Your Ideal Cat: Insights into Breed and Gender Differences in Cat Behavior
... Moreover, previous literature has found breed-specific differences in cats' personalities (e.g. (Ahola et al., 2017;Hart & Hart, 2013b;Naderi et al., 2011;Salonen et al., 2019;Tamimi et al., 2015;Wassink-van der Schot et al., 2016), giving indirect evidence of genetic influences on personality. ...
... Previous literature reports numerous associations with house soiling and examined factors. Older age has been associated with house soiling in many studies (Barcelos et al., 2018 (marking only); Duffy et al., 2017;Normando et al., 2022), and some studies have found that house soiling is more common in intact cats (Hart & Hart, 2013b) and male cats (Pryor et al., 2001;Strickler & Shull, 2013). In the study of Tamimi and others (2015) having and outdoor access was associated increased house soiling, but another study disagrees with this result (Normando et al., 2022). ...
... In convergent validity testing, we formed hypotheses based on the previous literature. We hypothesized, for example, that male cats had more litterbox issues, but were less fearful than female cats (Ahola et al., 2017;Hart & Hart, 2013b;Strickler & Shull, 2013). All hypotheses are shown in study I . ...
This thesis investigates the personality and problematic behaviour of the most popular pet animal, the domestic cat. Problematic behaviour is an important study area as it is common and can decrease the welfare of both the owner and the cat. The targeted problematic behaviours in this thesis were fearfulness, aggression toward humans, litterbox issues, and excessive grooming, which are all common problems.
Personality and behaviour consisted of seven traits: fearfulness, aggression toward humans, sociability toward humans, sociability toward cats, excessive grooming, and litterbox issues. Several different environmental, biological, and demographic factors associated with problematic behaviours, especially cat’s fearfulness and sociability.
... Feline personality has been studied with various methods. In some studies, veterinarians ranked cat breeds based on their professional experiences of seeing, handling and treating cats of different breeds in the clinic [10,11]. Other researchers have used ratings or behavioral observations of cats' caretakers in shelters or in laboratory colonies [12,13] or behavioral tests [2]. ...
... We formed 25 hypotheses based on the previous literature to evaluate the convergent validity of extracted factors (Supplementary Table S1). We hypothesized, for example, that female cats are more fearful [10,31] and have less litterbox issues than males [10,32,33]. We also hypothesized that older cats are less active [18,19] and less cat social [31,34] than younger cats. ...
... We formed 25 hypotheses based on the previous literature to evaluate the convergent validity of extracted factors (Supplementary Table S1). We hypothesized, for example, that female cats are more fearful [10,31] and have less litterbox issues than males [10,32,33]. We also hypothesized that older cats are less active [18,19] and less cat social [31,34] than younger cats. ...
Simple Summary
Cats have personalities, just like humans and other animals, with stable behavior differences between individuals. Identification of a cat’s personality type is important as cats with different personalities have different environmental needs to reach a good life quality. For example, active individuals may need more enrichment, such as playing, than less active individuals, and fearful cats may benefit from extra hiding places and owners’ peaceful lifestyle. Cats are popular pet animals, but their personality has been little studied. In addition, the majority of these studies used behavior questionnaires that have not been validated. Thus, we studied cat personality and behavior by collecting a large dataset of over 4300 cats with an online questionnaire and studied its validity and reliability. Feline personality and behavior included seven traits: fearfulness, activity/playfulness, aggression toward humans, sociability toward humans, sociability toward cats, excessive grooming and litterbox issues. Breeds differed in all traits, and the questionnaire was reliable and valid. Our findings indicate that owner-completed questionnaires are valid sources of behavior data, and that some personality traits are more common in specific cat breeds. Breed differences, however, should be examined with more complex models, taking other factors, such as the age of the cat, into account.
Abstract
Domestic cats are popular pets, and they have personalities, with stable behavior differences between individuals. Lately, feline behavior and personality have been studied with different approaches, for example, with owner-completed questionnaires. The majority of these studies, however, lack a sufficient validation and reliability assessment of the questionnaires used. We designed an online feline behavior and personality questionnaire to collect cat behavior data from their owners. Then, we ran a factor analysis to study the structure of personality and behavior in a dataset of over 4300 cats. For validation, we studied the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, inter-rater reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity of this questionnaire and extracted factors. In addition, we briefly examined breed differences in the seven discovered factors: fearfulness, activity/playfulness, aggression toward humans, sociability toward humans, sociability toward cats, excessive grooming and litterbox issues. Most of the rank ordering of breeds within each trait paralleled what has been found in previous studies. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire and factors were good, strengthening owner-completed questionnaires as a method to collect behavioral data from pet animals. Breed differences suggest a genetic background for personality. However, these differences should be studied further with multidimensional models, including environmental and biological variables.
... ally, but also behaviourally. In cats, breed differences were studied in activity level, contact to people, aggression, shyness, and abnormal repetitive behaviour. Although studies on breed differences of behaviour are sparse and usually include different breeds, previous studies agree on the breed differences of activity level (Duffy et al., 2017;B. L. Hart & Hart, 2013;Takeuchi & Mori, 2009;Wilhelmy, Serpell, Brown, & Siracusa, 2016), contact to people (Duffy et al., 2017;Takeuchi & Mori, 2009;Wilhelmy et al., 2016), and aggression (B. L. Hart & Hart, 2013;Turner, 2000;Wilhelmy et al., 2016). However, some contrasting results were also found. For example, this study ranked Russian Blue cats as the most ...
