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Content uploaded by Frank Wieber
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Frank Wieber
Content may be subject to copyright.
8
How to Maximize Implementation
Intention Effects
Peter
M.
Gollwitzer
Frank Wieber
Andrea L. Myers
Sean
M.
McCrea
How do people turn their intentions into behavior? This mirac1e is
clarified
in the present chapter by analyzing how if-then planning (i.e.,
implementation intentions; Gollwitzer, 1993, 1999) supports the trans-
lation of intentions into actions. In addition, we will examine how if-then
plans should be worded best to maximize their effectiveness.
Subsequently, we will address the importance of the if-then format
when wording implementation intentions
by
inspecting the extension of
such plans into an if-then-why format, and
by
inspecting upward counter-
factuals as an if-then format directed at past goal pursuits.
IMPLEMENTATION INTENTIONS AND DIFFICULT GOAL
STRIVING
Whereas goal intentions merely specify desired end states ("I want to
achieve goal X!"), implementation intentions in the format "If situation Y
arises, then I will initiate behavior Z!" additionally specify when, where,
and how a person intends to pursue a goal. Implementation intentions
delegate control over the initiation of the intended goal-directed behavior
to a specified opportunity
by
creating a strong link between a situation al
cue and a goal-directed response. For example, a person who has the goal
to become physically fit can form the implementation intention "If
138 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
I come home after work on Friday, then I will immediately go for a 30 min
run!" Implementation intentions have been found to be beneficial with
respect to four major obstacles that have to be overcome to bridge the gap
from initial goal setting and meeting that goal [i.e., not getting started to
act on one's goals, getting derailed during goal striving, not disengaging
when courses of action are failing, and overextending oneself during goal
striving). Recent meta-analyses revealed a medium-to-large effect size
(Cohen, 1992) of implementation intentions on goal achievement on
top of the effects of mere goal intentions (Gollwitzer
&
Sheeran, 2006;
Webb
&
Sheeran, 2008).
Knowing this, can implementation intentions clarify the miraculous
translation of intentions (goals) into behavior, even in situations that do
not seem responsive to self-regulation? Indeed, implementation inten-
tions have been found to help overcome several problems people might
encounter during goal realization. Implementation intentions are capable
of prompting particular motivational states or efforts. For example, in a
study on solving analytic reasoning tasks, they improved participants'
performance
by
strengthening self-efficacy (Bayer
&
Gollwitzer, 2007).
Secondly, implementation intentions helped people protect themselves
from inner states that interrupt goal striving. In a study by Achtziger,
Gollwitzer, and Sheeran (2008), implementation intentions were shown
to help tennis players regulate disruptive cognitive, motivational, physio-
logical, and emotional states in order to better compete against an oppo-
nent. Implementation intentions also support peoples' attainment of
prosocial goals in cognitively demanding situations. For example, when
people find themselves in loss-framed negotiations, implementation
intentions can support the use of more integrative negotiation strategies
(Trätschel
&
Gollwitzer, 2007). Moreover, implementation intentions
can be used to replace bad behavioral habits that threaten the realization
of attractive goals (e.g., wasteful recycling behaviors for people with the
goal to protect the environment) with more appropriate behaviors (e.g.,
recycling; Holland, Aarts,
&
Langendam, 2006).
Lastly, there are three ways in which unwanted automatic processes
that cause problems for goal realization can be controlled
by
using imple-
mentation intentions. First, these plans help suppress unwanted cognitive
responses. For example, they can reduce automatic stereotyping
by
auto-
mating counterstereotypic thoughts (Stewart
&
Payne, 2008). Second,
they ean improve emotion regulation in aversive and fear-triggering situa-
tions. For example, implementation intentions were shown to reduee
arousal when fear or disgust-triggering stimuli were presented
(Schweiger Galle, Keil, MeCulloeh, Rockstroh.
&
Gollwitzer, 2009).
That this strategie emotion regulation by if-then plans operates in an
automatie fashion was supported
by
evidenee from early electrocortical
139 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
correlates. Finally, implementation intentions can enhance behavioral
inhibition. For example, inhibition performance in a neuropsychological
task (i.e., stop task) was improved among children with ADHD by using
implementation intentions (Gawrilow
&
Gollwitzer, 2008).
HOW ARE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTIONS WORDED MOST
EFFECTIVELY?
The implementation intentions used in the reported experimental
research were always found to be
highly
effective; other research has
demonstrated that this effectiveness does not produce costs in terms of
rigidity (Gollwitzer, Parks-Stamm, Jaudas,
&
Sheeran, 2008) or ego
depletion (Bayer
&
Gollwitzer, 2009; Webb
&
Sheeran, 2003). Does
this connote that implementation intentions are always effective in
terms of meeting one' s goals? Severallimits of the effectiveness of imple-
mentation intentions have been found in terms of goal attributes, self-
beliefs, and personality factors. First, a weak commitment to the
respective goal intention limits the effectiveness of implementation
intentions (Sheeran, Webb,
&
Gollwitzer, 2005). This goal-dependence
of implementation intentions may generally protect people from rigidly
enacting plans directed at goals that are obsolete or not vitally important.
However, it may
also
occasionally counter people's intentions. For
example, when a person has the goal of becoming physically fit but has
rather weak goal commitment, even implementation intentions will not
work wonders. Second, low self-efficacy beliefs concerning the respective
goal intention have been demonstrated to limit the effectiveness of
implementation intentions (Wieber, Odenthal,
&
Gollwitzer, in press).
