Help seeking as a self-regulated learning strategy

Abstract

Barry J. Zimmerman has long recognized that self-regulated learning (SRL) may, and in fact often does, involve others who help learners by providing the resources (e.g., information and skills) they need to be successful. As he stated recently when describing the development of research on SRL, “Although SRL was viewed as especially important during personally directed forms of learning (…) it was also deemed important in social forms of learning, such as seeking help from peers, parents, and teachers” (Zimmerman, 2008, p. 167). This view had its origins more than two decades previously when Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1988) concluded that “self-regulated students were not passive learners but actively sought out information and assistance when needed…one of the most widely emphasized characteristics of self-regulated learners (Zimmerman, 1986), and our data support its theoretical importance” (p. 289). This perspective was reinforced in subsequent publications (Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1988, 1990). Others shared the self-regulatory perspective on help seeking at the time, providing evidence that students who seek help when necessary are more likely to use other strategies as well (Karabenick & Knapp, 1991). Zimmerman’s and Schunk’s inclusion of help seeking in subsequent volumes devoted to SRL (Newman, 1994, 2008) has reinforced this view.

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CHAPTER B
HELP SEEKING AS A SELF.
REGULATED LEARNING
STRATEGY
Stuart A. Karabenick and Jean-Louis Berger
BarryJ. Zimmerman has long recognized that selÊregulated learning (SRL)
may, and in fact often does, involve others who help learners by providing
the resources (e.g., information and skills) they need to be successful. As
he stated recently when describing the development of research on SRL,
"Although SRL was viewed as especially important during personally di-
rected forms of learning... it was also deemed important in social forms
of learning, such as seeking help from peers, parents, and teachers" (Zim-
merman, 2008, p. 167). This view had its origins more than two decades
previously when Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1988) concluded that
"selÊregulated students were not passive learners but actively sought out
information and assislance when needed. . . one of the most widely empha-
sized characteristics of selÊregulated learners (Zimmerman, 1986), and ottr
data support its theoretical importance" (p. 289). This perspective was rein-
forced in a subsequent publication (Zimmernan & Marúnez-Pons, 1990).
Other researchers shared the self-regulatory perspective on help seeking
at the time, providing evidence that students who seek help when neces-
Altþliultitns tl Self-Rcguktled Le.alt.irp uun:s l)itnrse Disdlt[i,nes, pages 237-261
Oopylight @ 20I3 by Information Agc l'ublishing
All rights of rcproduction in any lor m rcseruccl. 237

238 I S, A. KARABENICK and J.-1. BERGER
sary are more likely to tlse olher strategies as well (Karabenick & Ihapp,
l99l ) . Zimmerman's and Schunk's inclusion of help seeking in subsequent
volt¡mes devoted to SRL (Newman, 1994, 2008) has reinforced this view.
Described in mo¡e detail subsequentl¡ helþ seekingcan be defined as the
pl-ocess of seeking assistance from other individuals or other sotlrces that
facilitate accomplishing desired goals, which in an academic context may
consist of completing assignments or satisfactory test Performance. There
is now substantial agreement that seeking help can be considered a form
of behavioral (Pintrich & Zusho, 2002) or social selÊregulation (e.g., New-
man, 1994; Zimmerman, 2008) that is included in the set of tools used by
cognitivel¡ behaviorall¡ and emotionally engaged learners (Butler; 1998,
2006; Ikrabenick, 1998, 2003,2004; Karabenick & Newman, 2006; Nelson-
Le Gall & Resnick, 1998; Newman, 2000; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck,
2007; Zusho, Karabenick, Bonney, & Sims, 2007).
Nelson-Le Gall (1981, 1987) and others (e.9., Ames, 1992; Gross & Mc-
Mullen, 1983) set the stage by altering the conception of help seeking
as an act of dependency (Beller, 1955; Winterbottom, 1958). Essential to
changing its stattts was Nelson-Le Gall's identification and explication of
instrumentalhelp seeking. By obtaining the assistancejttst necessary to over-
come difficulties, such as asking for explanations or hints rather than cli-
rect help (labeled executiue help seeking), instrumental help seeking can
serve to increase learning and understanding and decrease the need for
help and thus subsequent dependency on others (Nelson-Le Gall, 1981,
1985; Nelson-Le Gall, Gttmerman, & Scott-Jones, 1983). As a consequence
of being proactive and generally beneficial to the learning Process' instrt¡
mental help seeking is also referred to as ad'aþtive, strategic, aþþropriate, and
autonomous (Bembenutty, 2006; Butler, 1998; Karabenick, 1998; Karabenick
& Newman, 2006, 2009, 2010; Nelson-Le Gall, 1981; Newman, 2008; Ryan,
Patrick, & Shim, 2005;White, 2011).
Seeking help that involves others either directly or indirectly renders
it unique among self-regulated learning strategies. The student-teacher
interaction is a prime example of an extended relationship with multiple
instances of bids for assistance and responses to those requests. Even tech-
nology-mediated hetp seeking can be social when the presence of others
is real, imagined or even implied (Karabenick, 2010). By contrast, social
interactivity is not inherently a component of such cognitive strategies as
rehearsal and elaboration, although it could be (e.g', reciting a Poem to
others). Metacognitive planning, monitoring, and regulating also need not
involve interactions with others, although they could in some instances,
such as when taking inlo consideration information from other learners
when determining one's own level of comprehension (Karabenick, 1996)
ol working collaboratively to solve math problems (i.e., socially shared
metacognition; Iiskala, Vauras, Lehtinen, & Salonen, 2011). One conse-
Hefp Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy r 239
quence of the social-interactive nature of help seeking is that it renders
the process susceptible to a host of influences to which other forms of selË
regulated learning are relatively immune.