... L. Hart & Hart, 2013;Takeuchi & Mori, 2009;Wilhelmy, Serpell, Brown, & Siracusa, 2016), contact to people (Duffy et al., 2017;Takeuchi & Mori, 2009;Wilhelmy et al., 2016), and aggression (B. L. Hart & Hart, 2013;Turner, 2000;Wilhelmy et al., 2016). However, some contrasting results were also found. ...
... For example, this study ranked Russian Blue cats as the most fearful, not discovered in previous studies (B. L. Hart & Hart, 2013;Takeuchi & Mori, 2009). Interestingly, Turkish Van cats were ranked highest in both aggression towards people and towards other cats. ...
Behavioural traits are complex, influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors and they can also affect the health and welfare of individuals. Behaviour is equally important for companion animals, cats and dogs. Furthermore, some of their behavioural traits resemble human psychiatric diseases. Despite behaviour’s importance, its biological background is still poorly known in these animals.
This thesis examines the complexity of behaviour by studying the genetic and environmental factors influencing behaviour, as well as behavioural intercorrelations simultaneously in two companion animal species: the dog and the cat. This comparative perspective may reveal insights into the background of behaviour that could also be generalized to human behaviour. Specifically, this thesis aims to study 1) breed differences of dogs and cats and heritability of behaviour in cats, 2) behaviour correlations in both species, and 3) environmental factors influencing aggression in dogs and multiple behavioural traits in cats.
Behavioural and background data was collected from the dog and cat owners through online questionnaires. In both species, the frequency of fear, aggression, and abnormal repetitive behaviour was examined. Sociability and level of activity was also examined in cats and impulsivity/inattention in dogs. Large datasets of 13 715 dogs and 5726 cats were collected and analysed with different methods, including multiple logistic regression for the environmental factors of behaviour and Bayesian multivariate model for
heritability analyses.
The results of this thesis show that both dog and cat breeds differ in behaviour, that behaviour is heritable, that many behavioural traits are correlated, and that many environmental factors are associated with behavioural traits. Heritability estimates varied between 0.40 and 0.53 for all behavioural traits and breeds. Especially fear and aggression correlated strongly and these traits were also associated with abnormal repetitive behaviour in both species. Social environment in both early life and at the time of answering was associated with lower incidence of aggression and abnormal repetitive behaviour.
The results closely paralleled in both companion animal species and showed some parallels to human psychiatry as well. This finding indicates that the biological background of behaviour is similar in dogs and cats, and likely in humans as well. The findings of this thesis had great scientific and practical impact, as, for example, regulations for separating a kitten from its mother was adapted accordingly.
... Unlike horses and dogs, cats have not been selected for by humans to serve any particular function. Yet, feline breed differences in behavioural phenotype (e.g., temperament) have been identified [41][42][43]. Whether breed differences in motor bias exist, however, is still unknown and in need of investigation [28], particularly from a welfare perspective. Research points to a strong link between limb use and emotional functioning in animals, with emotionally reactive individuals showing a significant leaning towards ambilaterality or left limb use (reflecting the dominant use of the contralateral right hemisphere), and more emotionally stable individuals favouring the use of their right limb (reflecting the dominant use of the left hemisphere). ...
... In the following study, the paw preferences of four commonly owned breeds (Ragdoll, Maine Coon, Persian, Bengal) were assessed using a previously employed measure of feline motor bias [28,29]. The breeds selected for study were deliberately chosen because of their different behavioural profiles, with two of the breeds (Ragdoll, Maine Coon) considered by veterinary practitioners to be emotionally non-reactive, and two of the breeds (Persian, Bengal) considered to be more emotionally labile [41]. It ...
... The Catit has been used successfully to record cats' paw preferences [25,26] and demonstrates good test-retest reliability [46]. Animals 2019, 9, x 3 of 10 emotionally non-reactive, and two of the breeds (Persian, Bengal) considered to be more emotionally labile [41]. It was anticipated that the research would elucidate whether these breed-related differences in emotional reactivity are reflected in the measurable outcome of motor bias and, more generally, would shed light on the relationship between breed and paw preferences in a species that has thus far been completely overlooked in this respect. ...
Simple Summary
Cat breeds differ enormously in their emotional reactivity, a factor that can impact upon the success of the pet-owner relationship, with indirect consequences for animal welfare. Traditional methods of assessing emotional reactivity in cats have focused largely on questionnaire-based assessments of breed-specific behavioural profiles. We explored whether paw preferences, which have been linked to emotional reactivity in animals, are related to cat breed. The paw preferences of 4 commonly owned cat breeds were tested on a food-reaching challenge. Cats’ paw preferences differed between the breeds. Bengal cats were more likely to show a left-sided paw preference than other breeds, whilst Persians showed the weakest paw preferences, veering more heavily towards ambilaterality. Results confirmed our earlier work in showing a strong tendency for left paw use in male cats and right paw use in females. We propose that paw preference measurement could provide a useful method for assessing emotional reactivity in domestic cats, adding to our currently limited artillery of tools for determining breed-specific profiles. Such information would be of benefit to individuals considering the acquisition of a new cat, and, in the longer term may help to foster more successful cat-owner relationships, leading to indirect benefits to feline welfare.
