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Associations of self-compassion and global self-esteem with positive and negative affect and stress reactivity in daily life: Findings from a smart phone study
Abstract
The present study examined trait self-compassion and trait self-esteem in relation to positive (PA) and negative affect (NA), as well as their associations with stress reactivity in daily life. One hundred and one subjects completed questionnaires on perceived stress and affect twice a day for 14 consecutive days on smart phones. Results indicated that self-compassion and global self-esteem were positively related to PA and negatively to NA. After controlling for self-esteem, self-compassion remained significantly associated with PA and NA, whereas self-esteem was no longer associated with PA and NA after controlling for self-compassion. Furthermore, results indicated that self-compassion buffered the effect of stress on NA, whereas this was not the case for global self-esteem. Neither self-compassion nor self-esteem moderated the relation of stress on PA in separate models. The results of the present study add to the growing literature regarding beneficial relations of self-compassion and psychological well-being and further emphasize the distinction of self-compassion and global self-esteem.
... A meta-analysis by MacBeth and Gumley (2012) examined healthy adults and reported a robust, significant negative association between self-compassion and overall psychopathology. More positive associations have been reported for quality of life (Van Dam et al., 2011), interpersonal conflict resolution (Yarnell & Neff, 2013), body appreciation (Pullmer et al., 2021), happiness (Neff et al., 2007), overall psychological wellbeing (Krieger et al., 2015;Yarnell & Neff, 2013;Zessin et al., 2015), emotional intelligence (Heffernan et al., 2010), positive affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007), selfimprovement motivation (Breines & Chen, 2012), and wisdom (Neff et al., 2007) in clinical and non-clinical samples. Negative associations for adults have been found with psychological distress (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012), eating pathology (Pullmer et al., 2021), depression (Castilho et al., 2015;Gilbert & Procter, 2006;Krieger et al., 2016a;Körner et al., 2015;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Raes, 2010Raes, , 2011, anxiety (Gilbert & Procter, 2006;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Raes, 2010), discrimination (Pullmer et al., 2021), negative affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007), rumination (Raes, 2010), shame (Gilbert & Procter, 2006), and academic failure (Neff et al., 2005). ...
... A meta-analysis by MacBeth and Gumley (2012) examined healthy adults and reported a robust, significant negative association between self-compassion and overall psychopathology. More positive associations have been reported for quality of life (Van Dam et al., 2011), interpersonal conflict resolution (Yarnell & Neff, 2013), body appreciation (Pullmer et al., 2021), happiness (Neff et al., 2007), overall psychological wellbeing (Krieger et al., 2015;Yarnell & Neff, 2013;Zessin et al., 2015), emotional intelligence (Heffernan et al., 2010), positive affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007), selfimprovement motivation (Breines & Chen, 2012), and wisdom (Neff et al., 2007) in clinical and non-clinical samples. Negative associations for adults have been found with psychological distress (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012), eating pathology (Pullmer et al., 2021), depression (Castilho et al., 2015;Gilbert & Procter, 2006;Krieger et al., 2016a;Körner et al., 2015;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Raes, 2010Raes, , 2011, anxiety (Gilbert & Procter, 2006;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Raes, 2010), discrimination (Pullmer et al., 2021), negative affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007), rumination (Raes, 2010), shame (Gilbert & Procter, 2006), and academic failure (Neff et al., 2005). ...
... More positive associations have been reported for quality of life (Van Dam et al., 2011), interpersonal conflict resolution (Yarnell & Neff, 2013), body appreciation (Pullmer et al., 2021), happiness (Neff et al., 2007), overall psychological wellbeing (Krieger et al., 2015;Yarnell & Neff, 2013;Zessin et al., 2015), emotional intelligence (Heffernan et al., 2010), positive affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007), selfimprovement motivation (Breines & Chen, 2012), and wisdom (Neff et al., 2007) in clinical and non-clinical samples. Negative associations for adults have been found with psychological distress (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012), eating pathology (Pullmer et al., 2021), depression (Castilho et al., 2015;Gilbert & Procter, 2006;Krieger et al., 2016a;Körner et al., 2015;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Raes, 2010Raes, , 2011, anxiety (Gilbert & Procter, 2006;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Raes, 2010), discrimination (Pullmer et al., 2021), negative affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007), rumination (Raes, 2010), shame (Gilbert & Procter, 2006), and academic failure (Neff et al., 2005). ...
Self-compassion, which refers to being kind and understanding toward oneself when suffering or experiencing personal inadequacies, is widely seen as a protective factor against mental health problems in adolescents and adults. To date, most research is conducted on adults using the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), although adolescence is seen as a challenging period in life. Self-compassion research has only recently started to focus on childhood and adolescence. We aimed to translate the English version of the SCS for adolescents into German, test its psychometric properties, and examine potential gender differences more closely. We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to find the best-fitting model out of a two, three, and six-factorial solution. The sample consisted of 255 adolescents, 10 to 19 years old, from a community sample. The study was designed as an online survey. We found the six-factorial solution to best fit our data. Males were significantly more self-compassionate than females. The Self-Compassion Scale – Children and Adolescents (SCS-CA) and its subscales showed good internal consistency as well as good content, criterion, and construct validity with measures of mindfulness, quality of life, and psychopathology. We discuss implications of these findings for a better understanding of adolescent well-being and mental health, as well as potential benefits of a future application of this measure. Overall, our findings suggest that the developed questionnaire is an economical, valid, and reliable measure to assess self-compassion in German adolescents. Trial registration: From ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier: NCT04034576 (registered 07/17/19).