The purpose of the present chapter is to describe the helpseeking pro-
cess and the person and situation influences on that process, especially
perceived costs that decrease the likelihood that learners will seek help
when needed. The long observed and documented underuse of needed
help seeking (e.g., Dillon, 1988; Good, Slavings, Harel, & Emerson, 1987)
points to the need for interventions that render it more likely to benefit
students. With that background, we then outline the features of several po
tential interventions that are designed to facilitate learners' adaprive help
seeking-that is, seeking help in ways that are proactive and generally ben-
eficial to the learning process. Both sections will include ways that Zimmer-
man's work informs and is consistent with the development and use of help
seeking as part of the selÊregulatory process, which includes task analysis,
selÊmotivation beliefs, self-control, selÊobservation, selÊjudgment, and selÊ
reaction (Zimmerman, 1989, 2000).
THE HELP-SEEKING PROCESS
Help-seeking process models include a series of stages and decision points
that govern if and when learners seek help (e.g., Gross & McMullen, 1983;
Karabenick & Newman, 2009; Nelson-Le Gall, 1981). As shown in the first
column of Table 8.1, these stages and decision points are to: (1) determine
whether there is a problem, (2) determine whether help is needed,/wanted,
(3) decide whether to seek help, (a) decide on the rype of help (goal), (5)
decide whom to ask, (6) solicit help, (7) obtain help, and (8) process the
help received. An example of an opúmal sequence would be the following:
a student attempting to complete a math assignment cannot solve a protr
lem even after hours of trying, determines she cannot do so without help,
wants to know the general approach to solving this type of problem, realizes
that her classmate probably knows how, calls her friend who provides that
information, and uses the help to solve the problem. It should be empha-
sized that the stages and decisions may not occur in the order specifled by
these models, and especially that learners may not be mindful of the steps
involved. Rather, in most instances, the process probably involves a combi-
nation of automatic and controlled cognitive and moúvational processing
that may begin at various poins. For example, students' awareness may be-
gin with the decision to seek help, and the assessment of available resources
(for example, teachers or other students) cottld occur before as well, after
weighing the costs and benefits that determine that decision. Automatic-

240 r S. A. KARABENICK and J.-1. BERGER
TABTE 8.1 Stages of the Help-seeking Process and Three-Phase
Model of SRL
SRL Phase in the
Stages of the Help-Seeking Process Processes of Self-Regulation Zímmerman Model
I f)eterminc whcther therc is a Task analysis Forethorrght
problcrn
2 Dctcrminc whcthcr hclp is
nccdcd/wantcd
3 Dccide whethel to scck help Stratcgic planning
4 Dccidc on the typc othclp (goal)
5 l)ecidc whom to ask
fi Solicit help Sclliontrol Pcrfõrmance
7 Obtain help
[ìa l'rocess thc he lp reccivccl-iudgc SclÊjtrdgmcnt: scllìvaluation Scll:Rcflection
or evaluatc it
iib Process thc help rcceivcd-rcact Scll:rcactiou: scll:satisfaction
to il" and adaPtivc inlcrencc
ity may occur when seeking help is well-understood and practiced to the
extent that the act takes place with minimal or no conscious deliberation.
Zimmerman's model of selÊregulated learning (Zimmerman, 2000) of-
fers a cyclical and procedural microexplanation of self-regulation that fits
the use of strategic help seeking and may even provide more details than
the models described above. Specificall¡ the eight-step model described
here can be successfully mapped onto Zimmerman's SRL model (see Ta-
ble 8.1, columns entitled "SRL Phase in the Zimmerman model" and "Pro-
cesses of SelÊregulation"). Stages I to 5 of the help-seeking Process are
part of the forethought phase, as Processes setting the stage for action and
influencing the effort and decision to act. Motivational selÊbeliefs are most
influential in this phase. Stages 6 and 7 Pertain to the performance phase,
including processes occurring during action and affecting attention. Fi-
nall¡ Stage 8 (process the help received) is part of the self-reflection stage,
as it involves the processes that occur after performance of the action and
affect how learners respond to the experience. We further divide Stage 8
into two sutrstages. Stage 8a involves processing the help received, judging
whether it adequately addresses the learner's help-seeking goals (e.9., for
answers or hints). Stage 8b involves reacting to the answer to the Previ-
ous judgment-how satisfied one is and implications for subsequent help
seeking. In cyclic fashion, this last stage influences processes in the fore-
thought phase the next time a student seeks help, such as whether to ask
for help at all and whether the processing in Stage 8 suggests variations in
whom and how one asks for helP.
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy r 241
Ftrrther correspondences are notable in ler-ms of cognitive processes.
Deterrniling whether there is a ploblern and whethel help is needed and
wantecl are examples of task analysis processes, whereas Sages 3 to 5 (de-
cide rvhether to seek help, the type of help, and whom to ask) relate to what
Zirnrne¡man calls the strategic þlanning pr-ocesses. Four types of selÊmoti-
vation beliefs are considered as activated during the forethonght phase in
Zimrnennan's SRL model. With respect to help seekir-rg, these include:
self-efficacy (belief that one cau marshal the resources to seek the desired
help); otrtcorne expectations (beliefs that doing so will result in the desired
outcome); task value (e.g., help-seeking's benefits ar-rd costs); and goal ori-
entation (e.g., whether knowledge or skill development or demonstration
are rnore irnpoltar-rt). Each of these beliefs rnay influence the performance
phase. In the case of help seeking, selÊmotivation beliefs wotrld thtrs affect
both the propensity to seek help and the type of help targeted. The rela-
tions benveen goal orientation (or achievement goals) and help seeking are
the most studied of the associations between motivation and help seeking
(see below).