Abstract
Cat breeds differ enormously in their behavioural disposition, a factor that can impact on the pet-owner relationship, with indirect consequences for animal welfare. This study examined whether lateral bias, in the form of paw preference, can be used as a tool for assessing breed differences in emotional reactivity in the cat. The paw preferences of 4 commonly owned breeds were tested using a food-reaching challenge. Cats were more likely to be paw-preferent than ambilateral. Maine Coons, Ragdolls and Bengals were more likely to be paw-preferent than ambilateral, although only the Bengals showed a consistent preference for using one paw (left) over the other. The strength of the cats’ paw use was related to cat breed, with Persians being more weakly lateralised. Direction of paw use was unrelated to feline breed, but strongly sex-related, with male cats showing a left paw preference and females displaying a right-sided bias. We propose that paw preference measurement could provide a useful method for assessing emotional reactivity in domestic cats. Such information would be of benefit to individuals considering the acquisition of a new cat, and, in the longer term, may help to foster more successful cat-owner relationships, leading to indirect benefits to feline welfare.
... These descriptions are usually based on owner and breeder notions and lack scientific basis. However, owners report behaviour differences among cat breeds and non-pedigree house cats 5-7 , and veterinarians recognize behaviour differences at least between the most different breeds 8,9 . As well as showing variation in normal behaviour, cat breeds may differ in susceptibility to abnormal behaviour, as has been observed in dogs 10 . ...
... Previously, Persians have been ranked low in friendliness 9 , attention seeking 6 , and sociability 6 , and in our study, they had the highest probability for low contact to people if we only compare breeds that have also been examined in previous studies. However, some previous studies have ranked Abyssinian and Oriental cats low in friendliness 9 , and affection 8,9 , whereas in this study, Abyssinian and Oriental cats were likely to seek contact. In one study, however, Abyssinians showed increased sociability compared to other breeds 7 . ...
... To our knowledge, the behaviour of these breeds has not been previously studied. In previous studies, Bengals 8 and house cats 5,8 have been ranked high in aggression (but not in Duffy et al. 2018 6 ), which was also observed in this study. Similarly, one previous study discovered decreased aggressiveness in Persians 7 , which were among the least aggressive breeds in our study as well. ...
Cat domestication and selective breeding have resulted in tens of breeds with major morphological differences. These breeds may also show distinctive behaviour differences; which, however, have been poorly studied. To improve the understanding of feline behaviour, we examined whether behavioural differences exist among cat breeds and whether behaviour is heritable. For these aims, we utilized our extensive health and behaviour questionnaire directed to cat owners and collected a survey data of 5726 cats. Firstly, for studying breed differences, we utilized logistic regression models with multiple environmental factors and discovered behaviour differences in 19 breeds and breed groups in ten different behaviour traits. Secondly, the studied cat breeds grouped into four clusters, with the Turkish Van and Angora cats alone forming one of them. These findings indicate that cat breeds have diverged not only morphologically but also behaviourally. Thirdly, we estimated heritability in three breeds and obtained moderate heritability estimates in seven studied traits, varying from 0.4 to 0.53, as well as phenotypic and genetic correlations for several trait pairs. Our results show that it is possible to partition the observed variation in behaviour traits into genetic and environmental components, and that substantial genetic variation exists within breed populations.
... Cat breeds differ in their behavioral tendencies, such as their affection and aggressive behaviors toward family members (43); one would expect the breed of cat to be one aspect affecting which cats would provide affection and comfort to a child. For example, a comprehensive telephone-based set of interviews with 80 feline veterinary practitioners covering 15 of the most common cat breeds, found that the Ragdoll is the most affectionate, socially outgoing and least aggressive breed (43). ...
... Cat breeds differ in their behavioral tendencies, such as their affection and aggressive behaviors toward family members (43); one would expect the breed of cat to be one aspect affecting which cats would provide affection and comfort to a child. For example, a comprehensive telephone-based set of interviews with 80 feline veterinary practitioners covering 15 of the most common cat breeds, found that the Ragdoll is the most affectionate, socially outgoing and least aggressive breed (43). The same survey found that male cats were rated as more affectionate than female cats. ...
... Suggestions supported by the data in this study for enhancing compatible, affectionate relationships between children and cats are: (1) to assume that cats in the age range of 1 up to 6 years are more likely to be affectionate to very young children than older cats; and (2) not to assume that a cat that is fearless and affectionate toward adults will also be affectionate to young children. While there are behavioral differences among breeds of cats that would undoubtedly be important in predicting that a pet cat would be likely to be affectionate and non-aggressive with children (43), there were too few purebred cats in this study to address this issue. ...
