphrase of our times is on the cover of magazines and newspapers, and on the lips of newscasters and pundits across the world. Whether in response to disruptions related to unexpected pandemics, racial injustice, social and economic inequality, rising nationalism and threats to globalization, evolutions and revolutions in technology, enduring problems of climate change, or dislocations, unrest, and unimaginable aftereffects of continuing social and political conflicts, the new normal reflects a modified state. Through processes of adaptation and acceptance, the unconventional becomes the everyday.
The extremeness and urgency of current environments, filled with multiple significant disruptions, suggests the need for fundamentally new approaches for understanding the role of organizations and the tasks of managing. Indeed, the very nature of the new normal implies that new realities require the adoption of new theories, assumptions, norms, practices, and methods to understand both the relentless stream of disruptions facing humanity and ways to cope with them.
Organizations and their members, as powerful social actors, will play a critical role in shaping the new normal. As social, health, economic, and environmental disruptions mount, the role of organizations is both more vital and more in question than ever. Even though organizations and their members are capable of positive impact, their actual impact is increasingly questioned as reflected by a dramatic decline in the social approval of business organizations and institutions more generally (Bhattacharjee & Dana, 2017; Gioia, 2003; King, Felin & Whetten, 2010). Doubt about the positive impact and role of organizations has led many to emphasize the challenges inherent in our current age of disruption, but others have highlighted possible opportunities, namely: that our new normal can be better than our old normal (Brammer, Branicki, & Linnenluecke, 2023).
In calling for papers for this Academy of Management Review Special Topic Forum (STF), we were particularly interested in scholarship that can help organizations and their members create and nurture such a new normal. As Simon (1981: ix) notes, theorizing in management is fundamentally concerned “not with how things are but how they might be.” Because our theories can become self-fulfilling (Gergen, 1973; Ferraro, Pfeffer, & Sutton, 2005; Marti & Gond, 2018; Merton, 1948), organizational and management scholars have the opportunity—through our theorizing—to envision a new normal that emphasizes the ways in which organizations can have a positive impact on society and the broader environment. Rather than being constrained by existing assumptions and current realities about people, work, organizations, and social systems, we can theorize about what they might be or might become, as well as the conditions under which they might emerge (Bartunek, 2020). Such theory can help to reveal new possibilities, not only in terms of how to deal with disruptions, but also in terms of how to create new positive and broadly desirable realities (Gümüsay & Reinecke, 2024).
This essay investigates the impact of inmates’ work and educational programs on recidivism rates over nearly five years for prisoners released from Santa Catarina prisons. Three methods were used to analyze recidivism and to control for self-selection bias and non-observable heterogeneity: propensity score matching, Cox, and frailty models. The frailty model showed that participation in work and educational programs reduced the odds of recidivism by 14% and 32%, respectively. This study suggests that programs are being carried out in Santa Catarina that may effectively impact prisoners’ rehabilitation.
This study explores the real-world experiences of probationers who take part in Ozamiz City community programs. The study uses a qualitative approach to investigate the viewpoints, difficulties, and results that probationers experience when participating in community-based projects. The study uses thematic analysis to identify and investigate major themes that surface from the narratives of probationers, providing insight into how they interact with programs for rehabilitation, reintegrate into society, and perceive support systems. The following are the generated themes: (1) Personal Growth and Self-Discipline, (2) Community Integration and Belonging, (3) Guidance and Support from Probation Officers, and (4) Skills Development and Employment Readiness. In this study, the researcher analyzed the data using the narrative and phenomenology methods of Moustakas for the gathering of information through open-ended and conversational communication. The research is to contribute to the creation of more responsive and effective interventions that are suited to the requirements and realities of probationers in Ozamiz City by clarifying these lived experiences.
The wide expansion of community supervision has resulted in large-scale reliance on probation officers to facilitate change among both youth and adults. This is especially true for supervising high-risk populations, such as gang-involved individuals. To understand how probation officers balance the dual goals of public safety and rehabilitation, in-depth interviews with 12 youth and adult officers in Oregon were conducted. Results revealed that both groups had a shared understanding of gang pathways and desistance barriers. However, they held differing views on the factors that drive success and compliance. Youth officers utilize therapeutic philosophies and emphasize restoration through community resources to help youth desist from gang activity. Adult officers endorse law enforcement philosophies, emphasize accountability and personal choices, and center punitive strategies when using interagency collaboration. This study contributes to the literature on role perceptions and decision-making, and suggests that continuity of care in supervision philosophies can yield more successful outcomes for high-risk youth and adults.