... Not only has trait and daily SC been associated with lower levels of perceived stress in general (e.g., Krieger et al., 2015;Li et al., 2020), but it also buffered the impact of stress on indicators of well-being such as depression, anxiety, and NA (Krieger et al., 2015;Stutts et al., 2018). Highly self-compassionate individuals seem to have better strategies at hand to cope with adverse events. ...
... Not only has trait and daily SC been associated with lower levels of perceived stress in general (e.g., Krieger et al., 2015;Li et al., 2020), but it also buffered the impact of stress on indicators of well-being such as depression, anxiety, and NA (Krieger et al., 2015;Stutts et al., 2018). Highly self-compassionate individuals seem to have better strategies at hand to cope with adverse events. ...
... The present study aimed to examine how momentary SC in daily life relates to momentary well-being (as indicated by momentary affect), affective inertia, and stress reactivity in the same moment, assessing these constructs several times daily within an EMA design. In doing so, we intended to extend past studies regarding the following points: First, most studies on SC and well-being have understood SC as a trait (e.g., Krieger et al., 2015;Neff, 2003a), thereby neglecting important within-person fluctuations. Second, studies assessing SC as a state at one or two time-points in the laboratory (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2019) were not able to capture the dynamic interplay between SC, stressful events, and affect in real-life contexts, possibly dampening the ecological validity of findings (Shiffman et al., 2008). ...
Objectives
While self-compassion (SC) has mostly been understood as a stable trait-like property, growing evidence suggests that it may fluctuate over time within a given individual. However, little is known on how these fluctuations relate to affective well-being and affective dynamics, such as emotional inertia and stress reactivity in daily life.
Methods
A sample of 119 non-clinical individuals (mean age: 31.3 years, 53.8% female) completed a 7-day smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment study with six semi-random signals per day. With each signal, individuals reported their momentary positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA), recent SC, and occurrence and perceived strain of daily hassles since the last signal.
Results
Whenever individuals reported higher recent SC than usual, they experienced higher momentary PA and lower momentary NA. Moreover, higher recent SC related to lower stress reactivity in terms of lower decrease of PA and lower increase of NA following the experience of daily hassles. No associations between SC and emotional inertia were found. When distinguishing between the positive components (SC-Pos) and negative components (SC-Neg) of SC, SC-Neg (compared to SC-Pos) was more strongly connected to NA, while SC-Pos and SC-Neg were similarly connected to PA. SC-Pos was associated with an attenuated NA stress reactivity, and SC-Neg with an increased NA stress reactivity. SC-Pos and SC-Neg did not significantly moderate PA stress reactivity nor emotional inertia.
Conclusions
Results show that the benefits of SC for well-being and stress reactivity may unfold whenever we treat ourselves with compassion, irrespective of how self-compassionate we are in general.
... More importantly, self-compassion is a significant predictor of autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and self-acceptance as sub-scales of psychological well-being (Saricaoglu & Arslan, 2013). On the other hand, self-compassion enhances positive emotions (e.g., Alirezaee et al., 2021;Ellsworth, 2018;Karakasidou et al., 2021;Krieger et al., 2015). Indeed, Alirezaee et al. (2021) implied that self-compassion training can be regarded as a high capability method to increase positive emotions and decrease negative ones among students. ...
... In this sense, self-compassion is employed as a unique resilience factor in enhancing positive emotions in patients with chronic pain (Ellsworth, 2018). Similarly, in the sample of non-clinical participants, higher levels of self-compassion were correlated with less negative emotions, higher positive emotions, and less stress reactivity in daily life (Krieger et al., 2015). ...
... That is, the more students' self-compassion, the greater their positive emotions. This supports the findings of previous studies (e.g., Alirezaee et al., 2021;Ellsworth, 2018;Karakasidou et al., 2021;Krieger et al., 2015) demonstrating that self-compassion could play a substantial role in improving human positive emotions. ...
Objectives
Theory and prior research suggest that improving self-esteem is a promising way to improve students’ academic performance and mental health. This study empirically examines the mediating effect of psychological well-being and positive emotion in the relationships between self-compassion, mindfulness, stress, and self-esteem.
Methods
An explanatory sequential mixed-method design was employed. Quantitative data collected through a two-wave survey from 654 Vietnamese students were analyzed to test the hypotheses using SPSS 22.0 and AMOS 24.0. Data from 19 in-depth interviews were used to explain the quantitative findings and explore students’ experiences in practicing mindfulness and self-compassion.
Results
Findings revealed that psychological well-being and positive emotion fully mediated the relationships between self-compassion, mindfulness, stress, and self-esteem.
Conclusions
Results of this study highlight the importance of psychological well-being and positive emotion in the self-compassion, mindfulness, stress, and self-esteem relationship, as well as explain a possible process by which factors help university students achieve and sustain a sense of high self-esteem. Ultimately, this study has identified several potential targets for intervention strategies in mental health, such as mindfulness and self-compassion among university students.