Although studies involving pet dogs and cats, and human adults and children, have been reported, the specific interactions between cats and children have not. This study sought information from parents about the cat's role in families that have at least one child 3–12 years of age and at least one cat. Demographic data on cat source, breed, gender/neuter status, was sought as well as information on adults and children in the families and on affectionate, aggressive, fearful, and playful responses of the cats to children. A convenience sample was recruited via listservs for pet owners and parents. Using a pilot tested web survey, descriptive statistics were based on 865 respondents. Multi-variate statistical analyses were conducted on data from 665 respondents with complete responses for all items, including respondents' locations and whether cats were adopted as kittens. Multi-variate analyses included consideration of demographic data, geographic region of respondents, behavioral characteristics of the cats, and responses of the children to the cats. From descriptive statistics, cats' affection was more typical with adults than young children. Neuter status or gender was unrelated to cats' aggression or affection. Being the family's only cat was associated with heightened aggression and reduced affection. Younger cats were more likely to be affectionate. Multivariate analysis revealed three primary factors accounting for children's compatibility with the specified cat: positive interactions of the cat, aggression/fearfulness of cat, and the cat's playfulness and children's reaction to the cats. Positive child-cat relationships were more typical with two or more adults and multiple cats in the home. Old cats were the least satisfactory. A breeder or shelter was a better source than as a feral, from a newspaper ad, or another source. European respondents rated their cats' interactions with children more favorably than in U.S./Canada. This difference may reflect the European adoptions more frequently being of kittens, often purebred, assuring more early handling within the family. A noteworthy finding was that all family participants, humans, and pets alike, affect the cat-child relationship, and these results reveal that many variables can play a role in achieving a desirable relationship for a cat and child.
... Third, previously published cat breed rankings based on expert opinions of breed differences in behavior (Hart and Hart, 2013) were compared with breed rankings of comparable Fe-BARQ factor scores using Spearman rank order correlation. To determine if breeds could be reliably ranked based on Fe-BARQ factors, Kruskal-Wallis tests were first performed to confirm that the breeds differed significantly in their average factors scores. ...
... Eight of the behaviors included in the Hart and Hart (2013) study were identified as being analogous to Fe-BARQ factors, and six breeds in the present study (Bengal, Burmese, Maine Coon, Persian, Ragdoll, and Siamese) matched those included in Hart and Hart (2013) and were represented by at least 20 records. No significant breed differences (Kruskal-Wallis test, P > 0.05) were detected for two of the matched Fe-BARQ behaviors (inappropriate elimination and familiar cat aggression), suggesting that the breeds could not be reliably ranked on these factors. ...
... No significant breed differences (Kruskal-Wallis test, P > 0.05) were detected for two of the matched Fe-BARQ behaviors (inappropriate elimination and familiar cat aggression), suggesting that the breeds could not be reliably ranked on these factors. The six breeds were therefore ranked based on mean factor scores for the remaining 6 behaviors and these rankings were then compared using Spearman rank order correlation to those reported in Hart and Hart (2013). In total, significant positive rank order correlations were found for four of the six comparisons (Table 7). ...
A questionnaire instrument for obtaining quantitative behavioral evaluations of pet cats from cat owners was developed and validated. Exploratory Factor Analysis of 2608 questionnaire responses to 149 behavioral questions/items extracted a total of 23 distinct factors that measured most of the more common dimensions of cat behavior. Seventeen of the 23 factors demonstrated adequate-high internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha=0.712-0.923). Questionnaire validation was accomplished by determining: (a) whether owners' subjective ratings of the severity of their cat's behavior problems were associated with cats' actual scores on expected questionnaire factors, (b) whether expected associations between specific demographic and/or lifestyle characteristics and behavior were confirmed by cats' factor or item scores on the questionnaire, and (c) whether breed rankings based on owner-reported factor scores matched those previously derived from the opinions of experts (veterinarians). The results of these various tests confirmed the overall construct validity of the questionnaire.
... In addition, genetics may affect the probability of developing these behavioral problems. Previous literature has found occasionally contradictory breed differences between these behaviors (Naderi et al., 2011;Hart and Hart, 2013;Tamimi et al., 2015;Wassink-van der Schot et al., 2016;Ahola et al., 2017;Salonen et al., 2019;Mikkola et al., 2021). Certain personality types are also suggested to be more prone to stress (Foster and Ijichi, 2017) and, thus, to more readily develop problematic behaviors than others. ...
... The Ragdoll scored the highest in excessive grooming, and the Turkish Angora scored the lowest. Most breeds did not differ in the pairwise comparisons, and individual differences within a breed were large.The behavioral profiles of the breeds are quite similar to previous studies(Amat et al., 2009; Takeuchi and Mori, 2009;Hart and Hart, 2013;Tamimi et al., 2015;Wilhelmy et al., 2016;Duffy et al., 2017;Hart et al., 2018;Salonen et al., 2019) ...
Problematic behaviour is a remarkable welfare issue in cats (Felis catus), as it is one of the most common reasons for relinquishment. The probability of developing problematic behaviours is likely influenced by several variables, but these remain little studied. In this study, we examined the associations of fearfulness, aggression toward humans, and excessive grooming with nearly thirty variables in a survey data set of over 3200 cats. To identify the most important variables influencing these behaviours, we used generalized linear models. All behaviours were associated with each other suggesting comorbidity between problematic behaviours. Breed and several environmental variables were also associated with behaviours. Poor socialization to humans and a history of being a rescue cat were associated with higher fearfulness, indicating that proper socialization of kittens is beneficial for avoiding fear-related problematic behaviours. Overall, our study highlights the complexity of three problematic behaviours in cats.