Using an environmental corrections and opportunity-reduction framework, this study examined whether offender relapse, new crimes and revocation outcomes would improve if supervision officers utilized personality instrument results during individual meetings. Adult male and female offenders on federal supervised release (245 in the treatment group and 271 in the comparison group) were tracked for a minimum of 2 years. Revocation rates for the treatment/PRINT group were significantly lower than the comparison group. Results suggested that opportunity reduction strategies from the PRINT instrument may have contributed to lower revocation rates. However, the techniques learned may not have been strong enough to offset the strong habitual and reactionary pull of relapse, or complications caused by involvement in a new crime.
Sexual offending is a public concern and results in lasting detrimental effects. Despite evidence demonstrating the impact of belief systems on sexual offending behaviors, research exploring family belief systems among individuals who perpetrate sexual offenses is limited. This qualitative study explored the lived experiences of 10 cisgender men in outpatient treatment for sexual offending. Following Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), findings indicated a broad range of early experiences for men who have sexually offended. The rich findings that emerged from the lived experiences of the participants are presented in relation to current knowledge, and practice implications are shared.
The pursuit of fairness and harmony between the realization of rights and duties is a cornerstone of human progress. Restorative justice case resolution represents an endeavor to introduce a non-punitive procedure into Indonesia's criminal justice system as part of its ongoing effort to modernize its legal framework. Restorative justice focuses on healing criminal behavior's harm and shattered relationships. This study examined the feasibility of implementing restorative justice aspects into a national criminal justice system, gaining inspiration from the Toba Batak Indigenous People. The methodology was socio-legal. Dalihan Natolu is recognized as an alternative conflict settlement method for Toba Batak. The traditional leader mediates in this conflict resolution. By Batak customary law, the imposition of sanctions is decided by customary judges or kings. Dalihan Natolu then tells the culprit not to repeat his behavior. Dalihan Natolu involves offenders, victims, families of offenders and victims, and other parties in seeking a fair settlement that emphasizes repair above retribution. This helps Dalihan Natolu solve criminal concerns. In indigenous cultures, customary institutions convene the parties engaged in a crime to provide counsel and find solutions that do not harm or profit only one side. Justice is served, and the victim is not harmed.
Despite their significance in criminal legal processing, American jails have a reputation for physical and operational deficiencies, with few aspirations beyond mere custody. To examine the possibilities for United States (U.S.) jails’ progress, we assess the priorities of U.S. jail leaders, their expectations about achieving reforms, and perceived obstacles regarding change. Our analysis showed that while jail command staff embrace custody, they also endorse social service functions of jails, favor facilities that are safe and clean, support a professional workforce, accept other progressive features of jails, and reject punishment and brutality. They recognize impediments to progress, but are optimistic about potential improvements.
Various approaches have been carried out by the Malaysian Prisons Department as an institution specifically responsible for the rehabilitation of prisoners to assist in rebuilding themselves so that they can play a role in society again whether as husband, wife, father, mother, child, employee and others. Among the approaches that have been introduced by the Malaysian Prisons Department is the Parole System which plays an important role in ensuring that prisoners who are released on parole can return to society as a useful person. The main objective of this research is to identify the key elements to the effectiveness of the implementation of the Parole System in dealing with the phenomenon of recidivism among Parolees (ODP). This research is a qualitative research that uses a case study approach through in-depth interviews. This research was conducted in two Terengganu District Parole Offices, namely the Kuala Terengganu District Parole Office and the Hulu Terengganu District Parole Office. This research involved in-depth interviews with 13 parolees (ODP) as research respondents. Sample selection was done through purposive sampling techniques and the data obtained was analyzed using thematic analysis. The research results found that there are 4 main elements to the effectiveness of the implementation of the Parole System in dealing with the phenomenon of recidivism among OPDs, namely, the implementation of regular urine tests, monitoring, moral support from