Although low self-efficacy beliefs may often represent a correct indica-
tion that a goal cannot be successfully realized, they may also limit
people's goal striving. For instance, when a person unwarrantedly
doubts his or her ability to run for 30 minutes, a relevant implementation
intention may not support goal attainment. Moreover, individuals who
preferably evaluate their behavior according to others' standards (i.e.,
people who score high on socially prescribed perfectionism; Powers,
Koestner,
&
Topciu, 2005) do not seem to benefit from forming imple-
mentation intentions. Possibly, the personality attribute of socially pre-
scribed perfectionism hinders full comrnitment to if-then plans, thus
reducing the effectiveness of these plans. Finally, the personality trait of
conscientiousness has been found to limit implementation intentions'
effectiveness (Webb, Christi an,
&
Armitage, 2007). Whereas
persons with a low level of conscientiousness immensely benefited from
140 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
forming implementation intentions, those with a high level of
conscientiousness did not; the superior performance of high conscien-
tious individuals left little room for improvement (ceiling effect; Webb
etal.,
2007).
In addition to the limitations caused by these moderators of imple-
mentation intention effects, attributes of implementation intentions
themselves (name1y the wording and format of these plans) might limit
their effects on goal-striving behavior. In everyday life, people may not
succeed in forming effective implementation intentions either because
the if-component or the then-component is
specified
suboptimally or
because the format of the implementation intention as a whole is inap-
propriate. The remainder of this chapter will inspect these potential
limits and how implementation intentions should be formed to maximize
goal attainment.
How to Word the If-Component of Implementation Intentions?
According to the theory of intentional action control (Gollwitzer,
1993;
1999),
planning a situation in which one intends to act on a goal via the
formation of an implementation intention leads to heightened cognitive
accessibility of the mental representation of the situation. This accessi-
bility persists over time until the plan is enacted or the goal is achieved or
dismissed. The heightened activation of the critical situation helps people
to easily recall the
specified
situation (Achtziger, Bayer,
&
Gollwitzer,
2009,
Study
1)
and leads to swift attention when the situation arises
(Aarts, Dijksterhuis,
&
Midden,
1999;
Achtziger et al.,
2009,
Study
2).
For example, Webb and Sheeran
(2004,
Study
2
and
3)
observed that
implementation intentions improve cue detection (fewer misses and
more hits) without stimulating erroneous responses to similar cues
(false alarms and correct rejections). However, because attentional and
cognitive resources are limited (Wegner
&
Bargh,
1998),
the increased
readiness to attend to an implementation intention's critical cues should
reduce attention to other cues (Broadbent,
1958;
Kahneman,
1973).
Given this consequence, can specifying situational cues in the implemen-
tation intention's if-component both support and hamper goal attain-
ment? Three studies tested this hypothesis.
Cue Detection During Goal Pursuit.
In a Story Listening Study
(Parks-Stamm, Gollwitzer,
&
Oettingen,
2007),
participants had to iden-
tify five-letter words in a recorded story that was quickly read aloud.
Before listening to the story, all participants familiarized themse1ves with
the two most common five-letter words "Laura" and "mouse." In the
141 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
implementation intention condition, they additionally included these
words in if-then plans ("If I hear the word 'Laura’, then I will immediate1y
press the L; if I hear the word 'mouse,' then I will immediately press
the M!"). The facilitated detection of the critical five-letter words would
indicate a shift in attention to the implementation intention cues.
As attentional resources are limited, it was predicted that implementation
intentions would increase performance in response to the two critical
five-letter words but impair performance in response to the remaining
five-letter words. In line with these assumptions, implementation inten-
tions increased performance in response to the critical words but at the
cost of reduced performance in response to the remaining five-letter
words. Thus, preferring one situation al means
by
including it in an imple-
mentation intention may compromise the use of alternative means to
the goal.
Attention Attraction During the Pursuit of Unrelated Goals.
Will critical
cues even attract attention when they occur during the pursuit of an
unrelated goal? To test this, Wieber and Sassenberg (2006) conducted
two attention disruption studies. In both studies, the disruption of atten-
tion through implementation intentions was investigated
by
presenting
critical situations (stimuli that were part of an implementation intention
for an unrelated task) as task-irrelevant distractors along with
task-re1evant stimuli in a so-called flanker paradigm (Eriksen
&
Eriksen,
1974). In the first study, half of the participants formed implementation
intentions ("If I see [the word] 'flower', then I will press the left control
key!"
and "If I see 'insect', then I will press the right control
key!").
The
other half of the participants formed control intentions ("I will respond to
'flower' as quickly and accurately as possible!", "I will respond to 'insect'
as quickly and accurately as possible!", "I will press the left control key as
quickly and accurate1y as possible!", and "I will press the right control key
as quickly and accurate1y as possible!"). These intentions were directed at
the goal of performing well on a subsequent categorization task (a flower
vs. insect implicit association task). Next, participants worked on the
ostensibly unre1ated flanker task, in which they had to make word
versus nonword decisions while both neutral and critical stimuli were
presented as task-irrelevant distractors. The results indicated that the
presence of a critical stimulus slowed down participants' responses; how-
ever, this effect only occurred when they had formed implementation
intentions, not when they had formed control intentions. In the second
study, these findings were replicated using a flanker task with vowe1
versus consonant classifications.
Taken together, these findings imply that critical situations will not
escape a person's attention when they have been included in an
142 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
implementation intention, regardless of whether the implementation
intention is goal relevant or not. This may, however, compromise atten-
tion to other goal-relevant cues, as attention is a limited resource. Thus,
one has to be careful which critical situational cues one includes in the
if-
component of an implementation intention.