... Although most cats are not selectively bred (Driscoll et al., 2009a;Lipinski et al., 2008), breed may have an impact on cats' predatory behavior and tendencies toward playfulness (Duffy et al., 2017;Hart and Hart, 2013). Owners and veterinarians report that some breeds (e.g., Abyssinians, Siamese, and domestic shorthairs) and hybrid cats (Bengals) have higher levels of playfulness and activity when compared to other breeds, such as Persians (Duffy et al., 2017;Hart and Hart, 2013;Mendl and Harcourt, 1988). ...
... Although most cats are not selectively bred (Driscoll et al., 2009a;Lipinski et al., 2008), breed may have an impact on cats' predatory behavior and tendencies toward playfulness (Duffy et al., 2017;Hart and Hart, 2013). Owners and veterinarians report that some breeds (e.g., Abyssinians, Siamese, and domestic shorthairs) and hybrid cats (Bengals) have higher levels of playfulness and activity when compared to other breeds, such as Persians (Duffy et al., 2017;Hart and Hart, 2013;Mendl and Harcourt, 1988). Although Marchei et al. (2009) did not explicitly measure play behaviors, an open field test of kittens found that Siamese, Abyssinian, and oriental breeds were initially more active than Norwegian Forest cats-exploring more and spending more time walking-but all breeds had similar levels of activity by seven weeks of age. ...
Although attention to domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) behavior and cognition has increased in recent years, numerous questions remain regarding their play. Few studies have included play as a variable of interest, and to the best of our knowledge no behavioral studies focusing on cat play have been published in the last 15 years, and there is no recent review of our current understanding of its development, behavioral components, function, or outstanding research questions. This is despite the accessibility of the cat as a convenient model for more difficult to study members of the Carnivora, as recognized by pioneering studies of cat play in the 1970s and 1980s. We address this gap by reviewing and synthesizing the existing literature on play development, identifying and discussing eliciting factors and possible functions of play in cats. Additionally, we conducted an extensive review of the literature to identify how play has been operationalized in peer-reviewed publications (N = 46). We identified 138 behaviors measured in these studies, with 84 of them unique behavioral labels. Our findings demonstrate the diversity—and sometimes commonalities—of descriptions of play behavior across these studies, while highlighting the challenge of inconsistent operationalization of cat play in the literature. We conclude by proposing and exploring several open questions and offering suggestions for future research, particularly related to pet cats.
... It is relevant to point out that cats vary a great deal in affection and aggressive behavioral predispositions toward family members. This variability is also evident when comparing purebred cats (11). Selecting a purebred that is genetically predisposed to be affectionate and comforting could play a role in the assessment of which cats would be most likely to be best for a child with ASD. ...
... The study has revealed the importance of having a cat that is inherently low in aggression, socially outgoing, and affectionate as a family companion for a child with ASD or that is typically developing. One such resource that explores purebreds and domestic shorthair and longhair cats in this regard has rated the breeds on scales for these traits (11). A study where adult cat owners rated personality attributes of their cats also suggests the importance of careful pet selection. ...
Mental and physical benefits of dogs have been reported for adults and children with special needs, but less is known about benefits of cats for children. A cat that can be held by a child could provide important therapeutic companionship for children with severe or less severe autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who otherwise may lack prosocial behaviors. Because relatively little is known about the behavior of cats around children, we conducted this study. Phase 1 gathered web-survey data from families having an adult cat and a child with ASD (n = 64). In Phase 2, there were direct telephone interviews of parents having a child with severe ASD (n = 16) or less severe ASD (n = 11), or typical development (n = 17). From the Phase 1 web survey of families with ASD children (full range of severities), affectionate interactions of the cats with children were common. Most parents with ASD children volunteered positive comments regarding the cat, such as calming the child, being a soothing protector or a guardian. In the interviews in Phase 2, for all three groups, most parents characterized cats as at least moderately affectionate toward the child. However, cats living with severe ASD children were reported to exhibit less affection than those living with typically developing children or children with less severe ASD. A minority of cats in each group showed some aggression to the specified child; this was not elevated with ASD children. Responses suggested that the cats adopted as kittens were more affectionate and less aggressive to all categories of children than those adopted as adults. Overall, participants reported that ASD children’s behaviors indicated that they valued the relationship with the cat, similar to typically developing children, pointing to the importance and potential usefulness of selecting affectionate and compatible cats for ASD children.
... Both British and Ragdolls (along with non-pedigree cats) were the most inactive breeds, and, in addition, British had less contact with people than cats on average (Data Sheets S4 and S7 in Supplementary Material). Ragdolls have been described as less active earlier (50). Turkish Vans were distinctively the most aggressive breed toward strangers and other cats. ...
... Korats also showed aggression toward family members and unfamiliar people, and Bengals -toward other cats. This finding in Bengals has been observed before (50). We also found variation in sensitivity and licking in few breeds. ...