The two stages of the performance phase (solicit and obtain help) are par-t
of general self-contr-ol strategies applicable across contexts alÌd situations. In
their framework of SRL, Zimmennan and Moylan (2009) describe help seek-
ing as a social form of lnformation seeking. Even if these stages of the process
are largely dependent on others, and may therefole seem at lìrst glance the
opposite of self-coltrol, they require knowledge of what to ask, when to ask
and whorn to ask. Thus, they reflect a forln of self-regulatecl learning.
It is pertinent how the last stage of the help-seeking process (i.e., process
the help received) can be examined using Zimrnertnan's model. Manifest-
ed here are both selÊjudgment, which is the self-evahration of one's owrt
perfolrnance ancl self-r-eaction, and the clegree of perceived (dis)satisfàc-
tion and inferences about "how one needs to alter his or her selÊregulatory
apploach dur-ing sttbsequeut efforts to learn or perflolrn" (Zirnmerman,
2000, p. 23). Dur-ing this last stage, the stttdent makes sttch selÊevaltrative
jtrdgments as "Does the help I received pr-ovide me with the inf'onnation
I needecl?" This jtrdgrnent consists of cotnparing the otttcome of help
seeking with one's goal (Stage 4); that is, a monitoring process. Mot-eovet-,
two processes of selËreaction may take place. First, a certaiu level of self-
satisfaction is experienced, which encotrrages or discotrrages fttrthe¡ de-
mancls lor help. The congruence between the type of help sought by the
student ancl the fbrrn of help pr-ovided by the teacher or a peer- is one type
of satislàction. For example, asking for expedient help and receiving help
in thzrt t'or-rn is a source of self:satisfaction, which increases the probability
of seekir-rg the same type of help in the future. Second, adaptive or defen-
sive inferences can lead sttldents to aller- their use of help seeking toward
appr-opr-iate strategies lbr- lealning. hr the case of what Zimmerman calls

242 t S. A. KARABENTCK and J._L BERGER
HELP.SEEKING NEED, BEHAVIOR, AND INTENTIONS
calibrating the extent of learners' need for help is essential when they con-
front a learning impasse or are faced with less than desired levels of per-
formance, and it would be intuitive that greater need translates into higher
levels of help seeking. That relation does exist at the range betlveen lowand
moderate levels of need; however, the monotonic relation between need
and help seeking breaks down ar very high need levels, providing evid.ence
for the maxim that those who need help the most are least likety to seek it.
The result is a non-monotonic (inverted u-shaped) relationship between
college students was most frequent in the
& Knapp, 1988a). One interpretarion of
g among those who very much need it is
that students may be too discouraged to take advantage of available help,
considering it hopeless. Another reason, to be elaborated subsequentl¡ is
that these students are too threatened by displays of their ignorance. con-
tributing as well could be their lack of help-seeking skills, which the presenr
chapter seeks to address.
This non-monotonic relationship ilhrstrates an important point: that the
level of need cannot be inferred directly from behavior. Instead, it must
either be known through independent evidence (e.g., previous levels of
performance on similar tasks), be independently assessed, or experimen-
tally manipulated by, for example, inducing failure experiences (Newman,
2000). The non-monotonic relationship also illustrates rhe difference be-
tween help-seeking behavior and help-seeking intentions. Intentions refer
to the likelihood of seeking help conringent on the need for help. such
conditional statemenls have become the standard in research on help seek-
ing, which has consistently found that, as just discussed, mor-e adaptively
motivated students are not more likely to seek help but rather are more
likely to seek help if needed (Karabenick & Ihapp, l99l; Karabenick &
Newman,2010).
Knowledge about the need for help is essential when respo'ding to
requests for assistance, which often take the form of qr.restions or when
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy ¡ 243
srudents fail to ask for needed help. It is generally possible to infer rhe
need for help from requests, although help can be sought for reasons other
than need, such as for purposes of ingratiation or impression management
(e.g., demonstrating mastery of the material). Not asking quesrions, how-
evet is more ambiguous because it may signi$' the lack of perceived need
btrt also the possibility that learners, often students in classrooms, Iack the
knowledge to even formulate a question (e.g., Renkl, 2002) or are r.oo em-
barrassed or perceive that their teacher is not receptive to questions (Kara-
benick & Sharma, 1994).
HELP-SEEKING GOATS
As noted at the outset, defining learners' help-seeking goals was an essential
step in recognizing that seeking help can be a selÊregulated learning strat-
egy, as in the performance phase of Zimmerman's model of selÊregulation
that incorporates help seeking as a social sralegy for gaining needed assis-
tance from an appropriate source (Zimmerman & Campillo, 2003). In ad-
dition to the distinction between instn"rmental and executive helpseeking
goals, that are considered more versus less adaptive forms of help seeking,
respectively, Butler (1998) identified three helpseeking orientations: (a)
a¡-¡tonomous-focused on understanding and increased competency; (b)
ability-focused----concerned with not appearing incompetent; and (c) expe-
dient orientation (similar to executive help seeking). Furthermore, Ryan
et al. (2005) proposed that help seeking can be characterized as appropri-
ate, dependent or avoidant. Newman (2008) has designated an adaptive
help-seeker as one who begins by accurately assessing that help is necessary
formulates an appropriate request for help, understands the best resources
a'railable, designs strategies for successful requests, and productively pro-
cesses the help received to his or her mastery of the material or the abil-
ity to solve problems. In other words, an adaptive help-seeker is someone
who negotiates the help-seeking process in an ideal nianner, for maximnm
short- and long-term benefits.