parole officers and drug prevention education programs. Keywords: Elements of Effectiveness; Parole System; Recidivism Phenomenon; Paroled Persons Abstrak: Pelbagai pendekatan telah dilakukan oleh Jabatan Penjara Malaysia sebagai institusi bertanggungjawab secara khusus dalam pemulihan banduan untuk membantu dalam membina kembali diri mereka agar dapat berperanan semula dalam masyarakat sama ada sebagai suami, isteri, ayah, ibu, anak, pekerja dan lain-lain. Antara pendekatan yang telah diperkenalkan oleh pihak Jabatan Penjara Malaysia iaitu Sistem Parol yang memainkan peranan penting dalam memastikan banduan yang dibebaskan secara parol dapat kembali ke pangkuan masyarakat sebagai seseorang yang berguna. Objektif utama penyelidikan ini adalah mengenal pasti elemen utama kepada keberkesanan perlaksanaan Sistem Parol dalam menangani fenomena residivisme dalam kalangan Orang yang DiParol (ODP). Penyelidikan ini merupakan penyelidikan kualitatif yang menggunakan pendekatan kajian kes melalui kaedah temu bual mendalam. Penyelidikan ini telah dijalankan di dua buah Pejabat Parol Daerah Negeri Terengganu iaitu Pejabat Parol Daerah Kuala Terengganu dan Pejabat Parol Daerah Hulu Terengganu. Penyelidikan ini melibatkan temu bual mendalam terhadap 13 orang yang diparol (ODP) sebagai responden penyelidikan. Pemilihan sampel dilakukan melalui teknik persampelan bertujuan dan data yang diperolehi telah dianalisis menggunakan analisis tematik. Hasil penyelidikan mendapati bahawa terdapat 4 elemen utama kepada keberkesanan perlaksanaan Sistem Parol dalam menangani fenomena residivisme dalam kalangan OPD iaitu, perlaksanaan ujian air kencing secara berkala, pemantauan, sokongan moral dari pegawai parol dan program pendidikan pencegahan dadah. Kata kunci: Elemen Keberkesanan; Sistem Parol; Fenomena Residivisme; Orang yang DiParol
Educational and vocational programs that provide inmates with skills training and job readiness classes are essential policies that can increase post‐release employment opportunities, promote successful re‐entry, and reduce recidivism. However, challenges such as state and federal cuts to vocational training for inmates, employment restrictions such as criminal background checks, and the elimination of Pell Grants for prisoners, have impacted the effectiveness of educational and vocational correctional programs in the United States. While the need for more comprehensive and empirical research is being increasingly recognized, additional efforts need to be made in order to significantly reduce the rate of recidivism among ex‐inmates. This entry provides an in‐depth analysis of the evolution of the policy's adoption, the policy's explicit and implicit rationale, constitutional challenges to the policy, and evidence‐based research on these programs.
Intermediate sanctions are forms of criminal punishment that are less restrictive than total confinement in prisons and jails, but more intensive and focused than probation. There are many types currently in use. Intermediate sanctions are premised on the idea that some high‐risk offenders can be appropriately dealt with in the community. Little empirical evidence exists in support of the effectiveness of intermediate sanction programs. Scholars point to the lack of adequate funding, staffing, and inappropriate application of intermediate sanctions as primary reasons for this ineffectiveness.
Careful reading of the literature on the psychology of criminal conduct and of prior reviews of studies of treatment effects suggests that neither criminal sanctioning without provision of rehabilitative service nor servicing without reference to clinical principles of rehabilitation will succeed in reducing recidivism. What works, in our view, is the delivery of appropriate correctional service, and appropriate service reflects three psychological principles: (1) delivery of service to higher risk cases, (2) targeting of criminogenic needs, and (3) use of styles and modes of treatment (e.g., cognitive and behavioral) that are matched with client need and learning styles. These principles were applied to studies of juvenile and adult correctional treatment, which yielded 154 phi coefficients that summarized the magnitude and direction of the impact of treatment on recidivism. The effect of appropriate correctional service (mean phi = .30) was significantly (p
In 1989, Wisconsin funded Treatment Alternative Programs (TAP), based on the Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime (TASC) model, to provide treatment alternatives in lieu of imprisonment for substance-abusing offenders. TAP's goal is to break the offender's drug/crime cycle, using a case management model. Follow-up studies assessed TAP participant recidivism over an 18-month period. Client recidivism information since admission to TAP was obtained from numerous public sources, including probation/parole and court records. Results strongly suggest that offenders completing TAP are significantly less likely to recidivate than offenders not completing the program. Cost analyses suggest TAP can be more cost-effective than incarceration.