... A low level of AN would be indicative of tranquility and serenity 13 . These constructs of subjective well-being are also related to self-compassion (SC) 14 . Studies point out that SC is positively related to positive affect and negatively related to negative affect [14][15][16][17] and is associated with psychological health and emotional well-being 18 . ...
... These constructs of subjective well-being are also related to self-compassion (SC) 14 . Studies point out that SC is positively related to positive affect and negatively related to negative affect [14][15][16][17] and is associated with psychological health and emotional well-being 18 . ...
... Self-compassion is especially important in challenging and unpleasant situations, as it is associated with resilience and stress regulation 21 . More selfcompassionate individuals respond better to unpleasant emotions by adopting a kind and open attitude, as well as understanding that imperfections and difficult experiences are part of life 14 . ...
Introdução: estudos apontam maior índice de sintomas de ansiedade, depressão e estresse entre estudantes de Medicina quando comparados à população geral. O contexto da pandemia pelo novo coronavírus (SARS-CoV-2) gerou uma carga adicional de estresse a estes estudantes. Objetivo: o presente artigo objetivou avaliar a saúde emocional de estudantes de medicina durante a pandemia. Método: participaram 437 estudantes, aos quais foi administrado um questionário sociodemográfico, a Escala de Afetos Positivos e Afetos Negativos (PANAS) e a Escala de Autocompaixão – Brasil. Resultados: a maioria (69%) é do sexo feminino, 63% reside com a família, 35% possui financiamento estudantil, 59% pratica alguma religião, 45% relatou diagnóstico de transtorno psicológico, 27% faz uso de medicamento psiquiátrico e 9% faz uso de substâncias psicoativas. Mais de 72% das mulheres e 58% dos homens apresentaram escores de afetos positivos (AP), afetos negativos (AN) e autocompaixão (AC) abaixo da média populacional. O relato de transtorno psicológico e uso de medicamentos psiquiátricos demonstrou-se significativamente associado a menores índices de AP (respectivamente, p<0,0001 e p=0,030) e AC (p<0,001 em ambos) e maiores índices de AN (p<0,001 em ambos). Conclusão: os resultados apontam maior vulnerabilidade da saúde psicológica dos estudantes de Medicina durante a pandemia e indicam a importância da adoção de medidas que visem o bem-estar emocional no âmbito institucional.
... Numerous studies have indicated that self-compassion can be significantly distinguished from self-esteem and even results in more comprehensive outcomes in predicting both negative and positive mental well-being, as well as ego-focused activity. The partial correlation between self-compassion and anxiety was still significant after the controlling of self-esteem and shown additional variance after adding self-compassion in the hierarchal regression analysis of positive mental well-being and self-esteem [19,35,56]. Additionally, self-compassion was the only component that shielded the effect of perceived stress on negative effects during stressful events in particular, which corresponds to the emotional equilibrium function of self-compassion [56,57]. ...
... The partial correlation between self-compassion and anxiety was still significant after the controlling of self-esteem and shown additional variance after adding self-compassion in the hierarchal regression analysis of positive mental well-being and self-esteem [19,35,56]. Additionally, self-compassion was the only component that shielded the effect of perceived stress on negative effects during stressful events in particular, which corresponds to the emotional equilibrium function of self-compassion [56,57]. Self-compassion could be a conjecture of "true self-esteem" claimed by Deci and Ryan (1995) [1,19,58]. ...
... Self-compassion was also associated with a higher stability of self-worth when compared to global self-esteem. As such, selfcompassion was proposed to be a universal and extensive construct in representing global self-esteem [35,56]. ...
Self-compassion has fostered a new way to build connectedness with oneself and affirmed the importance of offering compassion to oneself. However, there have been numerous arguments about the similarity with other self-related concepts, yet they have neglected its importance in self-psychology. For instance, self-compassion could be seen as an important element in Kohut’s concept of self in illustrating the self-object and self-experience theory, thus leading to a healthy self. Additionally, the self-schemas (self-esteem and self-efficacy) have been sufficiently shown to be associating with and predicting positive psychological outcomes and have further demonstrated the positive relations with self-compassion. Self-compassion thus demonstrated that similar features have been shared among the self-schemas. Moreover, with the claim that self-compassion was more precise than self-esteem, self-compassion should be emphasized by self-psychology then to develop a new era of “true self-esteem”.
... On the other hand, numerous researchers have indicated that self-compassion can be significantly distinguished from self-esteem and even results in more comprehensive outcomes in predicting both negative and positive mental well-being, as well as ego-focused activity. Research indicated that the partial correlation between self-compassion and anxiety was still significant after the controlling of self-esteem and have shown additional variance after adding self-compassion in the hierarchal regression analysis of positive mental well-being [27,38,39]. ...
... Together with a recent systematic review and meta-analysis, self-compassion was significantly associated with physical activity and physical activity intention [40]. Selfcompassion should be proposed as a universal and extensive construct distinct from global self-esteem [27,39]. Hence, the current study aimed to investigate the relationship between physical activity and self-compassion by modifying the EXSEM with self-compassion. ...
... Hence, body compassion can be expected to be in line with Sonstroem and Morgan's (1988) [14] concept of physical self, which included the measurement of self-acceptance with the body, its function, how it looks, and ability. esteem and have shown additional variance after adding self-compassion in the hierarchal regression analysis of positive mental well-being [27,38,39]. Together with a recent systematic review and meta-analysis, self-compassion was significantly associated with physical activity and physical activity intention [40]. ...