HELP SEEKING AND ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS
Achievement goal orientations-students' goals or approaches to learn-
ing-have been consistently linked to help seeking (Butler & Neuman,
1995; Karabenick, 2004; Karabenick & Newman, 2009, 2010; Newman,
2007; Ryan, Hicks, & Midgley, 1997). Mastery oriented students (who fo
cus on understanding) are more likely to seek instnrmental help, nol as
threatened by help seeking, less likely to avoid seeking help and less likely

244 . S A. KARABENICK and J -1. BERGER
to seek expedient,/exectttive help. In contrast, stttdents with performance-
appr-oach (who focus on performing better than others) and performance-
avoid orientations (who are concerned about perforrning worse than oth-
er-s) to learning and performance are more threatened by help seeking, are
more likely to avoid seeking instrumental help and more likely to seek help
for- expedient reasons (Karabenick, 2003; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997).
Goal orientations are considered important predictors of strategic plan-
ning in Zimme¡man's moctel. First, goal orientation as a forethought pro-
cess enhances efforts to learn or the quality of learning effort, which are
manifest in the association between goal orientation and type of help seek-
ing cited above. Zimmerman also assumes that stndents with a mastery goal
orientation will engage in strperior self-reflection processes more so than
will students with a perfolmance goal orientation (Zimmerman & Moylan,
2009). Accordingly, the way studenß process the help they receive may diÊ
fer as a function of their goal orientation. If we consider instrumental help
seeking as leading to deep learning, and expedient help seeking as leading
to surface learning, then the model provides a procedural and theoreúcai
explanation of how achievement goals affect help seeking. It thus supporfs
che empirical r-elationship observed between mastery goals and instrumen-
tal help seeking on the one hand and between performance goals and ex-
pedient help seeking on the other.
INFLUENCES OF THE LEARNING CONTEXT
According to the social cognitive model of SRL (Zimmerman, 2000),
founded on Bandnra's social cognitive learning theory (Bandura, 1986),
person, environment, and behavior reciprocally influence each other. Ac-
cordingl¡ the environment is seen as exerting potential influences at each
phase of the help-seeking process. For instance, classroom context (envi-
ronment) may affect strategy selection (i.e., behavior in the for-ethought
phase) by favor-ing or r-estraining requests for help from the teacher or
from other stndents.
Typically assessed by students' aggregated perceptions of their classes'
achievement goal strtrctnre, there is evidence that. younger students in ele-
mentary ancl middle school classes that are more mastery focused (i.e., hav-
ing an emphasis on trnderstanding and improvement) are less likely to
avoid seeking needed help (Ryan, Gheen, & Midgle¡ 1998; Turner et al.,
2002). The influence of pelceived classroom performance goal stllrcture
(i.e., an emphasis on ability and inter-student comparisons) begins in mid-
dle school and persists during the high school years (Karabenick, Zusho, &
Kempler, 2005; Ryan, et al., 1998), wher-eas the influence of mastery goal
structure diminishes by the time stttdents reach college (Karabenick, 2004).
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy r 245
In addition to research on goal structure, classes in which middle anrl
high school stttdents perceived higher levels of support (using a composite
measure that combines perceived teacher stlpport for student collabora-
tion and student questioning, teacher fairness and respect and caring) were
found more likely to seek adaptive help (Karabenick et al', 2005). Consis-
rently, students in classes with teachers they perceive as more supPortive
are more likely to have questions, are less inhibited to ask them, and are
thus more likely to ask questions when necessary (Karabenick & Sharma,
i994; see also Kozanitis, Desbiens, & Chouinard,2007). Help-seeking skills
are not only affected by the environment; they can be actively promoted by
various forms of intervendons.
RECOMMENDED INTERVENTIONS TO PROMOTE
ADAPTIVE HELP SEEKING
Accumulated evidence and understanding of the help-seeking process and
che approach to SRL by Zimmerman and colleagues provides the basis for
inrerwentions to increase the likelihood of adaptive help seeking. Improving
adaprive help seeking would require a comprehensive approach, which in-
cludes that learners possess a set of help seeking relevant competencies and
resources (Karabenick & Dembo, 201 1; Karabenick & Newman, 2009). Based
on diverse lines of research, listed in the second column of Table 8.2 are the
TABLE 8.2 Primary Resources/Competenc¡es at Each Stage of the
Flelp-Seeking Process
Resources/ComPetencies
Stage Affective-
Cogn¡tive Emotional Contextual
I [)ctct minc whcthcr thcrc is a
problcrn
2 l)ctcrmint'whe thcr hclp is
ncc(tcd/rvaD tcd
3 l)ccidc whcthcl to scck hclP
4 l)ccirlc on lhc lypc ol hclp (goal)
5 l)ccidc whom t<¡ ask
ti Solicit hclp
7 ()l;Lain hclp
!l l'roccss thc hclp rcccivccl
Note:Aclaptccl fì'orn Karabcnick, S.4., & [)crnbo, M. (21)l l). Thc sclf:rcgrrlation o[ sccking
hclp: Tlrccrr y, rcscarch and application. Neu Dirctl.iotts lot 'l'eat:lLing ttul Lcuttriug, 126' ?7 -
Social
X
XX
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

246 T S A. KARABENICK and J.-L BERGER
four classes of competencies and resources needed at each stage of the help-
seeking process (some of which are important at more than one stage).
Cognitiue competencies include the understanding of when help is needed
and how to ask questions. Social competencies include knowledge of those
who can best help under different conditions and having the skills to ap
proach those resources in a socially desirable manner. Afecliae-emotional re-
sozrc¿s include the beliefs and emotions that allow Iearners to cope with diË
ficulty and concerns about being perceived as inadequate or incompetent.