Research on the use of incapacitation strategies to reduce crime has increased rapidly in the last decade. Estimates of the crime reduction potential are numerous and variable, reflecting different assumptions by researchers. This paper reviews and synthesizes studies of collective and selective incapacitation. Sentencing practices in the 1970s and early 1980s prevented an estimated 10 to 30 percent of potential crimes through collective incapacitation strategies. Greater use of incarceration, such as through mandatory minimum sentences, would prevent additional crimes, but prison populations would increase substantially. Selective incapacitation strategies target a small group of convicted offenders, those who are predicted to commit serious crimes at high rates, for incarceration. These high-rate serious offenders, however, are difficult to identify accurately with information currently available in official criminal history records. Preliminary research, assuming moderate accuracy, suggests that selective incapacitation may prevent some crimes, such as 5 to 10 percent of robberies by adults, but increases in prison populations would result. The future of selective incapacitation is discussed in light of current research and knowledge about serious criminal activity.
A sample of 108 rapists determined to be sexually dangerous and committed to a facility designed for the treatment of sexual offenders were classified according to a taxonomic system into one of four types—compensatory, exploitative, displaced anger, or sadistic. These types were compared on selected, theoretically relevant measures of developmental antecedents and adult adaptation drawn from a careful review of each patient's clinical file. Although some differences among types emerged that corroborated expectations, other results directly disconfirmed speculations in the clinical literature. These results indicate that the variables comprising this taxonomic system tap important distinctions for this population, and when combined with the results of other studies, they provide an empirical base for revising and restructuring the system.
Analyzing the natural histories of two samples of boys that differ dramatically in childhood delinquency, we test a model of crime and deviance over the life course. The first hypothesis is that childhood antisocial behavior predicts problems in adult development across a wide variety of dimensions. Second, we argue that social bonds in adulthood--to work and family--explain changes in crime and deviance over the life span. The longitudinal data were reconstructed from the Gluecks' classic study of delinquent and non-delinquent males from childhood to age 32. Childhood delinquency is linked to adult crime, alcohol abuse, general deviance, economic dependency, educational failure, unemployment, divorce, and even charges in the military. Despite this continuity, job stability and strong marital attachment in adulthood inhibit adult criminal and deviant behavior. The results support a model of informal social control that recognizes both stability and change in antisocial behavior over the life course.
Some probation departments have established specialized drug supervision units; others use community-based drug treatment programs. Which is the best for managing high-risk probationers with serious drug problems? Authors Gregory P. Falkin, Shiela Strauss, and Timothy Bohen address the importance of matching offenders with the right type of treatment and present findings from an evaluation of the New York City Department of Probation's drug treatment initiative.
This paper describes briefly the results of an evaluation of one intensive supervision project in the north of England which was targeted at 'high tariff' young offenders. It discusses the diversion effect of the project and offers some assessment of the changes introduced by the Criminal Justice Act 1991 on this particular sentencing option. The main body of the paper reports the findings of a follow-up reconviction study of those young offenders who attended the Edge during its first 12 months of operation and compares their recorded reoffending with two samples from this age group who received custodial sentences for broadly similar offences. Finally, the possible implications of this study for the continued utility of intensive probation schemes is discussed in the wider contexts of penal polity and social justice. © 1995 The Institute for the Study and Treatment of Delinquency.
There is a prediction implicit in any discussion of age structure and crime. It is that the generation that made the crime wave can break it, too. Landon Y. Jones, Great Expectations: America and the Baby Boom Generation adult homicide rates have fallen continuously for over twenty years. Although it has not gone completely unnoticed, the decline in adult homicide has not figured prominently in recent scholarly attention devoted to violent-crime trends in the United States, which has been dominated by the issue of youth violence. The result is that little is known about patterns of adult violence – a notable exception being domestic or “intimate partner” violence – and we have neither the theory nor requisite research for understanding the decline in adult homicide, including the drop in intimate partner killings. That would not be a big problem for homicide research if adults contributed little to the overall homicide rate. Yet persons 25 years old or older make up over 60 percent of all homicide victims and nearly one-half of the offenders. Moreover, with the aging of the baby boomers, adults are not only the largest but also the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1996a, p. 24, Table 23). An accurate, comprehensive, and policy-relevant portrayal of the recent violence – the goal of this volume – must, therefore, include a description of the patterns among adults, and should offer some assessment of alternative explanations for the two-decade-long decline in adult homicide. © Cambridge University Press 2000, 2006 and Cambridge University Press, 2010.
In this paper we explicate the treatment process leading to the success of therapeutic communities (TCs) in rehabilitating clients through a case study of CREST, a combined TC and work release program for substance abusers with criminal histories. We develop a comprehensive framework for understanding how and why TCs provide effective treatment to substance- abusing clients. Using data derived from a process analysis of CREST, and substantiated by the literature on TCs, the model considers both structural and programmatic elements and individual level factors. Our framework is unique in that it attempts to show the dynamic processes ongoing among various elements in the setting to produce global changes in clients that are important for living drug free.