The association between physical activity in achieving mental health benefits and subjective well-being is consistently identified by empirical research. The causation of a positive self-concept created by physical exercise is empirically supported by Sonstroem and Morgan’s (1988) exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM). However, various drawbacks of maintaining high self-esteem have been identified; thus, the concept of self-compassion was conjectured to be a form of “true self-esteem.” Hence, the current study aimed to investigate the relationship between physical activity and self-compassion by examining the exercise and self-esteem model revised with self-compassion (EXSEM-SC). This study recruited secondary school students from Hong Kong using convenience sampling. The structural equation modeling (SEM) approach, including path analysis and multiple indicators, multiple causes (MIMIC) modeling, were used to reveal the results of the study. The results (n = 1097) indicated that the relationship between physical activity and self-compassion could be demonstrated by the EXSEM-SC, with a satisfactory goodness-of-fit index in the SEMs. The SEM also demonstrated the direct paths from physical activity to self-compassion and mental well-being, indicating the significant effect of physical activity on self-compassion.
... Furthermore, lower levels of depressive symptoms have been associated with higher levels of self-compassion among young people in China (Chu et al., 2018), the United States (Lathren et al., 2019), and Belgium (Raes, 2010). A study utilizing a two-week ecological momentary assessment also found that self-compassion was related to less daily negative affect (Krieger et al., 2015). In an intervention study, self-compassion was shown to be an effective antecedent in preventing depression by enhancing self-kindness, calming self-criticism, and promoting a more caring, understanding, and supportive stance toward oneself, thereby improving negative emotions and intervening in depressive symptoms (Greenberg et al., 2018). ...
... From an empirical standpoint, the results of this study corroborate the evidence that childhood maltreatment has a detrimental impact on self-compassion (Reffi et al., 2019;Vettese et al., 2011) and perceived social support (Li, Pan, et al., 2020;Pepin & Banyard, 2006;Zhao et al., 2019). Additionally, prior studies have similarly reported that lower levels of self-compassion (Chu et al., 2018;Krieger et al., 2015;Lathren et al., 2019;Raes, 2010) and perceived social support (Lagdon et al., 2018;Sperry & Widom, 2013;Väänänen et al., 2014) are associated with higher levels of depressed mood. It is important to note that this is the first study to use the daily diary methodology to examine the mediating roles of self-compassion and perceived social support in the association between childhood maltreatment and daily depressed mood. ...
Background: Childhood maltreatment has well-documented relations with depressed mood. However, few studies have used a daily diary methodology to investigate the association between all five forms of childhood maltreatment (emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect) and depressed mood, and the mechanisms underlying the association remain unclear. Objective: The current study sought to examine the associations of multiple forms of childhood maltreatment with depressed mood via a 14-day daily diary methodology, and investigate the mediating effects of self-compassion and perceived social support. Methods: A sample of 220 Chinese female college students (M age = 19.13 years) participated in this study and completed questionnaires regarding childhood maltreatment, self-compassion, perceived social support and depressed mood. Results: The multilevel regression analysis indicated that only emotional abuse was slightly associated with depressed mood, while emotional neglect, physical abuse, physical neglect, or sexual abuse were not associated with depressed mood. The multilevel mediation analysis further revealed that self-compassion and perceived social support independently mediated the association of childhood emotional abuse with depressed mood. Conclusions: Overall, these results emphasize the specific association between childhood emotional abuse and daily depressed mood, and further support self-compassion and perceived social support as explanatory mechanisms linking childhood emotional abuse with later depressed mood.
... The results showed that self-compassion could significantly predict the positive and negative emotions of the main caregivers of Alzheimer's patients. This result was consistent with the results of Saeedi et al. (2016), Trujillo et al. (2016), and Krieger et al. (2015). In explaining these results, it can be said that by increasing positive and decreasing negative emotions, self-compassion makes it easier to deal with difficult life situations and increases the ability to overcome problems in caregivers of Alzheimer's patients, which ultimately can reduce their stress. ...
... Based on this, more self-compassion caregivers have a more positive effect. Since self-compassion helps people experience positive affect, it makes them feel more empowered in the face of severe stress and cope with unforeseen problems more optimistically (Krieger et al., 2015). In addition, caregivers with high selfcompassion can help improve their mental health in different dimensions through problem-oriented coping with problems (Hadizadeh, 2014). ...
Background and Aim: Stress of care effect physical, psychological and affect in Caregivers. The experience of positive and negative affect relates to Caregivers Self-Compassion. Therefore, present study aimed to predict positive and negative affect based on Self-Compassion with the mediating role of Personality Types A and B in Alzheimerchr('39')s Caregivers. Methods: Method was descriptive- correlation. participants were Alzheimerchr('39')s primary Caregivers in 2018 in Tehran. 202 participants were selected by available sampling and completed the questionnaires of Neff’s Self-Compassion (2003), Watson, Clark, Tellegen’s positive and negative affect (1988) and Rathus, s Personality Types (1996). Data were analyzed by Pearson’s correlation and path analysis. Results: The results indicated that Self-Compassion positively correlate positive affect and negatively correlate negative affect (P
... Research on self-esteem consistently showed that individuals with high self-esteem tend to have high positive affect [18]. The research conducted by Wood, et al. [19] shows that self-esteem is a predictor of positive affect regulation, which means that the level of self-esteem can predict how individuals maintain their positive affect. ...