Contextual anil interþersonal resources include the ability to work collabora-
tively. This includes knowing the rules of teacher-learner engagement and
understanding expeclations from teachers, peers and parents. Table 8.3
presents possibte interventions corresponding to each set of competencies
and resources. The interventions proposed here have been adapted from
numerolrs instrucúonal procedures to improve learning and interpersonal
behavior, but most have not been used or studied in relation to help-seek-
TABLE 8.3 Intervent¡ons Related to l\leeded Resources/Competencies
in Help Seeking
Resources/Competencies
Affective-
Cognitive Emotional Contextual
lntervent¡ons Social
(ioals/Obicctivcs to Monitor
l'crf'omance
(srage l)
Acadcm ic [,an¡¡uagc Script-s
(stagcs 6 and 7)
Task/(bal Analysis
(stagcs I ancl 2)
Iirlor Analysis
(stagc 13)
Crcating Mastcry Lcarning
Environmcnts
(sragc 3)
lisublishing anrì Explaining
classr¡orn Norms for Hclp Sceking
(stagcs 4 and 5)
(ìogrri tivc lìchavior Systcms
(sragcs 4, 5 and fi)
Social Skills Training
(stagcs 6 and 7)
Tcchnological (lontcxt
(all stages)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
XX
X
X
X
X
Mla: A<ìaptcd [ì'om lGrabcnick, S.4., & l)crnlrt>, lvl. (2t)l l). Thc scll'-regtrlation of sceking
hclp: Theory rcsearch ancl application. Nat Dindions liu 'l-eadúng un.d Lettnì:ng, 126,V3-43.
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy r 247
ing bel'ravior-s. In briet-, it is ploposecl that lealnet-s woulcl be rnor-e likely to
scek help if tbey had a better idea of rvhat they cticl not kuow ancl how to
access help to overconle thosc iDrpeclitnellts [o lear-ning ancl Pcrf'ortnatlce.
COGNITIVE COMPETENCIES
Resear-chers have inclicated that metacognition, which consists of knowl-
c(lge iìl)out one's krìowledge (Ftavell, 1979), and rnole gener-ally that in-
volves planning, rnonitoring and legtrlating cogllitiolì, is an irnpor-tant
täctor in academic success. There at'e inter-individtral clifferences between
stuclellts in how aware they are of their olvn knowleclge. This arvarelless
is of utmost importance in the process of selÊr-egulation. As Tobias and
[,verson (2009) strggest, "if stì.rclents fail ¡o differentiate what they know
or have lear-ned previotrsly fi-orn what they clo not know or lÌeed to leall-t
(or r-eleam), they are lìot expected to elìgage more advanced metacogni-
tive strategies, suclì as evaluating their lealning in au instlttctional setting,
or employing more ellìciert learning and study stlategies" (pp. 107-108).
Ernpirical evicle nce shows, for example, that stttdeuts rvho are the rnost ac-
curate ilì their- metacognition (i.e., who are the most aware of their own
knorvleclge) seek help mor-e eflectively-that is, when it is needed the most
(Tobias & Evelson, 2002). In contrast, those who are less accurate ask for
help not only when it is leally neecled but also when it is not. The follorving
ale instnrctional strategies designed to improve metacogrìitive skills.
GoctLs/objectiues to help monitor pe(ormance. Accurale selÊrnonitoring is
a necessaly condition for mo|e adaptive help seeking (Tobias, 2006). Al-
thouqh lealnels rnay realize they have a probleln in an academic area, it
is clitical they unclerstand what competencies they hâve failecl to master.
Increasing^ [he accuracy of selÊrnonitoriug may be as simple as pr-oviding
sturlents with an outlilìe 1'or each ullit of illstruction t.hat includes a concise
staternert of the goals or ol¡ectives, tbllowed by an example of the goal
ancl the location in assigr-red rnaterial lvhere the standar-d is disclrssecl. This
cotrlcl help stuclents determine lvhat they kuow aud do not know ancl con-
tlibute to lnore accuraLe rnoui[oling of their- pt'ogress by allowing thetn to
cleterrnine mor-e pr-ecisely if ancl rvhere help is neecled.
Zimurer-rran's model (Zitnurer-rnan & Moylan, 2009) incltrcles tlvo pr-o-
cesses tlìal ailn to irnpr-ove knowledge abottt. one's olvt knowledge: meta-
cognitive rnonitor-ilg ar-rd self-jtrdgmeut, taking place respectively dtrling
the per-lbnnance and self:reflection ¡rhases. Metacognitive mouitot'iug cou-
sis¡s of infbr-mally tlacking one's perfollnalìce, pl'ocesses attd otttcoures.
Sell-jtrclgnrent r-ef-ers to cornparing one's own perfbr-mauce with a stanclard
or- a goal. Both processes can help stuclents bettel iclentily what they know
and clo llot kllow ancl t.htrs forlnttlate tailoled l'eqttests lor help.

248 ¡ 5. A. KARABENICK ANd J.-1. BERGER
Academic langtage scripús. Structured oral language Practice routines
can provide structured scripts to help learners improve their literacy skills
(e.g., Levy & Dutro, 2008), and in the process also imProve their skills for
seeking and receiving help. The simple technique of "pair and share" can
be used as a forum for learners to practice those skills. Consider the follow-
ing dialogre when Learner A states: "I am having difficulty solving problem
3; can you help me?" Followed by Learner B's "Yes, watch how I go through
each step." Despite is simpliciry observations suggest that such public pro-
nouncements and dialogue can be very effec[ive. Newman (2008) identi-
fied a number of questions learners usually have about help seeking in the
classroom. These include issues related to several forethought selÊregula-
tory processes such as: What should I ask? (øsk anaþis) Whom should I
ask? How shall I formulate my question? and Which of my friends is most
likely to know the answer? (all strategic planning processes). Therefore,
the student's questions could be seen as evidence of lack of SRL skills that
might be trained. These issues can also be practiced during such dialogues.