Cognitive skills training programs of different types have been used with various populations, including substance abusers, to successfully teach skills so that individuals can function more adaptively. Yet, with a few notable exceptions, there is a paucity of reports in the literature describing the inclusion of a cognitive skills component in correctional substance abuse treatment. Moreover, there is a serious lack of substance abuse treatment programs in many of the nation's jails; this is in spite of the fact that a substantial number of the nation's prisoners have been identified as substance abusers or are incarcerated for drug-related crimes. This article provides a brief overview of cognitive skills interventions, and highlights two correctional treatment programs that incorporated a cognitive component and provided for a controlled outcome evaluation. © 1993, Florida State University College of Criminology and Criminal Justice. All rights reserved.
The debate concerning penal sanctions has been waged primarily between two groups: the 'treaters' and the 'punishers'. The 'treaters' argue that prisons are cruel, expensive and nonrehabilitative. The 'treaters' contend that even if alternative treatments of offenders provide no greater rehabilitative measures than prisons, at least they are less cruel and less costly. While the 'punishers' concede that prisons are usually not rehabilitative, this group emphasizes the fact that incarceration prevents at least those crimes which the offender may have committed but for his imprisonment. The 'punishers' believe that this interruption of offenders' criminal careers will significantly reduce total crime. This article explores the question of whether, and to what extent, incarceration prevents criminal acts which may have occured but for the imprisonment of the offender. It focuses on the removal or incapacitation aspects of imprisonment and its effct on the prevention of crime. The crime suppressing effect that can be attributed to current juvenile incarceration practice is discussed. The primary source of information is the data collected by Wolfgang, Sellin, Figlio, and other University of Pennsylvania researchers in their study of a birth cohort of 9,945 boys in Philadelphia. The study deals with two types of offenses: 'index offenses' (those involving actual personal injury, theft, damage to property, or forcible sexual intercourse) and 'nonindex offenses' (all other acts or conditions legally defined and officially recorded as juvenile offenses. Only index offenses are considered. Comparing incarcerated boys with other index offenders, it was found that although the average number of serious points per index offense is about the same for incarcerated boys (270 points per index offense for nonwhites and 256 for whites) as for all index offenders as a group (265 points per index offense for nonwhites and 243 for whites), the number of index offenses per boy is much higher for the incarcerated group (4.12 for nonwhites, 3.14 for whites) than for index offenders in general. Considering just the removal effect of juvenile incarceration, the 'return' in terms of offenses prevented by an incarceration averages between 0.56 and 0.65 index offenses (these being the figures for whites and nonwhites, respectively), and reaches a maximum of between 0.88 and 0.99 - nearly one index offense prevented at a cost conservatively estimated at $ 1100. Incarceration seems an expensive way of preventing crime, although it may be less expensive than other preventive policies. The result of this analysis have implications for a law enforcement strategy based on the removal effect as far as juvenile offenders are concerned. Even if it were possible to double the numbers of juvenile offenders incarcerated the results occasions that the resulting decrease in nationwide index offenses would be only 1 to 4%. Considering the problems involved, can justifiably benefit is not worth the cost.
Recent research on the functions of imprisonment has begun to provide quantitative, empirical knowledge of its rehabilitative and deterrent effects. Much less is known, however, about the incapacitative effect of imprisonment. While it has long been understood that the physical segregation of prison inmates prevents them from engaging in some criminal activity (as well as much non-criminal activity) during the period of their confinement, quantitative estimates of the size of this effect have been lacking. Leaving aside all deterrent or rehabilitative and counter-rehabilitative effects, it is of some interest to know whether the incapacitative function of imprisonment is large or small.
Informed by the insights of political economy, this study investigates the often-presumed though empirically elusive relationship between societal economic distress and crime. In a social-indicators model, we argue for including both unemployment and inflation rates as measures of the overall health of the economy. We contend that in the face of these destabilizing economic conditions, government engages in dualistic social control policies. On one hand, it attempts to discourage antisocial behavior via placative forms of control and, on the other, it exercises its deterrent capacities. Using annual time-series data for the period 1948-1985, we employ dynamic modeling techniques to examine these influences on annual fluctuations in rates of homicide, robbery, and burglary. The results yield mixed support for the hypothesized relationships, with the posited model gaining potency as we move from explaining more violent to less violent offenses. Finally, these findings hold when we control for changes in two other theoretically important influences: criminal opportunity and the age structure of the population.