One way to prevent missing alternative opportunities would be to
formulate rather inclusive situational descriptions in the if-component of
one's implementation intentions. For example, to ensure one uses an
unexpected good opportunity on Tuesday to go for a run, one may
simply specify "Once a week after work" in the if-component instead of
"If 1 arrive at horne after work on Fridays at Spm". However, a potential
problem of using more inclusive formulation is that the critical situation
may not acquire a sufficiently high state of activation and thus not allow
effortless identification of the situation once it occurs. Consequently,
more inclusively formulated if-components might not ensure that a
good opportunity to act is captured, especially when an immediate recog-
nition of the opportunity is required.
lnclusive If-Components.
The effectiveness of inclusive, as compared to
specific,
formulations of the if-component was tested in a Car Race Study
(Wieber, Odenthal,
&
Gollwitzer, 2009, Study 1). The participants' task
was to drive as fast as possible on a computer-based car race simulation
without damaging the car in potentially dangerous situations, such as on
slippery racetracks, around competing cars, and in sharp curves. After
completing two laps around the racetrack, participants worked on a so-
called intention training, which served to manipulate their intentions.
All
participants formed the goal intention "I will complete the race track
as fast and damage-free as possible!" Participants in the
specific
imple-
mentation intention condition additionally added the implementation
intention "If I see a black and white curve road sign, then 1 will immedi-
ately adapt my speed!" Participants in the inclusive implementation
intention condition added the implementation intention "If 1 enter a
dangerous situation, then I will immediately adapt my speed!" After
this intention manipulation, they drove two more laps around the race-
track. Although the inclusive implementation intention included various
dangerous situations, it was predicted that
specific
if-component formu-
lations would lead to an increased performance compared to an unspecific
if-component, as the classification of a dangerous situation requires the
effortful assessment of the actual situation and might not be completed
swiftly enough to prevent car damage.
The results indeed supported the assumptions. Whereas the driving
performance of those participants who used abstract formulations of the
if-component did not differentiate from the mere goal intention
143 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
condition, participants with specific implementation intentions caused
less
damage to their cars without slowing down than those in the other
two conditions. Thus, forming more inclusive if-components does not
seem to represent a viable alternative to forming specific ones, at least
when the swift recognition of the situation is crucial for successful action
initiation.
Summary.
When identifying an alternative opportunity to act is crucial,
forming specific and exclusive if-components might not be ideal, as they
cannot ensure the detection of all crucial opportunities. However, when
representative situations can be identified that account for a large propor-
tion of the situations appropriate to pursue an intended goal [e.g., sharp
curves in the reported study), the benefits of forming specific implementa-
tion intentions should generally outweigh the costs of overlooking alter-
native opportunities. This should especially be true when one is prone to
miss the critical opportunity, either because it is difficult to detect (e.g., it
presents itself only shortly and thus requires immediate recognition) or
because one is exhausted and therefore lacks focused attention.
How to Word the Then-Component of an Implementation
Intention?
In addition to the heightened accessibility of the if-component, a second
process underlies the implementation intention effect on goal attainment.
Implementation intentions create a strong link between the if-component
and the then-component (Gollwitzer, 1993; 1999). As a result, the
initiation of the action specified in the then-component in response to
the critical situation acquires features of automaticity. Responses are
initiated immediately (Gollwitzer
&
Brandstätter, 1997), efficiently
(Brandstätter, Lengfelder.
&
Gollwitzer, 2001), and without the need of
a further conscious intent (Bayer, Achtziger, Gollwitzer,
&
Moskowitz,
2009).
How can this process best be utilized when wording the then-
component of an implementation intention? Specifying concrete
behaviors seems appropriate whenever a whole array of specific opera-
tionalizations is possible. Planning in advance which type of goal-directed
behavior is to be executed prevents disruptive deliberation once the
critical situation is encountered (with respect to choosing one behavior
over another). For example, when one holds the goal of exercising reg-
ularly and decides in advance to go to the gym, then one inevitably
prevents the deliberation of whether to go to the gym, run, or possibly
question the plan of exercising once the situation arises. In this way,
144 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
implementation intentions help one to act in li ne with one's valued long-
term goals, even when the necessary means require overcoming short-
term costs like initial reluctance to engage in unpleasant behavior (i.e.,
when one runs only for the result ofbeing physically fit but does not like
running per se).
To reduce disruptive deliberation during goal striving above and
beyond the mere initiation of a behavior, simple behaviors should be
included into the then-component that are easily carried out (without
requiring reflective thought). Such simple behaviors can refer to single
operations (e.g., pressing a keyboard button) or several operations that
have been learned well (scripts like going to the gym, flossing teeth; see
Gollwitzer
&
Sheeran, 2006). But in addition to simple behaviors, peo-
ple's goal striving at tim es requires the initiation and enactment of com-
plex actions, like applying abstract rules or enacting a sequence of actions
that are taxing to automate (Hull, 1951). Does specifying
complex behaviors in the then-component of an implementation inten-
tion still support goal attainment? Two recent studies examined this
question.
Switching Task Strategies.
In a Water Jar Study (Wieber, Odenthai,
et al. , 2009, Study 2), participants had to allocate a predetermined
amount of water from an initial jar (A) to a target jar (E)
by
using three
jars (B, C, and D) with specified volumes (Luchins, 1942). Five trials
required the application of one specific strategy (A - C
+
2 x D or
A - B
+
2 x C) and five trials required the other. All participants learned
about these strategies in the task instructions. Before the task began,
participants were put in one of four intention conditions. In one condi-
tion, participants formed mere goal intentions "I want to find the right
solution as fast as possible!" whereas participants in the remaining con-
ditions added an implementation intention comprising the strategies
explicated in the instructions in an if-then format. In the remaining
three conditions, implementation intentions specified either one of the
two pouring strategies in the then-component ("If I start working on a
new task, then I will first try to pour water from jar A to j ar C!"; "If I start
working on a new task, then I will first try to pour water from jar A to jar
B!") or both strategies combined ("Ifr start working on a new task, then I
will first try to pour water fromjar A to jar C or fromjar A to jar B!"). The
results revealed that implementation intentions specifying both pouring
strategies improved participants' performance more than those specifying
one pouring strategy or those who merely formed goal intentions.