Thsk/goat and, error anaþsi,s. Making explicit the knowledge (i.e'' pre-skills
and new knowledge) required to learn and to perform a task (Dick, Care¡
& Carey, 2009) can help learners understand their need for help, which is
sustaining the initial process of task analysis according to Zimmerman's ter-
minology. For the instructor, this means asking "what is it I want my learn-
ers to do?" and "What do they need to know to do it?" Once the ultimate
objective emerges, the instructor works backward to delineate which capa-
bilities learners must acquire to reach that objective. Whereas task or goal
analysis is used for instructional design by communicating the necessary
knowledge or steps needed to complete a ¡:tsk to learners, the information
also can be used to help them monitor their level of understanding, which
is the linchpin of the helpseeking process. The analysis of errors can also
assist in the adaptive use of help seeking, including during the last stage of
the process. Thus, after giving help, instructors can guide learners through
the process of how they arrived at their incorrect answers by orally describ
ing èach step taken when attempting to solve a problem' A review of the
errors, followed by attempts to solve new problems, can further illuminate
why errors occurred and help learners Process the help they receive'
AFFECTIVE-EMOTIONAL RESOURCES
. Since research on help seeking indicates that for
personal cost ofseeking help, these learners would
to help them deal with beliefs that contribute [o
those costs. Rational emotive behavioral theraPy (Ellis, 1998), cognitive
therapy (Beck, 1995), and cognitive behavior modification (Meichenbaum
I
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy r 249
& Goodman, 1971) are among the cognitive behavioral systems used to
change attitudes, emotions and beliefs that are often associated with help
seeking, which can serve as models for that Process. Rational emo[ive ther-
apy, lor example, can help learners develop greater awareness of their own
emotional states and how those states vary over time. Students can also
learn to detect the automatic thoughts and identify beliefs that underlie
their thought processes that influence their emotions. Third, they can eval-
uate and dispute their automatic thoughts and beliefs. Finall¡ the process
focuses on eliminating the maladaptive thoughts and beliefs and replacing
them with more positive beliefs and statements.
As with academic scrips and sharing dialogues discussed previousl¡
the process of verbalizing maladaptive thoughs and replacing them with
more adaptive ones could be beneficial. It should be noted that the process
would have to be modified for younger learners. Consider the following
example: A (activating event)-Phil receives a failing grade on his history
examination and decides he needs help; B (the irrational or helpless belief
that follows the event)-"My teacher will think I am dumb if I ask for help";
C (consequence)-Phil feels helpless and anxious, decides not to ask for
help, and believes that he will not succeed in the class; D (disputing irratio-
nal beliefs)-"Ok. I did poorly on this exam. Everyone needs help at one
dme or another. Giving help is what instructors do. They may even think
that I'm smart if I ask for help when I need it. I'm going to do something
about my low test scores;" E (new effect)-"I still feel disappointed that
I didn't do well, but I now have a plan to do better in the future, which
includes going to seek assistance when I don't undersbnd something. I
can be a good student!" In reference to Zimmerman's model, this cype of
intervention primarily targets strategic planning processes and self-control.
In contrast, the task,/goal and error analysis form of intervention fosters the
task analysis process. Therefore the two forms of intervention can be seen
as complementary.
CONTEXTUAT RESOURCES
Creating ma.stery lea,rning enaironments. Since studies have demonstrated that
learners are more likely to seek adapúve help in masteryoriented class-
rooms, it follows that instructors can influence learners' goal orientations by
establishing a culture or climate that emphasizes mastery over performance
goals-that is, different achievement goal structures (Karabenick & New-
man, 2009). According to the TARGET framework (e.g., Ames, 1992; Maehr
& Anderman, 1993), the six areas of instruction that can lead to a more mas-
tery goal oriented classroom are: the type of løså that learners are asked to do,
the degree of autonom,y or authori'tylearrìers are allowed in classroom activities,

250 r S A. KARABENICK and J -L BERGER
of abitity that may be revealed by asking for help'
In reference to Zimmerman's model, creating a mastery or performance
only allow collaboralive work outside of class. It is important for instructors
ro discuss classroom rules and procedttres to help learners understand how
rhey might proceed in obtaining help, as well as the types of help resoulces
available in the classroom and when to access them'
SOCIAL COMPETENCIES-SOCIAL sKILLs TRAINING
Asking and receiving help requires a nttmber of important social skills that
somelearnershavenotmastered.ThislackofknowledgePreventslearners
fi.om positive inreraction with peers and limits their requests for assistance'
An inter-vention by Goldstein and McGinnis (1997) for improving learu-
ers,pl-osocialskillsincludesanttmberofskillsthatcouldbeusefulwhen
applied to the help-seeking process' Such social competencies would be
imþo.tant, for example' when focused oll starting
question, asking for help, helping others, dealing
sponding ro failure, ancl nttmerous others skills' Fo
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy I 251
are suggested steps to teach the skill of asking a question (trainer notes in
parentheses; Goldstein & McGinnis, 1997, p. 71):
1. decide what you would like to know more about (ask about some-
thing you don't understand);
2. decide whom to ask (think about who has the best information on a
topic);
3. think about different ways to ask your question and pick one way
(think about wording; raise your hand);
4. pick the right time and place to ask your question (wait for a pause;
wait for privacy); and
5. ask your question.
This procedure-terrned skillmastering-includes four components:
modeling (having someone show you the skill), role'þlaying (trying out the
skill yourself), feedback (having someone tell you how well you did), and
transfer (trying the skill when, where and with whom you really need to use
the skill). To improve these skills, learnersviewvideos, complete homework
assignments, practice using the skill, and receive feedback on their behav-
ior. This approach is congruent with the application of Zimmerman's social
cognitive perspective of help seeking as a self-regulatory skill. Zimmerman
(2000) describes the development of a selÊregulatory skill or strategy as a
four-step process that begins with observation of a model (vicarious experi
ence) to emulation (imitation of the model), selÊcontrol (display of the
strategy under structured conditions), and finally the ultimate goal of selÊ
regulation (adaptive application of the strategy in changing condiúons).