This Article analyzes data from the Colorado Springs Spouse Abuse Experiment. In that experiment, suspects apprehended for misdemeanor spouse abuse were assigned at random to one of four treatments: (1) an emergency order of protection for the victim coupled with arrest of the suspect; (2) an emergency order of protection for the victim coupled with immediate crisis counseling for the suspect; (3) an emergency order of protection only; or (4) restoring order at the scene with no emergency order of protection. Outcome measures are taken from official police data and from follow-up interviews with victims. Using Bayesian procedures to take previous experiments into account, the balance of evidence supports a deterrent effect for arrest among "good risk" offenders, who presumably have a lot to lose by being arrested. The balance of evidence is far more equivocal for a "labeling effect" in which an arrest increases the likelihood of new violence.
With the growing disaffection toward customary crime control policies, many citizens and public policy makers have concluded that conventional sanctions have failed to control crime. Instead of continuing to lock up offenders in traditional prison settings, a variety of alternative sanctions have been created. One of the fastest growing of the new approaches has been the correctional boot camp. In 1984, only Georgia and Oklahoma had boot camps, but by 1994 36 states operated such programs. The popularity of boot camps undoubtedly is based on the public's perceived demand for a correctional alternative that offers retribution, deterrence, and rehabilitation.Boot camp programs vary tremendously from state to state, but the strict military regimen is present in all programs. Past research has shown positive attitudinal change in boot camp trainees, and ideally this change should result in reduced recidivism. However, a number of researchers have shown that there are few differences in recidivism rates among boot camp graduates, probationers, and traditionally incarcerated offenders.This research focuses on Oklahoma's first-time offenders sentenced between 1989 and 1991, and an additional group of boot camp inmates surveyed in 1994. The analysis reveals that boot camp graduates recidivated more frequently than either traditionally incarcerated inmates or probationers. The implication is that boot camp programs should be implemented cautiously, and continuously evaluated to determine what elements influence program success.
Recently, the state of North Carolina has supported a randomized experimental project designed to provide intensive supervision services for undisciplined youths (status offenders or youths referred to the courts for runaway, truant, or ungovernable behaviors) placed under the protective supervision of the juvenile courts. As compared to regular procedures for juvenile court protective supervision of status offenders, the Intensive Protective Supervision Project (IPSP) involves more extensive and proactive contact between the court counselor, the status offender, and the status offender's family. The essential idea of the IPSP is that through the intensive supervision and provision of professional services to status offenders it may be possible to decrease the rate of occurrence of additional status offenses and the likelihood that the youths will commit more serious delinquent offenses. Results from a statistical and field-based evalu ation of the IPSP experiment suggest that the project is quite successful in achieving its goals for those undisciplined youths who have not previously been charged with delinquent offenses.
Although previous research has found the disciplinary model of correctional boot camps to be ineffective in reducing recidivism, the impact of a rehabilitative model is still unclear. The current study addresses this issue through an outcome evaluation of Penn-sylvania's Motivational Boot Camp Program, which uses a multidimensional approach to its rehabilitative programming. The authors predict that this program model should be more effective than traditional prison in reducing recidivism and that this effect will be particularly strong for certain high-risk offenders (i.e., those who are young and/or have a prior criminal record). The results from their logistic regression analyses indicate no significant differences in the recidivism of offenders graduating from the boot camp and those released from prison. However, tests for interactions indicate that this program performs better than prison for offenders with a prior record. This particular finding has important policy implications for targeting appropriate offenders for such programs.
The impact of shock incarceration programs on prison crowding in five states was examined using a model to estimate bed space loss or savings. Recidivism rates, duration of imprisonment, dismissal rates, and program capacity were used to estimate the programs' impact if the probabilities that the offenders would have been in prison or on probation were varied. Results indicated that if the goal of a short-term incarceration program is to reduce prison crowding, it must be carefully designed and monitored with this purpose in mind.
Data from the San Diego Navy Experiment are used to illustrate how findings from nonexperimental evaluations of programs designed to treat men who abuse their cohabitant partners may lead to erroneous conclusions.