Action Sequences.
A further aspect of complex behaviors relates to the
enactment of action sequences. Do implementation intentions only
145 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
automate the initiation of the first action of a sequence or do they
additionally automate the initiation of subsequent actions in the sequence
(like scripts)? To test
if
the enactment of an action sequence addressed in
the then-component of an implementation intention acquires features of
automaticity, an Action Sequence Study was conducted (Wieber,
Odenthal, et a1., 2009, Study 3). Participants worked on a computer-
based lexical decision task that required pressing the left control key in
response to nonwords and the right control key in response to words. As
an exception, the word "jug" required pressing the "1" key (with the right
hand), followed by the mouse button (with the left hand) and the right
floor-based button (with their right foot). In addition, all participants
were assigned goal intentions ("I want to perform as well as possible on
the
task' ")
and either added implementation intentions or not. Half of the
implementation intentions only spelled out the initial action response to
the word "jug" ("If the word 'jug' shows up, then I will
first
press the 'I'
keyl"),
while the other half spelled out all three sequential action
responses in the then-component ("If the word 'jug' shows up, then I
will first press the '1' key, followed by the right mouse
key,
and the right
floor
key!'').
As participants had to respond as quickly and correctly as
possible, the immediacy of their reactions indicated the automaticity of
the behavior. As expected, implementation intentions specifying the
initial action response accelerated the initial action response time corn-
pared to mere goal intentions, but not those of the second and third
response
(i.
e., mouse and floor key press). Most importantly, participants
who formed implementation intentions specifying all three behavioral
responses in the then-component reacted faster to the complete action
sequence than those who formed mere goal intentions.
Summary.
In addition to simple behaviors, complex behaviors can also
be fruitfully included in the then-component of implementation inten-
tions. People should benefit from this possibility as it allows them to
effectively tackle more complex problems like flexible switching between
task strategies and the enactment of action sequences.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FORMAT OF IMPLEMENTATION
INTENTIONS
So far, we have examined how to best specify the if-component and the
then-component of implementation intentions. But in addition to the
content, the format per se might also contribute to implementation
intentions' effectiveness. Generally, the if-then format seems to represent
an elementary component of human cognition. If-then conditionals are
146 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
integral parts of information processing frameworks that are designed to
model higher-order cognition (e.g., mathematics, language, reasoning,
memory, and problem solving) in psychology, computer science, lan-
guage science, and philosophy. Examples include production system
theories such as cognitive stimulus-response theories (ACT; Anderson,
1983; Anderson et a1., 2004), symbolic programming languages (e.g.,
Java, Perl, PHP), scientific speech theories (e.g., König
&
van der
Auwera, 1988), and philosophical approaches (e.g., Stalnaker, 1968).
To clarify the importance of the if-then format for the effectiveness of
implementation intentions, we now address three emergent questions:
(a) Is the if-then format of implementation intentions necessary?, (b) Is an
if-then-why format even more effective?, and (c) Do if-then conditionals
have to be directed at the future?
Is the If-Then Format Necessary for Strong Implementation
Intention Effects?
If-
Then versus When, Where, and How.
The contribution of the if-then
format was recently tested in a Fruit and Vegetable Promotion Intervention
Study
(Chapman, Arrnitage,
&
Norman, 2008). Participants were randornly
assigned to a control condition, a "global" implementation intention condi-
tion (in which participants freely chose how to make their plan) or an if-then
irnplementation intention (in which participants were additionally required
to plan using the if-then format). One week later, participants fi1led out a
second questionnaire indicating their fruit and vegetable intake during the
previous week. As a key result, participants in the control condition did not
manage to increase their fruit and vegetable intake, whereas those with
global implementation intentions did, although only when their initial
intake was low. However, with if-then implementation intentions, even
participants with high initial fruit and vegetable intake were able to improve
their goal attainment. Similarly, in a study
by
Oettingen, Hönig, and
Gollwitzer, 2000 (Study 3), if-then implementation intentions were more
effective than
specified
goal intentions explicating the when and where of an
intended goal-directed behavior (i.e., doing regular math homework). In
summary, then, implementation planning that uses an if-then format seems
particularlyeffective.
Is an If-Then-Why Format Even More Effective?
One important prerequisite of implementation intention effects is a
strong commitment to the respective goal intention (see also goal-
147 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
dependent automaticity, Gollwitzer
&
Schaal, 1998; Sheeran et al.,
2005). Implementation intentions per se do not affect the strength of
people's goal intentions (Webb
&
Sheeran, 2008, Study 1). Therefore,
one might ask
if
the if-then format can be expanded to ensure sufficient
motivation. One possible way to achieve this is to remind oneself of the
desired long-term consequences of goal pursuit. This strategy may be
especially helpful when the major problem encountered during goal
striving is to overcome an initial reluctance to act on a goa1. For example,
one may seriously asp ire to speak Italian as a foreign language to enjoy
vacations in Italy but does not like learning vocabulary or grammar. How
could one remind oneself of the positive consequences of a goal? One
strategy suggested by Freitas, Gollwitzer, and Trope (2004) is to simply
ask oneself why one intends to perform a certain goal-directed action.
Thus, an if-then-why format might be a suitable way to increase people's
motivation and thereby make implementation intentions particularly
effective. Four studies tested this hypothesis.