The model supports the beneflts of strategic modeling as exemplified in
the Goldstein and McGinnis (1997) prosocial skills intervention.
TECHNOTOGICAL CONTEXT TO SUPPORT HELP SEEKING
Any intervention designed to facilitate adaptive help seeking must take into
consideration the advantages afforded by these systems and more recent
advances in social media. In fact, we propose that technology is so pervasive
that, depending on the application involved, it can affect all stages of the
helpseeking process and involve all competencies. The variety of informa-
tion and communications technology (ICT) systems capable of supporting
help seeking has considerably expanded since their potential impact was
first systematically discussed (Keefer & Karabenick, 1998). They are various-
ly categorized by their functions, such as computer-mediated communica-
tion (CMC), intelligent learning environments (ILE), learning and course
management. systems (LMS, CMS: e.g., Blackboard), and the pervasive and

252 . S. A. KARABENICK and J.-1. BERGER
accelerating presence of iPads in educa[ion (e.g., e-books). Kitsantas and
Dabbagh (2010) have suggested these could be considered different mani-
festations of integraúve learning technologies (ILI) that facilitate SRL and
provide additional supportive evidence for the applicability of Zimmer-
man's approach to the process.
Reducing the cost of seeking help is arguably a major affordance of tech-
nology. Seeking help with the aid of such technology-mediated helping re-
sources typically requires less effort and, given the potential for anonymity,
can be less threatening. Asynchronous comPuter-mediated communication
(CMC; e.g., email, online discussions, texting, social networking sites) has
the additional advantage of providing time for reflection (even if brief)
that is not possible with synchronous CMC media (e.g., chat, voice, video).
As demonstrated some time ago, help delivered by an intelligent system
increased (approximately doubled) the rate of help seeking compared to a
condition in which same information was ostensibly provided by a remote
person via the same computer interface (Karabenick & Knapp, 1988b). Kit
santas and Chow (2007) supported several hypotheses about the prefer-
ences for and influences on the help seeking of college students enrolled
in distance, distributed, and traditional classes. As predicted, students in
courses with an online computer comPonent rePorted feeling less threat-
ened by and more likely to seek help. Students in general also reported the
use of CMC (email) to be the most effeclive way to seek help. More recent
research has also confirmed the advantages of seeking help in a CMC con-
text (Puustinen, Volckaert-Legrier, Coquin, & Bernicot, 2009).
Variations of the Cognitive Tutor and its companion HelP Tutor are
based on models of the adaptive help-seeking Process (Aleven, Mclaren,
& Koedinger, 2006; Aleven, Stahl, Schworm, Fischer, & Wallace, 2003)'
Because the purpose of ILEs is to increase knowledge and understanding
rather than simply to provide answers, learners are allowed (and even en-
couraged) to select different types of help (e.g., answers or hints consist-
ing of explanations). Consistent with some of the innovations described
previousl¡ recent innovations have been designed to increase help seeking
by providing instruction regarding the help-seeking process and by having
students practice help seeking and other self-regulatory skills prior to Per-
formance sessions (Roll, Aleven, Mclaren, & Koedinger, 2007).
One of the apparent downsides of these innovations consists of evidence
that students excessively use expedient help (i.e., gaming the system) by
opting for direct hints rather than indirect instrumental help (e.9., access
to a glossary of definitions). Although such behavior would be considered
maladaptive from the perspective promoted in the help-seeking literature,
a more benign alternative explanation is possible. This explanation pro-
poses that acquiring direct hints in some instances may be desirable and
adaptive. In the approach adopted by many medical students (Yudelson et
tHelp Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy r 253
al., 2006), fbr example, direct hins are considered selÊinstr¡-rctional; that is,
hints ar-e consicler-ecl allother fonn of trseftrl inforrnation. In other words, it
is not sirnply the type of help requested ancl received that is important btrt
also, in the selÊregulation of help seeking, how that help functions and how
it is processecl. New developments in this ar-ea are in process to elabolate
rnodels that accoullt for such tendencies.
One of the major- conseqlrences of these technologies is the availability
ot'archived infor-mation that can be urined to track learnet-s' intel'actions
rvith each other, with insu-uctols, and with ILEs (Winne et al., 2006; Wood
& Woocl, 1999; also Mäkitao-Siegl, Kohnle, & Fischer,2010). As descr-ibecl
strbseqrrently, Winne and colleagues have championed the traces left by
learner-s as mole valicl evidence of SRL than are selÊrepor-ts. Synchlonous
ancl asynchronous comlnlrnication systems used in classes, as well as dur-
ing non-class tirnes, can expand opporttulities to track the student leal'n-
ing process to more completely understand help seeking ancl other forms
of SRL. In just or-re exarnple, Putrs[inen and Bernicot (2009) analyzed the
lingtristic fol'm o[ students' anonymous online reqr.rests for acacletnic as-
sistance, Ênding a high incidence of demanding, insistent and impatient
requests thàt can emerge rrnder-those conditions.
Techr-rology also raises an irnportant isstte for Zimmermau's ancl other
moclels of SRL. If lve assnrne that seeking help involves social interactiv-
ity, then ILEs and other intelligent systerns pose conceptual challenges to
the very definition of help seeking (Keefer & Karabenick, 1998), which is
assunrecl to set it apar-t from other fblrns of SRL. If help seeking is by deÊ
inition a social-in[eractive process, then how would we coltstrrre seeking
help [ì-orn artificial intelligence systerns? Leaving aside the complex issue
of ar-tifici¿'rl life forms (e.g., applying the Ttrling Test), it wotrld be irnpor-
talìt to consider ir-rtelligent systems as a chanuel for social influence. Social
influence can exist when the presence of otl'rers is leal (e.g., a teacher in a
classroorn), irnaginecl (e.g., "What would yottl lno[her think?"), or irnplied
(e.g.,someone will know that I sought help). Given that definition, ILEs
can be examined to detelmine the degree to which a system is imþlicitþ
social (l(arabenick, 201 I ).