An evaluation of the first Texas correctional therapeutic community substance abuse program indicated that recidivism was significantly reduced for offenders completing treatment. However, a large number of offenders did not complete treatment and those persons had recidivism rates comparable to those not participating. Rapid expansion of these programs caused problems associated with client selection, program consistency, and retention in treatment. Research showed that the operational “nuts and bolts” were not in place to effectively expand these programs from 5,000 beds to the originally planned 14,000 beds. Based on these findings, the Texas Legislature decided against expansion.
Although interest in the treatment of juvenile sexual offenders has increased significantly in recent years, there are still few programs specifically geared toward these youths and few of the existing programs have been evaluated. This article presents an evaluation of one court-based program. The results show that youths handled in the program fare no better than youths processed through normal, nonoffense specific programming. These results suggest that the growth of interventions has proceeded without adequate knowledge of how to identify at-risk youths, the causes of the behavior, and the most appropriate treatment for juvenile sexual offending.
This article presents the results of a study that examined the 18-month recidivism of juvenile felony offenders who were placed into an intensive supervision program in lieu of commitment to an institution. The study used a quasi-experimental design to compare the outcomes of intensive supervision program (ISP) participants with those of youth who were incarcerated and then released to parole, and with a group of felony offenders who were handled on regular probation. Results show that, although not a panacea, intensive supervision clearly is an effective alternative to incarceration. However, ISP cost-effectiveness is difficult to achieve without large-scale diversion.
Palmer's critique of "What Works?" is a strong defense of what was best in the California tradition of "recidivism only" research; it is also a stubborn refusal to take the step forward from that kind of thinking to the era of "social planning" re search.
The primary reason for the impact of "What Works?" is the extraordinary gap between the claims of success made by proponents of various treatments and the reality revealed by good research.
Palmer bases his critique on grounds of research methods. In doing so, he makes an interpretation error by construing as "studies" the "efforts" Martinson mentions in his conclusion. In fact, "effort" represents an independent variable category; this use of the term does not justify Palmer's statement that Martinson inaccurately described individual studies, whose results had been favorable or partially favorable, as being few and isolated exceptions. The table in which Palmer tabulates 48 per cent of the research studies as having at least partially positive results is meaningless; it includes findings from studies of "interventions" as dissimilar as probation placement and castration. Palmer does not understand the difficulties of summarizing a body of research findings. The problem lies in drawing together often conflicting findings from individual studies which differ in the degree of reliance that can be placed on their conclusions. It is essential to weigh the evi dence and not merely count the studies. The real conclusion of "What Works?" is that the addition of isolated treatment elements to a system in which a given flow of offenders has generated a gross rate of recidivism has very little effect in changing this rate of recidivism.
To continue the search for treatment that will reduce the recidivism rate of the "middle base expectancy" group or that will show differential effects for that group is to become trapped in a dead end. The essence of the new "social plan ning" epoch is a change in the dependent variable from recidivism to the crime rate (combined with cost). The public does not care whether a program will demonstrate that the experimental group shows a lower recidivism rate than a con trol group; rather, it wants to know whether the program re duced the overall crime rate. To ask "which methods work best for which types of offenders and under what conditions or in what types of settings" is to impose the narrowest of questions on the search for knowledge. The economists, too, do not live in Palmer's world of "types" of offenders. To them, recidivism is an aspect o f occupational choice strength ened by the atrophy of skills and opportunity for legitimate work that occurs during a stay in prison.
The aim of future research will be to create the knowledge needed to reduce crime. It must combine the analytical skills of the economist, the jurisprudence of the lawyer, the sociol ogy of the life span, and the analysis of systems. Traditional "evaluation" will play a modest but declining role.
This article applies the technology of psychological classification to explore the effects of personality characteristics on prison adjustments and experiences. Bivariate and multivariate analysis assess the comparative effects of four personality types (committed criminal, neurotic, situational, and character disordered) on official disciplinary infractions, staff ratings of interpersonal behaviors, and self-reports of stress, aggressive behaviors, nonviolent infractions, and victimizations. The effects of other predictors, including age, race, marital status, employment status, prior prison time, prior prison revocations, and sentence length are also considered. Results indicate that inmates who were diagnosed as character disordered and those who had extensive prior prison experiences were more likely than others to have been cited for prison infractions. Young, White inmates and those who had never been revoked during prior sentences were more likely to report victimizing experiences. Inmates most likely to score high on the stress measure were White and neurotic anxious, whereas character-disordered inmates scored atypically low. Finally, older, White, situational inmates were viewed most favorably as staff rated the quality of their interpersonal relationships with other inmates.