If-Then-Why and Assigned Goals.
In an Analytical Reasoning Study
(Wieber, Gollwitzer, Gawrilow, Odenthal,
&
Oettingen, 2009,
Study 1), participants worked on 20 Raven matrices (Raven, 1977,
2000), in which they had to select one of eight possible result patterns
that logically completed a 3 x 3 matrix pattern. All participants frrst
learned that double-checking was a useful strategy to improve one' s
performance on the upcoming task. Participants then either formed a
mere goal intention ("I will correctly solve as many trials as possible!'') or
added an implementation intention to it ("If I have a first idea for the
solution to a trial, then I will double-check it!"). To vary motivation,
participants either added a reason to their goal or implementation inten-
tion ("because I want to achieve a good performance!") or not. The results
revealed that implementation intentions without the motivation inter-
vention as well as goal intentions with the motivation intervention were
effective in improving participants' performance. However, the combi-
nation of implementation intentions and the motivation intervention did
not result in the expected improvement in participants' performance;
they did not solve more matrices correctly than did participants in the
goal intention group.
If-Then-Why and Self-Set Goals.
To replicate these effects with self-set
goals, a Dieting Behavior Study was conducted, in which participants
formed self-set goal intentions for the highly valued goal oflosing weight
(Wieber, Gollwitzer, et al., 2009, Study 2). As a baseline, participants'
weight and body fat were measured in a first session, and they
were required to document their eating habits for 2 weeks. In a
148 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
subsequent second session, participants were randomly assigned to one of
four intention conditions. In the goal intention conditions, they either
formed the mere goal intention "I want to lose weight" or additionally
added their three foremost motivations for wanting to lose weight (e.g.,
"I want to lose weight because I want to stay healthy!"). In both imple-
mentation intention conditions, participants had to write down three
critica1 situations (e.g., at a party, watehing TV) that might jeopardize
their goal, define suitab1e means of counteracting these critica1 situations,
and merge them into three imp1ementation intentions (i.e., in the if-then
format). In the imp1ementation intention plus why-component condi-
tion, they furthermore added their three foremost motivations for
wanting to lose weight (e.g., "If I am sitting in front of the TV, then
I will eat fruit because I want to become more
attractive!"},
After four
weeks, participants' body weight, body fat percentage, and body mass
index (BMI) were again collected. Moreover, the average calorie and fat
content of their weekly mea1s was computed based on their food diary.
Resu1ts replicated the
findings
from the Ana1ytica1 Reasoning Study.
Whereas participants who formed goal intentions without motivationa1
reasons did not manage to change their eating habits (no weight differ-
ence), participants who formed imp1ementation intentions without moti-
vationa1 reasons lost on average more than two pounds. Whereas
supporting goal intentions with motivationa1 reasons produced an
average weight loss of more than two pounds, the imp1ementation inten-
tions plus motivationa1 reasons again did not achieve a significant
weight loss.
Adding a why-component to the if-then plans did not resu1t in
improved performance in either study, but rather offset the previous1y
observed positive effects for imp1ementation intentions without the why-
component. Converse1y, adding a why-component to the goal intention
improved participants' goal striving in both studies. These findings do not
support the notion of additive effects of thinking of motivationa1 reasons
when forming imp1ementation intentions. A plausible explanation is that
adding the why-reasoning not only focuses people's attention on the
beneficial long-term goals but also impacts their cognitive orientation
(i.e., mindset) during goal striving. Mindsets are defined as cognitive
orientations that accompany the different action phases proposed by
the mindset theory of action phases (Gollwitzer, 1990). During goal
setting, a deliberative mindset prevails that is characterized by an
increased openness to new information and an impartia1 and realistic
assessment of this information. This benefits the main task during this
action phase, name1y weighing the desirability (i.e., incentives) and fea-
sibility (i.e., expectancies) of one's wishes in order to commit only to the
realization of the most desirab1e and feasib1e ones (e.g., Gollwitzer
&
149 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
Bayer,
1999;
Gollwitzer
&
Kinney,
1989;
Puca
&
Schmalt,
2001).
Goal
striving, in contrast, is accompanied
by
an implemental mindset that is
characterized
by
closed-mindedness to new information. This again is
functional because it helps to shield goal striving from interfering or
distracting information (e.g., attention to competing goals, deliberating
pros and cons; Puca
&
Schmalt,
2001;
Taylor
&
Gollwitzer,
1995).
Thus,
within the pursuit of a single goal, goal intentions are best formed against
the backdrop of deliberative mindsets, and implementation intentions are
best formed against the backdrop of implemental mindsets. Asking
"Why?" during implementation intention formation might impact one's
motivation by reminding oneself of the positive consequences of a goal;
however, it might also induce a switch from an implemental to a delib-
erative mindset (Freitas et a1.,
2004).
Wieber, Gollwitzer, et a1.
(2009)
therefore postulated a matching principle of intention formation and
mindsets: goal intention formation should work best when people are in
a deliberative mindset, whereas implementation intention formation
should work best when people are in an implemental mindset.
In
other
words, inducing an implemental mindset during goal intention formation
and inducing a deliberative mindset during implementation intention
formation should weaken goal setting and if-then planning, respectively,
and thus impair subsequent goal attainment.
Do We Have to Assume a Matching Principle Between Mindsets
and Intentions?
If-
Then-Why and Self-Control.
Two studies tested the matching principle
by
separately manipulating intention formation and mindset induction.
In the Handgrip Self-Control Study (Wieber, Gollwitzer, et a1.,
2009,
Study
3),
a well-established test of self-control was applied, namely the
handgrip trainer task (Muraven, Tice,
&
Baumeister,
1998).