... Positive emotions possessed by the participants indicated that in this study, with the presence of self-esteem or feelings of worth, work-family enrichment can occur through the affective path. Several studies on selfesteem also consistently showed that individuals with high self-esteem tend to have increased positive affect [18]. Therefore, as revealed in this study, selfesteem also helps work-family enrichment through the affective path. ...
... Originally, it was the feeling of worth, but it has been shown that it is a concept with a high correlation with vital areas, such as social relations, work and health, as well as psychological adjustment, positive emotions, and prosocial behaviour (Mann et al., 2004). Well-being has also been correlated with higher self-esteem in other studies (Krieger et al., 2015). Thus, this concept of "self-esteem would be much related to how people judge themselves in the different areas of their life, which is in particular what the Life Snapshot Inventory tries to evaluate. ...
... since both ask the individual to evaluate their life and their satisfaction in very different aspects of that life, both social and individual. This correlation between life satisfaction and self-esteem also found here is similar to other studies (Krieger et al., 2015;Lin, 2015;Miller et al., 2019;Richter et al., 2019). ...
Introduction:
The Life Snapshot Inventory (LSI) is a self-report instrument to measure the meaningful vital, personal, and social directions. It was created in the Functional Analytic Psychotherapy as a continuous evaluation of vital changes in areas of life (family, work, love, spirituality, sexuality, health, etc.).
Objective:
The aim was to validate its psychometric characteristics for the first time.
Method:
This study involved 530 participants (average age 33 years), in a Spanish sample. The questionnaire has been compared with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) to obtain convergent validity.
Results:
The results showed a high internal consistency (α = .93) and a correlation of .61, both statistically significant. The factorial analysis showed only one factor (43.56% of variance). In addition, it was sensitive to changes due to interventions, and made it possible to differentiate those people with vital problems.
Conclusion:
This questionnaire could be a helpful measure for healthcare and clinical contexts.
... Against expectations, no reciprocal session-to-session CL effects between self-compassion and positive affect were found. This is in contrast with previous literature that supports higher baseline levels of selfcompassion to be associated with subsequent higher levels of positive affect (Krieger et al., 2015), and that self-compassion interventions lead to higher levels of positive affect (e.g., Shapira & Mongrain, 2010;Sommers-Spijkerman et al., 2018). Even neurobiological changes associated with positive affect seem to support this (Engen & Singer, 2015). ...
... Another reason could be the differences in analytical strategies used. For example, Krieger et al. (2015) used multilevel modeling, which does not account for the overall course and previous values over time of each variable. However, when not accounting for the overall courses of both variables over the duration of the MBCL intervention, spurious CL effects might appear (Voelkle, 2008). ...
Background
The current study aimed to investigate the possible interplay between self-compassion and affect during Mindfulness-Based Compassionate Living (MBCL) in recurrently depressed individuals.
Methods
Data was used from a subsample of a parallel-group randomized controlled trial investigating the efficacy of MBCL in recurrently depressed adults (n = 104). Self-reports of self-compassion and positive/negative affect were obtained at the start of each of the eight MBCL sessions.
Results
Bivariate Autoregressive Latent Trajectory (ALT) modeling showed that, when looking at the interplay between self-compassion and positive/negative affect on a session-to-session basis, no significant reciprocal cross-lagged effects between self-compassion and positive affect were found. Although there were no cross-lagged effects from negative affect to self-compassion, higher levels of self-compassion at each session did predict lower levels of negative affect at the subsequent session (bSC(t-1),NA(t) = -0.182, s.e. = 0.076, p = .017).
Conclusions
The current study shows that increases in self-compassion are followed by decreases in negative affect in MBCL for depression.
... The concept of self-compassion and its psychological benefits have been explored in numerous research and experimental studies since its introduction in 2003 by Neff (2003aNeff ( , 2003b. High levels of self-compassion have been associated with greater hedonic happiness (Ferguson et al., 2014), emotional calmness (Leary et al., 2007), positive affect (Krieger et al., 2015), and resilience (Bluth et al., 2018). A meta-analysis study (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012) found that self-compassion is negatively correlated with psychopathology in the areas of depression, anxiety, and stress, exhibiting a high effect size (r = -0.54). ...
... Furthermore, instead of responding by experiencing suppression, avoiding social relationships, or blaming themselves, which worsens the situation, abused women learn to respond with awareness and compassion to painful internal experiences related to their bodies . discovered in their study that self-compassion is connected to the EMS, particularly those related to disconnection/rejection, resulting in negative self-focused attention (Krieger et al., 2015). Furthermore, these schemas may contribute to an individual's negative outlook and vulnerability by being linked with symptoms of depression. ...