The Family Violence Option (FVO) provides exemptions from Temporary Assistance to Needy Families requirements to victims of domestic violence. This article examines the link between domestic violence and welfare and analyzes the FVO using the strengths perspective. This perspective identifies women's strengths and needs and the barriers they must overcome to become self-sufficient.
A treatment group and a nontreatment (control) group were comprised of 145 jail inmates who were screened for chemical dependency and who were assigned randomly to the two groups. Treatment involved 72 hours of group therapy based on Glasser's (1985) "Reality Therapy." Post release criminal behavior was evaluated for a period of 2 years after treatment. The analysis of recidivism using the National Crime Information Center Interstate Identification Index-II indicated no significant difference in recidivism between treatment and nontreatment groups. Characteristics of successful chemical dependency treatment are discussed.
Today's criminal justice system faces enormous challenges across a broad spectrum of issues. Sex offenses are one such issue posing unique problems to criminal justice practitioners. Research on adult sex offenders indicates offense patterns begin early in life, usually around preor postadolescence. This underscores the importance ofjuvenile sex offender rehabilitative intervention to curb individuals' offense histories before they escalate in severity and frequency. This nationwide study describes 30 juvenile sex offender treatment programs. Survey research identifies programs in state institutions treating incarcerated juveniles for sex crimes. The article details treatment modalities offered juveniles and describes biological, behavioral, and psychological regimens. The article also explores what rehabilitative strategies administrators would implement if unconstrained by financial andpolitical circumstances.
Offenders' access to instructional grants for postsecondary education has come under attack in Congress and in state legislatures throughout the country. Policy makers demand empirical evidence that public support for correctional education will reduce recidivism. Using 10-year follow-up data and logistic regression techniques, we estimate the likelihood of recidivism among parolees from a close-security prison in Ohio who have varying levels of education. We conclude that participation in a postsecondary education program contributes to postrelease employment, which in turn explains a significant amount of variation in recidivism.
In recent years, many jurisdictions have implemented “intensive” supervision regimens for offenders on probation or parole as alternatives to routine probation and/or incarceration. Prior studies often failed to distinguish between two distinct potential effects of intensive supervision. The first effect is a reduction in the propensity to commit any new offenses, and may be viewed as reflecting a rehabilitative or deterrent model. The second possible effect is a reduction in the opportunity to reoffend, caused by the court's response to misbehavior on the part of the probationer or parolee—a risk control or selective incapacitation model. The current study is an experimental evaluation of an intensive aftercare probation program for serious juvenile offenders. The program had a dramatic impact on the frequency, but not the incidence, of recidivism. This finding suggests that the value of intensive supervision lies in its risk control components (a system response effect) rather than in its ability to reduce the propensity to reoffend (an aftercare effect).
During the 1980s correctional officials focused considerable energy on the development of intermediate sanctions as alternatives to incarceration. One such alternative is electronically monitored home detention. Although the electronic monitoring equipment was not commercially available until late in 1984, programs were operating in all 50 states by 1990. This study presents a comparative analysis of three electronic monitoring programs: a program for adults charged with a criminal offense and unable to obtain pretrial release; a program designed as an alternative to incarceration for convicted adult offenders; and a program for adjudicated juvenile burglars. Each program operated in the same jurisdiction, used essentially the same equipment, and imposed similar rules and restrictions on behavior. The analysis focuses on comparisons of program delivery, clients' performance, and programmatic sources of variation. The implications of the findings for future program development and evaluation are discussed.
Rehabilitation is seen as a necessary goal of the justice system and post-secondary education in prison advanced as a means of such rehabilitation. Evidence is cited to support this claim. Using the model of the University of Victoria program in British Columbia, three components of prison education are examined: theory, content, and structure. A developmental theory is posed, using Piaget and Kohlberg as the basis. A model of criminal as decision-maker and authoritarian is proposed and cognitive-moral development through liberal arts education proposed as a change agent. Finally, the crucial role of democratic structures in the program is emphasized.
This study compares the effects of a multi-faceted intervention for juvenile court probationers with the effects of "standard" probation services. Approximately half of the subjects were randomly assigned to the intervention program (Project Explore) consisting of outdoor adventure, social skills training, and parent skills training components, and the other half were maintained on standard probation. Results indicate that while both groups showed substantial reductions in status and criminal offenses over a two-year follow-up period, there were no significant differences between the groups, suggesting that Project Explore was no more effective than probation services that allow caseworkers close and meaningful contact with clients.