The task
requires clutching the handles of a handgrip closed as long possible,
despite the increasing discomfort and taxing physical endurance (i.e.,
required exertion of self-control). All participants learned that the pain
experienced is harmless and can be ignored. As a manipulation of parti-
cipants' intentions, they either received no training (i.e., no intention) or a
paper-based hand trainer task training including a goal intention ("I will
press the handgrip as long as possible!") or a goal intention plus imple-
mentation intention ("If my muscles hurt, then I will ignore the pain!").
As a manipulation of participants' mindsets, they either received no
mindset manipulation or one of two versions of an ostensibly unrelated
paper-based study on "personal relationships." Participants either
thought about reasons "why" it is important to establish and keep
150 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
personal friendships (deliberative mindset) or about ways "how" to
establish and keep personal friendships (implemental mindset; for a
similar manipulation, see Freitas et al.,
2004).
By asking why versus
how questions four successive times in a sequence (e.g., asking why/
how the answer to the
first
why/how question is helpful), increasingly
deliberate or implemental thoughts are produced step by step.
Subsequently, they performed the handgrip task.
Results indicated that overall, mindsets alone did not impact
performance, but intentions did. Implementation intentions lead to
better self-control in comparison to goal intentions. Most impor-
tantly, this effect was qualified
by
mindsets. In line with the
matching hypotheses, being in a deliberative mindset improved the
performance of participants who formed a goal intention compared
to those in an implemental mindset or no mindset. Being in an
implemental mindset, on the other hand, improved the performance
of participants who formed an implementation intention compared
to those who were in a deliberative mindset or the control condition.
In summary, this study provides initial evidence for the postulated
matching principle of intention formation and mindset. As this study
does not allow for the disentangling of motivational (i.e., ego deple-
tion) and cognitive processes (i.e., suboptimal cognitive processing),
another study was conducted.
If-Then-Why and Automaticity.
The Dual Task Study (Wieber,
Gollwitzer, et al.,
2009,
Study
4)
sought to replicate the results of the
Handgrip Self-Control Study in a more cognitively demanding speed-
accuracy performance task. It was additionally intended to shed light on
the processes underlying the effects of matching mindset-intention com-
binations with goal attainment. Derived from the theory of intentional
action control (Gollwitzer,
1999)
and the mindset theory of action phases
(Gollwitzer,
1990),
goal intention-deliberative mindset combinations
were expected to improve goal attainment via resource-demanding delib-
eration processes; conversely, implementation intention-implemental
mindset combinations were expected to improve goal attainment via
automated processes. To test the automaticity of the performance, a
dual-task paradigm was employed in accordance with Brandstätter et a1.
(2001,
Studies 3 and
4).
Participants had to simultaneously work on a
primary tracking task (enclosing a target circle that moved across the
computer screen with a mouse-controlled second circle) and a secondary
go/no-go task (pressing the left mouse button as quickly as possible in
response to numbers [in particular number 3), but not to letters) that
both relied on the same resources (i.e., visual attention and motor
responses). As attentional capacities are limited, an improved
151 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
performance on one task is expected to carry features of automaticity only
when the performance on the other task is not compromised.
To manipulate participants' intention, they formed the goal intention
"I want to react to numbers as quickly as possible" and either added an
implementation intention ("And
if
the number 3 appears, then I will
press the left mouse button particularly fast") or a control intention
("I
will particularly memorize the number 3"). Subsequently, partici-
pants' deliberative or implemental mindsets were induced using the task
from the previous study (Wieber, Gollwitzer, et a1., 2009, Study 3).
Next, participants worked on the dual-task trials with high task com-
plexity (cognitive load}, followed
by
trials with moderate task complexity
(no cognitive load).
The results confirmed the hypotheses. When the primary task was
easy and thus no automaticity was required for responding, participants in
both matching mindset-intention combinations were able to improve
performance on the secondary task (i.e., faster responses to critical cues
on the go/no-go task) without suffering impaired performance on the
primary task (tracking task). Those in the mismatching mindset-intention
combinations were less able to improve their performance on the tasks.
However, when the primary task was difficult and thus automaticity was
required for responding, only those in the implementation intention-
implemental mindset combination condition, and not those in the goal
intention-deliberative mindset condition, were able to improve their
performance on the secondary task without suffering impaired perfor-
mance on the primary task. Those in the mismatching mindset-intention
combinations were again less able to improve their performance on the
tasks. These results suggest that the proposed matching principle
cannot be completely explained by the depletion of self-regulatory
resources, but that the cognitive orientation (mindset) explanation is
also required.
Summary.
Taken together, these studies provide evidence for the impor-
tance of the proposed matching principle for successful goal attainment
(Wieber, Gollwitzer, et a1., 2009, Studies
1-4)
rather than the effective-
ness of an if-then-why format. Compared to mismatching intention-
mindset combinations, matching intention-mindset combinations
improve goal attainment. Thereby, matching mindset-intention combi-
nations impact performance either through effortful processes (goal
intentions with deliberative mindsets) or automatie processes [imple-
mentation intentions with implemental mindsets). Moreover, mis-
matching mindset-intention combinations limit goal striving, no matter
how the mismatching mindsets are induced (i.e., during the pursuit of the
focal goal or of a nonfocal goal). As people commonly pursue multiple
152 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
goals, is it important to ensure that intentions and mindsets match during
goal pursuit. Thus, the present findings suggest that instead of using an
if-
then-why format during planning, people should either combine tasks
requiring concrete implemental actions or abstract deliberating. For
example, sorting one's e-mail and organizing a conference trip in one
work session should prevent cognitive processing mismatches, thereby
resulting in enhanced performance.