The family has considered a sacred haven of comfort with which marital violence is incompatible. the early maladaptive schema (EMS) is an essential cognitive process in individuals’ perception of violence. the present research aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-esteem and self-compassion in the relationship between early maladaptive schema and violence against women. The study used a descriptive-analytical correlation with a structural equation model. The statistical population includes all married women in Hamedan, Iran, using the convenience sampling method, and 300 people were selected as the sample size. The research tools included the Bilali Violence against Women Questionnaire (2007), the Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (YSQ-SF) (1988) the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) (1989), and the Reis Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) (2011). Data analysis was analyzed using path analysis through a structural equation model by AMOS-24 and SPSS-24 Software. Self-esteem and self-compassion play a mediating role in the relationship between EMS and violence. The correlation test results (P > 0.05) showed a positive, direct, and significant correlation between all the studied variables. A significant and inverse relationship was observed between the variables of self-esteem and self-compassion with the variable of the EMSs. Similarly, a significant and inverse relationship was found between self-esteem and violence with the variable of the EMSs. Based on the research results, a close relationship existed between EMS, self-esteem, and self-compassion. This study’s findings can be used for planning purposes, to enhance knowledge about effective management strategies and essential aspects of adjusting the schema, boosting self-esteem, and fostering self-compassion.
... On the other hand, self-compassion training encourages individuals to accept their negative emotions compassionately rather than avoiding them (Neff, 2011;Neff & Germer, 2013). This approach helps individuals experience both negative and positive emotions, promoting the conscious experience of a wide range of emotions and using more adaptive emotion regulation strategies in crisis situations (Krieger et al., 2015). For adolescents with self-harming behavior, selfcompassion training helps them take better care of themselves when facing life's difficulties and stresses, thereby enhancing their psychological well-being. ...
Objective: Adolescent girls with self-harming behavior experience difficulties in emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility. One of the approaches that can be effective in this regard is self-compassion training. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the effectiveness of self-compassion training on emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in adolescent girls with self-harming behavior. Methods and Materials: The research method was quasi-experimental, using a pre-test, post-test, and one-month follow-up design. The statistical population consisted of adolescent girls with self-harming behavior who referred to counseling centers in District 16 of Tehran in 2022. Through purposive sampling, 30 eligible participants were selected and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups of 15 each. They completed the Garnefski and Kraaij (2016) Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and the Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) Cognitive Flexibility Inventory at three stages. The Gilbert (2014) self-compassion training program was conducted in eight 60-minute individual sessions for the experimental group, and data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. Findings: The results indicated that self-compassion training significantly increased positive emotion regulation strategies and cognitive flexibility while reducing negative emotion regulation strategies in girls with self-harming behavior. This effect persisted at the follow-up stage (P<0.001). Conclusion: It can be concluded that self-compassion training increases the likelihood of using positive emotion regulation strategies and cognitive flexibility in girls with self-harming behavior while reducing the likelihood of using negative emotion regulation strategies. Self-compassion training enhances individuals' mindfulness and prevents the process of over-identification. This profound experience leads individuals to cease self-judgment and self-criticism, experience self-acceptance, and gain greater awareness of their thoughts and emotions.
... Specifically, the self-esteem scale in the LSI assesses the extent of an individual's feelings, while also being linked to other important aspects, including their social relationships, work, health, psychological adjustment, and positive feelings (Mann et al., 2004). The concept of wellness, which is also assessed by the LSI, is closely related to that of self-esteem (Krieger et al., 2015) and is largely based on how people evaluate themselves across various situations (Ruiz-García et al., 2021); for example, it would include how the clients see themselves in relation to their personal and familial relationships, spiritual life, friendships, financial lives, altruism, and creativity, which are included in the verbal construction of self-esteem and life satisfaction (Moksnes & Espnes, 2013;Orth & Robins, 2014). ...
... Self-esteem is often defined as "the positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it" (Smith & Mackie, 2007). Indeed, research found that lower levels of self-esteem are related to more negative affect (Brown & Marshall, 2001;Juth et al., 2008;Krieger et al., 2015). Therefore, this research investigated the effects of lying on affect as well. ...
Deceiving others is generally viewed as immoral. However, most people lie on a daily basis. This article examines the psychological consequences for the liars themselves, as they are participating in what is generally perceived as immoral behaviour. More specifically, this article focuses on the effects of lying on the liar's self‐esteem and affect. We tested if lying, in comparison to telling the truth, lowers people's self‐esteem and increases negative experienced affect. In total, three cross sectional and one longitudinal studies were conducted ( N = 783). Results showed that lying decreased people's self‐esteem and increased negative affect, regardless of the type of lie (self‐centred vs. other‐oriented). Furthermore, lying on a given day decreased people's self‐esteem compared to their self‐esteem on the previous day and to their average level of self‐esteem across 5 days.
... In the case of diseases, for example, self-compassion stood out as a useful emotion regulation strategy to increase adaptive behaviors and promote health, including adherence to tests and treatment (Terry & Leary, 2013). People who are more self-compassionate are much less likely to feel anxious, depressed, or stressed about life's problems, due to their ability to dampen the negative effects of suffering (Krieger et al., 2015;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Neff & Pommier, 2013). ...