A comprehensive feline health survey was conducted to reveal breed-specific inheritable diseases in Finnish pedigree cats for genetic research. Prevalence of 19 disease categories and 227 feline diseases were defined in a study population of 8175 cats belonging to 30 breeds. Dental and oral diseases, with a prevalence of 28%, and dental calculus and gingivitis (21 and 8%, respectively) were the most prevalent disease category and diseases among all cats and in most of the breeds. An exception was Korats, which were more often affected by the diseases of the respiratory tract (23%) and asthma (19%). Other prevalent disease categories affected various organ systems, such as the skin (12%), the urinary system (12%), the digestive tract (11%), eyes (10%), the musculoskeletal system (10%), and genitals of female cats (17%). Prevalent health or developmental issues included repetitive vomiting (4%), tail kink (4%), feline odontoclastic resorption lesion (4%), urinary tract infections (4%), as well as cesarean section (6%) and stillborn kittens (6%) among female cats. We found 57 breed-specific conditions by Fisher’s exact tests and logistic regression analyses, including 32 previously described and 19 new breed-specific diseases. The genetic defect has already been found in six of them: polycystic kidney disease, progressive retinal atrophy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and three types of tail malformations. Behavioral profiling revealed breed-specific traits, such as an increased human avoidance in British Short and Longhairs and a higher level of aggression in Turkish vans. Our epidemiological study reveals the overall health profile in Finnish pure and mixed breed cats and identifies many breed-specific conditions without molecular identity for genetic research.
... Although all of the male cats were castrated, the testosterone produced by their adrenal glands could have affected their behavior. In addition, it has been reported that neutered males are friendlier to humans than neutered female [41]. The sex differences in hormone-behavior associations shown in this study may help us understand sex differences in behavior toward humans. ...
Simple Summary
Cats are the most widely kept companion animal in the world. Various factors influence the sociality of cats. Here, we investigated whether the hormonal status of cats, and the age at which they began living with a human, affected their behaviors toward humans. The results showed that male cats that began living with a human earlier had more contact with humans. In addition, males with lower testosterone levels had more contact with humans. The results of this pilot study suggest that testosterone levels and the timing of when cats begin living with humans modulate affinity behavior of male cats toward humans.
Abstract
Individual differences in the sociality of cats are influenced by inherited and environmental factors. We recently revealed that hormones can make a difference in intraspecies social behavior. It remains unclear whether cat behavior toward humans is modulated by hormones. Therefore, we analyzed the relationship between cat behavior and their basal hormone concentrations after spending time together with human experimenters. In addition, we analyzed the relationship between cat behavior and the timing of when the individual cats began living with a human because the sociality of cats could be dependent on their developmental experiences. The results showed that male cats that began living with humans earlier had more contact with an experimenter. In addition, individual male cats with low testosterone levels were more likely to interact with an experimenter. These findings of this pilot study suggest that the sociality of male cats toward humans is affected by testosterone and the age at which they begin to live with humans.
... To test associations between CAT-Tri+ factors and daily activity and activity variability, we conducted partial correlations. We controlled for cat age and sex (older cats and female cats tend to be less active; Hart & Hart, 2013) neuter status (neutered cats may become less inclined to roam; Scott et al., 2002), and daily restricted access (greater restriction to the outdoors would reduce the cat's roaming parameters) to ensure that these variables did not confound results. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. ...
We operationalised the triarchic model of psychopathy (boldness, meanness, and disinhibition) in domestic cats using a cat triarchic (CAT-Tri) questionnaire. In study 1 (n = 549), we identified candidate items for CAT-Tri scales using thematically analysed cat owner questionnaire responses. In study 2 (n = 1463), owners completed a questionnaire battery; the preliminary CAT-Tri questionnaire, Feline Five, and Cat-Owner Relationship Subscales. In study 3 (n = 30), associations between feline daily activity and Cat-Tri scales were investigated. A five-factor cat triarchic plus (CAT-Tri+) solution emerged: boldness, disinhibition, meanness, pet-unfriendliness, and human-unfriendliness. Disinhibition and pet-unfriendliness predicted a higher quality cat-owner relationship; meanness and boldness predicted a lower quality relationship. Findings provide insight into the structure of triarchic psychopathy in cats.
... Hart and Hart [25] surveyed some 80 feline veterinarians who were considered to be unbiased authorities on breed differences in cats, randomly selected from across the USA. Each ranked a random selection of seven (five breeds plus domestic short-and long-haired cats) out of 15 cat breeds under consideration along 12 behavioral traits. ...
Simple Summary
Over the last three and a half decades, many studies have been published about cat behavior and cat–human interactions (many by the author and his former team of assistants and university students); these have been summarized in recent review articles. Although we have learned much about domestic cats and their relationships with people, there are still many unanswered questions of interest to scientists and the lay public. The author has briefly referred to the past results and formulated the unanswered questions (some as hypotheses), even suggesting possible ways to answer or test them. Although the author is now retired, his intent is to encourage young researchers beginning their academic careers to take up the torch and work on this fascinating companion animal species.