Thinking About the Future Versus Thinking About the Past:
Implementation Intentions and Upward Counterfactual
Thoughts
Deliberating over whether and why to pursue a goal during the formation
of an implementation intention undermines its effectiveness. But what
if
such considerations are completed prior to the formation of the plan, thus
avoiding the problem of mismatching mindsets?
In
this case, motivation
could be increased and the strength of subsequently formed implementa-
tion intentions enhanced. Such deliberation could be accomplished
through upward counterfactual thinking. Upward counterfactuals are if-
then statements indicating how a previous outcome could have been
better. For example, a student might consider the thought "If only I had
attended every lecture, then I would not have failed the exam!"
Numerous studies have found that considering upward counterfactuals
improves subsequent performance (Markman, McMullen,
&
Elizaga,
2008; Roese, 1994).
Several explanations for this effect have been postulated. Roese and
colleagues (Epstude
&
Roese, 2008; Roese, 1994; Smallman
&
Roese,
2007) have suggested that counterfactual thoughts could affect perfor-
mance by identifying useful strategies and supporting the formation of
plans. For example, one could convert the counterfactual "If only I had
attended every lecture, then I would not have failed the exam" into the
implementation intention "Whenever there is a lecture, then I will
attend." There is evidence from several studies that considering upward
counterfactuals increases the accessibility of corresponding behavioral
intentions (Smallman
&
Roese, 2007). However, the intentions (i.e.,
"I will do X") examined in these studies did not take the if-then format
of an implementation intention. Thus, it is unclear whether counter-
factual thinking is sufficient to support the spontaneous formation of
specific if-then plans. Past work (Roese, 1994) examining whether indi-
viduals enact the behavioral strategy contained in the counterfactual has
produced mixed results. Moreover, these studies were correlational in
153 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
nature, raising the possibility that the counterfactuals generated by parti-
cipants merely reflected previously held behavioral intentions.
A second manner in which counterfactual thoughts might improve
performance is by mobilizing effort (Epstude
&
Roese, 2008; Markman
&
McMullen, 2003). Upward counterfactual thinking involves evaluating
the outcome relative to a higher standard. These comparisons are likely to
cause disappointment with one's goal progress. Theories of effort mobi-
lization (Brehm
&
Self, 1989; Carver
&
Scheier, 1999) suggest that such
perceived goal discrepancies will increase effort and persistence.
Consistent with this account, performance benefits of upward counter-
factual thinking appear to be limited to situations in which the individual
is dissatisfied with the outcome (Markman et a1., 2008). Conversely,
upward counterfactual thoughts reduce persistence and effort when
they serve to excuse failure (McCrea, 2008).
Myers and McCrea (2009) conducted several studies directly com-
paring the effects of upward counterfactuals and implementation inten-
tions that shared a behavioral strategy. If upward counterfactuals improve
performance by supporting the spontaneous generation of specific if-then
plans, then forming an implementation intention should have no addi-
tional benefits. However, based on the notion that counterfactuals mobi-
lize effort, Myers and McCrea (2009) predicted that these thoughts
would increase persistence and performance, particularly when accom-
panied by more negative affect. Furthermore, these effects should be
independent of the behavior specified in the thought. In contrast, imple-
mentation intentions should lead to enactment of the specified behavior,
independent of affect. Thus, both types of thoughts were expected to
additively improve goal attainment.
Assigned Counterfactuals and Implementation Intentions.
In an initial
study, participants were told they would be taking part in a study on
decision making under time pressure. Participants were required to
quickly select from a pair of pictures the one with the higher point
value (adapted from Jaudas
&
Gollwitzer, 2004). Correct identifications
were rewarded with the point value of the picture, minus a time penalty.
Importantly, a picture of a water lily was of the highest point value, such
that responding quickly on trials in which this picture appeared was a
particularly effective strategy. Participants were provided with feedback
after the first task and then assigned to one of two counterfactual condi-
tions; those in the counterfactual group were asked to consider the
thought "If I had pressed the corresponding key every time I saw the
water
lily,
then I would have done better, " whereas those in the control
condition were asked to consider the statement "I would like to know
how my friends would do on the test." Participants were then randomly
154 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
assigned to one of two implementation intention conditions; those in the
implementation intention group were asked to consider the plan "Every
time I see the water
lily,
then I will immediately press the corresponding
key,"
whereas those in the control condition proceeded to the next phase
of the experiment. All participants completed a measure of mood and a
second block of the task. Performance on this block relative to the initial
block was examined. Participants in the counterfactual condition who
also reported less positive affect responded faster on the critical (water
lily) trials, compared to those in the control condition or who reported
more positive affect. Furthermore, they made fewer errors on noncritical
trials and improved their overall score more than did the latter groups.
As expected, the beneficial effects of upward counterfactual thinking
generalized to aspects of performance not mentioned by the thought
and appeared dependent upon experiencing dissatisfaction with one's
performance. Both of these findings are more consistent with increased
effort mobilization rather than with the spontaneous formation of a plan.
Indeed, implementation intentions were found to improve reaction times
on the critical trials, suggesting that these plans had an additional (albeit
specific) effect on performance. In other words, those who listed both the
counterfactual thought and the implementation intention improved
the most.
Self-Set Counterfactuals and Implementation Intentions.