Lifestyle changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have affected the mental health of college students around the world. We examined the role of self-compassion as a possible attenuating factor for levels of anxiety in college students within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic compared to sociodemographic, occupational, lifestyle and health-related factors. Self-compassion was also analyzed as moderator for the impact of the pandemic on students’ anxiety. A cross sectional design was used with 1,201 Brazilian college students, who answered the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21), and Impact of Event Scale (IES). Linear regression models and moderation analysis were conducted. Higher self-compassion was the main variable associated with lower levels of anxiety. Other factors that predicted lower levels of anxiety included being male, using predominantly natural or minimally processed foods daily, quality sleep, not using substances (such as caffeine) to cope with academic activities, and not undergoing psychotherapy. There was no presence of self-compassion moderation in the relationship between the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and anxiety. Investing in clinical and educational strategies aimed at promoting mental health and to develop personal resources such as self-compassion may help college students alleviate the distress caused by the pandemic.
... Importantly, self-compassion is known to be associated with positive psychological functioning beyond self-esteem (Fraser et al., 2023;Neff, 2011). Research has illustrated that self-compassion is robustly associated with higher levels of self-improvement orientations (Zhang & Chen, 2016), and lower levels of contingencies of self-worth (Neff & Vonk, 2009), stress responses (Krieger et al., 2015), and partner violence (Neff & Beretvas, 2013), even when controlling for self-esteem. Overall, these results differentiate the influences of self-compassion and self-esteem. ...
Three studies (total n = 3576) employed latent profile analyses to identify how self-compassion and self-esteem are configured within individuals. Furthermore, these studies examined profile differences in intra-and interpersonal functioning. Self-compassion and self-esteem were assessed across the studies. In Study 1, participants recalled negative events and responded the scales of state self-compassion and self-improvement. In Study 2, participants completed a measure of basic psychological need satisfaction. In Study 3, participants completed the scales of social isolation and the quality of romantic relationships. Across the three studies, latent profile analyses indicated that individuals were classified into one of three latent profiles: Low Compassionate and Worthy Style (low self-compassion and self-esteem), Moderate Compassionate and Worthy Style (moderate self-compassion and self-esteem), or High Compassionate and Worthy Style (high self-compassion and self-esteem). These analyses did not reveal the groups of individuals who displayed high self-compassion and low self-esteem simultaneously, or vice versa. Furthermore, individuals with High Compassionate and Worthy Style reported higher levels of self-compassionate reactions toward distressing events, self-improvement orientation (Study 1), satisfaction with basic psychological needs (Study 2), and relationship satisfaction (Study 3). They also indicated lower levels of feeling lonely and ostracized, and fewer frequencies of psychological intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization (Study 3). Overall, these results suggest that self-compassion and self-esteem operate unitedly rather than separately within individuals to support positive intra-and interpersonal functioning. Thus, given the interactive network of self-compassion and self-esteem, interventions to boost self-compassion might also promote self-esteem.
... Evidence also suggests it reduces people's adverse reactions to potentially stressful events. For instance, one daily diary study showed that self-compassion mitigated the association between perceived daily stress and momentary negative affect (Krieger et al., 2015). Furthermore, experimental evidence suggested that selfcompassion induction may help a person acknowledge how one's personal attributes may be linked to a recalled unpleasant life event (e.g., failure, humiliation, and rejection) yet still experience less negative affect, as compared to other conditions (Leary et al., 2007). ...
Research has shown that minority stress is linked to poorer mental health across a variety of stigmatized populations, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ) people. It is therefore essential to understand factors that can counteract minority stress. To date, most research on LGBQ people’s resilience relied on retrospective reports of stressful identity-salient experiences. This limits the understanding about resilience factors that enable LGBQ people to thrive in the face of minority stressors as they occur on a day-to-day basis. The present study addressed this gap by using a daily diary design to test whether self-compassion protects LGBQ people’s affective well-being from daily stressful sexual orientation-salient experiences (SOSEs). A sample of 235 LGBQ adults completed a baseline survey that assessed self-compassion, as well as brief online surveys twice daily for a maximum of 17 days that assessed SOSEs and affect, providing a total of 3,310 days of data. As anticipated, results of multilevel modeling showed that negative and positive SOSEs were linked to negative and positive evening affect, respectively, at both the daily and person levels. Self-compassion moderated the link between daily negative SOSEs and positive evening affect, such that daily negative SOSEs were linked to lower positive affect only among those with lower self-compassion. Moderation effect was not observed for negative evening affect as an outcome. Exploratory analysis suggested that the buffering effect of self-compassion could be impacted by contextual factors. Our study showed the importance of self-compassion and access to positive SOSEs for LGBQ people’s well-being.
... Affect-health links have been documented across numerous studies, such that NA is related to lower life satisfaction (Kuppens et al., 2008;Lightsey et al., 2012;Siedlecki et al., 2008). NA is also associated with lower levels of global indicators of positive psychological health, including self-compassion, which involves being kind and understanding with oneself in the face of stressors or failures (e.g., Booker & Dunsmore, 2019;Johnson & O'Brien, 2013;Krieger et al., 2015;Shephard & Cardon, 2009). Moreover, NA is linked to poorer psychological health, including greater depressive symptoms (Bos et al., 2019;Charles et al., 2013;Tarlow & Haaga, 1996), perceived stress (Snippe et al., 2017;Whitehead, 2021), and personal burnout, which involves feelings of physical and emotional exhaustion (Montero-Marin et al., 2015;Zhao et al., 2019). ...