Abstract
After recent publication of several reviews covering research results from the last 35 years of domestic cat studies, a number of important unanswered questions and hypotheses have arisen that could interest active researchers, especially those beginning their academic careers. Some sections of this paper concern methodologies that have yielded new insights and could provide more in the future; other sections concern findings and interpretations of those that need further testing. First, hypotheses arise from combining subjective (or psychological) assessments of cat and human personality traits and observational (ethological) studies of cat–human interactions: e.g., do owners with high attachment to their cats interact differently with them than owners with low attachment levels? New analytical methods of dyadic interaction observations open the door for testing further hypotheses. In particular, the Theme® (Noldus bv, NL) program could be used to determine if there are differences between cat breeds in interaction patterns with people, which is not only of interest to owners but also therapists employing cats in their practices. Cat breed differences have been found using subjective ratings, but these need to be corroborated by direct observational data from the home setting and/or non-invasive colony observations, since ratings based on anthropomorphic projections might not be reliable. This should be done before searching for the genetic basis of such differences. Reliable information on breed differences is also needed before prescribing certain breeds for animal-assisted interventions. A model has predicted that the degree of socialization as a kitten affects cats’ responses to positive and negative experiences with unfamiliar humans and their formation of feline–human relationships later on. This needs to be tested in an ethically approved manner on cats of known socialization status and has enormous consequences for cat adoptions from animal shelters. Observations of human–cat interactions have yielded many correlations, which can be tested by non-invasive manipulations of human behavior in the home setting. Examples of these will be given and are of general interest to the cat-owning public. A review of first findings on social cognition in cats has resulted in further unanswered questions and hypotheses. Finally, two aspects of domestic cat ecology will be considered (effects on wildlife and space utilization), which are of great interest to the public and conservationists alike.
... Hart and Hart (45) interviewed some 80 US-veterinarians in feline practices considered to be unbiased authorities on breed differences in cats. They ranked a random selection of five breeds and domestic short-and long-haired cats out of 15 cat breeds along 12 behavioral traits. ...
This is a mini review that summarizes what is known from quantitative observational studies of social interactions between domestic cats and humans in both laboratory colonies and the home setting. Only results from data that have been statistically analyzed are included; hypotheses still to be tested will be declared as such. In some cases, the observational data have been combined with independently collected subjective assessments by the owners of the animals' character and owner personality traits to help interpret the data. Further some relevant experimental studies are also included. All social interactions between cats and humans that are discussed below assume that the animals were socialized to people as kittens, the first topic of this review. Such socialized cats show what might be called “friendliness to humans,” which in turn affects human attachment to the cat. The visual and acoustic behavioral elements used to communicate and interact with other cats can be perceived by people and are also employed by the cats when interacting with them. The initiation, and the initiator of social interactions between cats and humans have been shown to influence both the duration of the interaction bout and total interaction time in the relationship. Compliance with the interactional “wishes” of the partner is positively correlated between the cats and the humans over all human-cat dyads examined. Cats do not spontaneously prefer one gender or age cohort of people, but the humans in those cohorts behave differently to the cats causing the latter to react differentially. The dyadic interaction structure has also been shown to differ between women and men and between older and younger adults. Nevertheless, cats—merely their presence but of course their behavior—can affect human moods and human mood differences have been shown to affect the behavior of the cats. Finally, differences have been found between interactions with purebred and non-purebred cats and between younger and older cats.
... Cat behavior may be more difficult to predict, because most cats are mixed breeds (eg, domestic shorthairs), but breed-specific differences in behavior do exist. 8 One of the greatest challenges a cat may encounter as an ESA is remaining composed during travel to and from the airport and while on a plane, which involves experiences different from the stressors encountered in a home setting. ...
... Cat behavior may be more difficult to predict, because most cats are mixed breeds (eg, domestic shorthairs), but breed-specific differences in behavior do exist. 8 One of the greatest challenges a cat may encounter as an ESA is remaining composed during travel to and from the airport and while on a plane, which involves experiences different from the stressors encountered in a home setting. ...
... Explanatory variables were selected based on previous literature and forward stepwise model selection by AIC values was used. The model selection was initiated with a starter model of weaning age, sex, and age, as weaning age was the variable of primary interest and different age groups and sexes tend to behave differently [72][73][74][75][76] . The model selection process favoured the inclusion of several additional variables in the model. ...
Behaviour problems are common in companion felines, and problematic behaviour may be a sign of chronic stress. In laboratory animals, early weaning increases the risk for aggression, anxiety, and stereotypic behaviour. However, very few studies have focused on early weaning in one of the world’s most popular pets, the domestic cat, although weaning soon after the critical period of socialisation is common practice. To study the effects of early weaning (<12 weeks) on behaviour, a large data set (N = 5726, 40 breeds) was collected from home-living domestic cats through a questionnaire survey. The results show that weaning before 8 weeks of age increases the risk for aggression, but not fearful behaviour. Moreover, cats weaned after 14 weeks of age have a lower probability for aggression towards strangers than early weaned cats and a lower probability for stereotypic behaviour (excessive grooming) than cats weaned at 12 weeks. The effect of weaning age on stereotypic behaviour is partially explained by the effects on aggression. These findings indicate that early weaning has a detrimental effect on behaviour, and suggest delayed weaning as a simple and inexpensive approach to significantly improve the welfare of millions of domestic cats.