In a second
study, effort mobilization in the form of task persistence was directly
examined. Participants were given two word completion tasks. Two
insolvable items were included in each task, such that the amount of
time spent working on the task constituted a true measure of persis-
tence. As in the previous study, participants were assigned to coun-
terfactual and no counterfactual conditions and implementation
intention and no implementation intention conditions prior to com-
pleting a second block of items. However, participants freely gener-
ated these statements, rather than being provided the statements
by
the experimenter. Consistent with the initial study, individuals per-
sisted more in the counterfactual condition than in the control con-
dition, but only when they reported experiencing more negative
affect. Moreover, analyses classifying the statements generated
by
participants revealed that this effect was not limited to those coun-
terfactuals concerning time spent on the task. Those assigned to form
an implementation intention also persisted longer compared to those
in a control condition, but this effect was not moderated by mood.
Furthermore, classifying the implementation intentions generated by
participants revealed that only those statements related to time spent
on the task increased persistence.
155 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
In summary, implementation intentions and counterfactual thoughts
ad additive effects on goal striving, with counterfactuals increasing effort
mobilization and implementation intentions increasing the enactment of
specified behaviors. In addition to explaining how counterfactual
thoughts improve performance, these findings imply that implementa-
tion intentions can be made more powerful
by
first considering how a past
performance could have been better. Because counterfactuals increase
effort mobilization, subsequently formed implementation intentions
become more effective, making it more likely that individuals will over-
come the intention-behavior gap. It appears to be critical that counter-
factuals are made prior to the formation of implementation intentions,
thereby avoiding the problem of mismatching mindsets presented by the
if-then-why phasing. Finally, these results once again demonstrate the
unique qualities of the if-then format of implementation intentions.
Although both counterfactuals and implementation intentions share a
conditional phrasing, only implementation intentions commit one to act
in a specified manner in a future situation. As a result, counterfactuals do
not appear to be as effective in promoting the enactment of specific goal-
directed behaviors.
Conclusion and Outlook
In the past, implementation intentions [if-then plans) have been observed
to effectively reduce the gap between intentions and behavior. But how
should one formulate one's implementation plans to maximize their
effectiveness for goal attainment? In the present chapter, we first raised
the question of how the components of implementation intentions
should be worded. Regarding the if-component, including a specific
situational cue in the if-component ensures that the critical cue does
not escape one's attention. However, as this attention attraction effect
compromises the attention given to alternative cues, people have to
carefully choose what kind of situation al cue they want to specify in an
implementation intention. Specifying more inclusive (abstract) situa-
tional cues in the if-component does not qualify as a solution, as such
integrative specifications no longer ensure that swift attraction of atten-
tion occurs. Thus, the if-component of implementation intentions should
be worded
by
using specific but "representative" good opportunities to
act towards the goal. Regarding the then-component, specifying simple
behaviors (such as pressing a response key) as well as complex behaviors
(such as switching between different action strategies or enacting a
sequence of behaviors) seems to be effective in promoting goal
156 THEN A MIRACLE OCCURS
attainment. Thus, people can also utilize implementation intentions to
facilitate the initiation of complex behaviors.
The format of implementation intentions was subsequently exam-
ined. As the if-then format was more effective than merely specifying
when, where, and how one intends to pursue a goal, people should
apply
the if-then format when forming implementation intentions.
Conversely,
an if-then-why format does not promote goal striving via implementation
intentions. Instead, a matching principle between mindsets and intentions
was extracted. This finding implies that people should not engage in too
much deliberating during the formation or the enactment of an imple-
mentation intention, as an implemental, but not a deliberative, mindset
supports goal striving with implementation intentions. Finally, applying
the if-then format when thinking about past goal pursuits via upward
counterfactual thoughts (i.e., conditional if-then statements indicating
how a previous outcome could have been better) represents a powerful
method to strengthen the motivational basis for subsequently formed
implementation intentions
Which venues should future research address in order to expand
knowledge on maximizing the effectiveness of implementation inten-
tion? A closer look should be given to the situation al context in which
goal striving with implementation intentions takes place. People pursue
their goals in a vast array of different situations, in which intrapersonal
differences may be relevant to the maximizing of implementation inten-
tion effects. People may only experience problems during goal striving in
some domains but not others. For example, a person may encounter
problems exercising self-control in the domain of professional
goals (e.g., writing an essay) but may have no problem exerting self-
control within the domain of a health goals C e.g., resisting tempting
chocolates). Thus, making people sensitive to the domains in which
they experience difficulty with self-control should allow them to tailor
their implementation intentions to the action control problems they most
likely encounter.
Finally, future research should systematically develop procedures to
ensure that the moderators of implementation intentions do not limit
their effects on goal attainment. For instance, only when people are
strongly committed to a goal intention can implementation intention
effects be expected [e.g., Sheeran et al., 2005). To guarantee such
strong goal commitment, people can either form upward counterfactuals
or complement the use of implementation intentions with the mental
contrasting technique (i.e., contrasting desired future states with the
present negative reality to identify potential obstacles and ensure strong
motivation; Stadler, Oettingen,
&
Gollwitzer, 2009). Interventions may
also target a second prerequisite for strong implementation intention
157 HOW TO MAXIMIZE IMPLEMENTATION INTENTION EFFECTS
effects, namely a strong commitment to the plan. A promising route to
ensure strong commitment to the plan is to form implementation inten-
tions collaboratively (Prestwich et a1., 2005). The collaborative discussion
should increase the quality of the plans as more options are considered
and inappropriate specifications of situations and behaviors can be pre-
vented. Moreover, the public commitment of an implementation inten-
tion should increase people's commitment to the plan. Finally, low
efficacy should also be considered as a limit of implementation intention
effects. One way to strengthen people's self-efficacy beliefs is to form
implementation intentions that include motivation al self-speech (e.g., to
improve performance on an analytical reasoning test, "When I start a new
problem, then I will tell myself: I can solve it!"; Bayer
&
Gollwitzer, 2007). In other words, people may use implementation
intentions to favorably modulate the moderators of implementation
intention effects.
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