According to this criterion, what is critical is whether otherc al-e irnag-
inecl or irnptied when lealners cousider- seeking help. Ifuowing (or suspect-
ir-rg) that the use o[ learning systems such as gSTUDY (Winne et al., 2006)
leaves [races-¡races left behind by interactions with strch systems, as well
as [hose capttrred by or-rline infol-mation resorrrces (e.g., Google or social
media tr-acking)-for example, could alter how learners constrtle access to
help provicled by the system. Thus whether ILEs (and information search-
ing) infltrence help seeking depends on how "social" they ar-e perceived
to be, on the perceived costs and benefits ofseeking and uot seeking help
(Ikrabenick & Knapp, 1988b), and on the motivation-r-elated chalacteris-

254 r 5. A. KARABENICK and J -L BERGER
tics of the learning contexts in which such artificial systems are embedded
(Schofield, 1995). Zimmernan and colleagues have identified help seeking
as a form of social selÊregulation (Zimmerman, 2008). The comprehensive
view ofwhat can be considered social in the foregoing analysis, therefore,
expands the contexts to which their model can be applied to include tech-
nologically enhanced help seeking even when that social influence is not
readily apparent.
IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR HELP-
SEEKING RESEARCH AND INTERVENTIONS
We have reviewed the person and context variables that influence students'
help seeking, the important resources and competencies needed to seek
and obtain help, and some intervention strategies that might develop some
of the resources and competencies. Although these are guides based on
current knowledge, translational research is needed to turn existing theory
and empirical evidence into pedagogical practice to promore adaptive help
seeking. For example, it is known that learners do not always experience
and follow the help-seeking stages in the order specified by the models,
or that they are even mindful of all of those stages. Studies are required
to explicate how students negotiate these stages, especially whether per-
son and situation variables and development level mediate or moderate
the process. Influences that are found may also have implications for the
optimal ways to improve selÊregulated help seeking. Other issues include
whether all stages have equal impact on help seeking. In other words, are
all stages necessary and sufficient to seek and obtain help? What stages play
the most influential role in seeking or impeding help seeking? A series of
investigations is warranted to explore these questions, their implications for
understanding more about the help-seeking process, and the effectiveness
of each of the recommended interventions based on that knowledge.
This work must especially take into consideration the presumption that
older students have the selÊregulatory skills required for effective learning.
Considerable research (Simpson, Hynd, Nist, & Burrell, 1997) and experi-
ence suggest otherwise, however, including that many students lack the com-
petencies required for adaptive help seeking. There is substantial evidence
that more successful than less successful students have acquired key selÊreg-
ulatory skills. Although study skills texts and courses (Dembo & Seli, 2008;
Weinstein, Husman, & Dierking, 2000) are designed to remediare these de-
ficiencies, they have rarely focused on help seeking. The competencies and
intelentions described here should be considered in the future.
Furthermore, instructors often stress the importance of seeking needed
help (e.9., approaching teaching assistants or the instructor or even learn-
Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy . 255
ing with other students; see Barkle¡ Cross, & Majo., 2OOS for a descrip
tion ofvarious collaborative learning techniques). Yet, such suggestions are
rarely accompanied by informarion about the help-seeking process, which
is suggested by research on the advantages of collaboration to improve
learning (e.g., Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2005; Webb, Ing, Kersting, & Nemeç
2006). Although Barkley, Cross and Major (2005) introduced such simple
procedures as þaõr-shareas a discussion technique in collaborative learning,
they did not include the language scripts ro help studenrs improve their
discussion techniques and help-seeking behavior. Ir is highly suggested that
K-l2 teachers and college instructors use instructional time to provide stu-
dents with the appropriate information that could reap important benefits
in both the short teûn as well as help-seeking skills relevant for life-long
learning, especially given an informaLion environment that increasingly
places demands for such skills.
coNctustoN
It is evident that helpseeking research and development fits well within
the approach to SRL pioneered by Zimmerman and colleagres. As shown
in Table 8.1, forethought, performance and selÊreflection phases of the
model map on to stages in the help-seeking process, which reinforces the
conclusion that successful learning and performance are more likely when
SRL includes adaptive help seeking. Moreoveç Zimmerman's model sug-
gests further research on a procedural view of help seeking. For instance,
the relation between goal orientation and help seeking is well explored,
whereas the way in which this strategy relates to other selÊmotivation beliefs
acting in the forethought phase has still to be explored. How do selÊeffi-
cacy, task value, and outcome expectation articulate with goal orientation
in influencing the performance and selÊreflection phases of help seeking?
After help is received, how does the selÊreflection processes feedback on
further forethought processes? Accordingly, studies adopting a micro and
longitudinal perspective on help seeking would provide information on the
dynamic of selÊregulated help seeking. Coming full circle, such work may
even inform Zimmerrnan's model, which as we stressed at the outset, was
seminal for the initial establishment of help seeking as an SRL strategy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Kara Makara and Fani Lauermann for their help-
ful comments on a previous version of this chapter, and to Glen Raulerson,
Pat Cotter and Pam Maclnnis-Weir. The chapter was prepared while the

256 r S. A KARABENICK and J -1. BERGER
first authot'was supported by a grant from the U' S' National Science Foun-
clation: DUE-0928103'
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