... Nevertheless, the domestic housecats were much more highly rated than either of the pedigree cats on the trait 'independence', a cat trait highly appreciated by most cat owners. Hart and Hart (2013) interviewed some 80 veterinarians in feline practices randomly chosen across the US and considered to be unbiased authorities on breed differences in cats. These vets first compared neutered males and spayed females independently of cat breed, then ranked a random selection of seven (five breeds plus domestic short-and longhaired cats) out of the 15 cat breeds under consideration along 12 behavioral traits. ...
This review article covers research conducted over the last three decades on cat-human and human-cat interactions and relationships, especially from an ethological point of view. It includes findings on cat-cat and cat-human communication, cat personalities and cat-owner personalities, the effects of cats on humans, and problems caused by cats.
Personality in pets and other domesticated animals is important for their well-being and it can also influence human-animal relationships. Genetic and environmental factors influencing unwanted behavior in dogs are somewhat well known, but the factors influencing dog personality remain understudied. Here we examined environmental and demographic factors associated with seven broad personality traits in a survey of over 11,000 dogs. We utilized linear models and extensive model validation to examine the factors that have the most significant influences on personality and calculated effect sizes to assess the importance of these variables. Breed and age had the strongest associations with dog personality traits. Some environmental factors, especially puppyhood socialization, were also associated with personality. All factors had small effect sizes, highlighting that a lot of variation in personality remains unexplained. Our results indicate that personality traits are complex and strikingly similar in dogs, humans, and other nonhuman animals.
OBJECTIVE
To identify potential risk factors for feline litter box issues (eg, house soiling).
ANIMALS
3,049 privately owned cats.
PROCEDURES
Data were collected using a validated, owner-completed survey with convenience sampling. The feline behavior and personality survey included 138 statements related to cat behavior and questions concerning cat background and health. Statements related to litter box issues were subjected to factor analysis. Associations between the identified factors and personality and background variables were studied using generalized linear models. Strength of these associations (ie, importance) was evaluated by calculating relative and absolute effect sizes.
RESULTS
Factor analysis yielded 2 factors: house soiling and litter box fussiness. This study suggests that fearful cats are more prone to both forms of litter box issues than nonfearful individuals. Other associations we found differed between factors. For example, low sociability toward cats, male sex, and being intact associated only with increased house soiling and older age only with litter box fussiness. The most important variables in the litter box models (ie, sociability toward cats, breed, and activity/playfulness) failed to reach the suggested cutoff for a small effect size.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Numerous variables are thought to influence litter box issues, but few studies have examined their relevance. Here, we studied the associations of over 30 background variables and personality traits with 2 litter box issue factors to estimate their importance at the population level. Our results bring new knowledge to this field and may contribute to finding new solutions for these complex issues in the future.
Domestic cats and other felids rub their faces and heads against catnip ( Nepeta cataria ) and silver vine ( Actinidia polygama ) and roll on the ground as a characteristic response. While this response is well known, its biological function and underlying mechanism remain undetermined. Here, we uncover the neurophysiological mechanism and functional outcome of this feline response. We found that the iridoid nepetalactol is the major component of silver vine that elicits this potent response in cats and other felids. Nepetalactol increased plasma β-endorphin levels in cats, while pharmacological inhibition of μ-opioid receptors suppressed the classic rubbing response. Rubbing behavior transfers nepetalactol onto the faces and heads of respondents where it repels the mosquito, Aedes albopictus . Thus, self-anointing behavior helps to protect cats against mosquito bites. The characteristic response of cats to nepetalactol via the μ-opioid system provides an important example of chemical pest defense using plant metabolites in nonhuman mammals.
The study objective was to determine if there was a relationship between behavioural and physiological stress measures in sport horses and their performance. Nineteen horses competed in show jumping events (6 housed at the centre and 13 transported), while 5 horses at home training served as controls. The competition horses were assigned to “light” (obstacles ≤100cm) and “difficult” class (obstacles >100cm). The conflict behaviours (CB/min) in two rounds were calculated. Total faults were classified as “less faults” (≤one fault) or “more faults” (>one fault). Salivary cortisol concentration (SCC) before the first round (SCC-SP1), 20 min (SCC-SP2) and 60 min after the second round (SCC-SP3) was measured. The increase (SCC-in) and decrease (SCC-dec) in SCC was calculated. No effect of competition was found. Horses that waited longer for the second round had greater CB (P < .05). CB were more frequent in horses from the “more faults” (P = .05) and “difficult” (a tendency; P = .06) classes.
Research activities on the welfare of domestic cats have increased greatly in recent years. Of particular note is the emergence, especially in the USA and to a lesser extent in the UK, of shelter medicine as a veterinary specialist discipline in its own right. Its emergence is immensely gratifying, and is already leading to major improvements and refinements in the ways that overpopulation, one of the most important global issues in cat welfare, is being tackled. Significant advances are being made in the ways shelters are managed and cats are cared for. In addition, we are beginning to understand better why cats end up in shelters, what to do about it and how to promote successful adoptions. As a result, the number of healthy cats and kittens euthanised in shelters has decreased in some countries, although it still remains much too high. There have also been improvements in our understanding of the needs of cats and how they can be met, whether cats are housed in the home, the shelter or boarding cattery, the veterinary surgery or the research facility. Innovative ways of enriching the environment of cats in order to meet these needs and improve their welfare are being developed and applied in practice. By enriching the lives of cats under our care, we also enrich our own lives.
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