Negative affect (NA) has been robustly linked to poorer psychological health, including greater depressive symptoms, personal burnout, and perceived stress. These associations, known as affect-health links, have been postulated by our research team to vary with different levels of negative affect valuation (NAV), such that people who evaluate NA states as more pleasant, helpful, appropriate, and/or meaningful may show weaker affect-health links. Another affect valuation construct is ideal NA, which is the degree to which people ideally want to experience NA states (i.e., desirability of affective states). The current study extends previous research by examining these two different measures of affect valuation (NAV and ideal NA) and comparing the extent to which they moderate affect-health links for psychological health and functioning. Participants from the Health and Daily Experiences (HEADE) study (N = 162 comprising of 56 younger adults and 106 older adults) completed questionnaires in a laboratory setting and ecological momentary assessments of NA 6 times a day for 7 consecutive days (i.e., trait NA). The results demonstrated that the two affect valuation constructs were distinct and showed different patterns of buffering effects. NAV attenuated the association between trait NA and depressive symptoms, personal burnout, and intolerance of uncertainty. Ideal NA attenuated affect-health links for depressive symptoms and perceived stress. These findings point to the importance of sharpening the distinctions between various affect valuation constructs to elucidate their unique contributions to attenuating affect-health links.
... The structure of self-compassion can be considered a strong and important predictor of mental health [10]. The negative relationship between positive self-compassion traits and psychological pathology and its direct relationship with positive emotions has been confirmed [11,12]. The results of a previous study showed that self-compassion itself is significantly associated with depression and anxiety [13]. ...
Background: The results of previous studies indicated that increasing self-compassion is associated with increased ability to regulate emotion. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of difficulty in emotional regulation in the relationship between self-compassion and anxiety among university students. Materials & Methods: The current cross-sectional study was performed on male and female undergraduate, graduate and doctoral students in Tehran from January to September 2022. After obtaining official permission, 208 students from Amir Kabir University, Shahid Beheshti University, Islamic Azad University, North branch, Central branch, Research Science branch and Rodehen branch were selected using a convenience sampling method. Self-compassion scale of Neff, difficulty in emotion regulation of Graz and Roemer, and Beck anxiety scale were used to collect data. Data were then analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results: The mean age of participants was 27.63 (standard deviation= 9.13), 143 were female and 145 were single. the direct effect of self-compassion on anxiety is not significant (β =0.261, P = 0.109), but the indirect effect of self-compassion on anxiety with mediating role in difficulty of emotional regulation is significant (β = -0.674, P = 0.001). Thus, self-compassion reduces anxiety by reducing the difficulty in emotional regulation. The results also show that self-compassion alone explains 17% of the variance of anxiety. Self-compassion and difficulty in emotional regulation account for 34% of the variance of anxiety. Conclusion: The findings revealed that difficulty in emotional regulation plays a full mediating role in the relationship between self-compassion and anxiety. This study highlights the role of self-compassion and difficulty in emotional regulation in reducing anxiety, But to use self-compassion-based education and emotional regulation in anxiety management, more research is needed to examine their effect in the form of empirical research.
... Sedangkan mereka yang tidak terlalu sensitif membutuhkan level provokasi yang lebih kuat untuk memicu agresi (Branscombe & Baron, 2016). Self-compassion dikaitkan dengan emosi positif yang lebih tinggi, emosi negatif yang rendah dan stres dalam kehidupan sehari-hari yang lebih rendah (Krieger, Hermann, Zimmermann, & grosse Holtforth, 2015). Self-compassion dinilai mampu menjadi variabel yang mengurangi reaktivitas individu terhadap stres dan meningkatkan resiliensi. ...
Verbal aggression such as criticizing, cursing, cursing, and threatening a partner is considered emotional abuse. Unhealthy patterns of romantic relationships can lead to mental health problems in adolescents over time. This study aims to look at the role of self-compassion and irrational beliefs in relationship to verbal aggression in adolescents who are dating in Denpasar City. Subjects in the study were 110 people ranging in age from 15 to 21 years. Hypothesis testing is carried out using multiple regression analysis. Based on the results of multiple regression analysis, it is known that F counted at 15,113 with a significance level of 0,000 (p <0.05) which indicates that self-compassion and irrational beliefs in relationship together play a role in verbal aggression in adolescents who are dating in Denpasar City. The results of the analysis show that the R value is 0.469 with a coefficient of determination (R square) of 0.220 which means that self-compassion and irrational beliefs in relationships have a 22% contribution to verbal aggression.
... Specifically, the self-esteem scale in the LSI assesses the extent of an individual's feelings while also being linked to other important aspects, including their social relationships, work, health, psychological adjustment, and positive feelings (Mann et al. 2004). The concept of wellness, which is also assessed by the LSI, is closely related to that of selfesteem (Krieger et al. 2015) and is largely based on how people evaluate themselves across various situations (Ruiz-García et al. 2021). For example, it would include how a client sees themselves in relation to their personal and familial relationships, spiritual life, friendships, financial lives, altruism, and creativity, which are included in the verbal construction of self-esteem and life satisfaction (Moksnes and Espnes 2013;Orth and Robins 2014). ...
Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP) and the Life Snapshot Inventory (LSI) agree with a contextual, behavioral, relational approach to psychotherapy in which therapists focus on what happens in a session between the client and therapist to shape the interpersonal behaviors, emotional awareness, and self-expression necessary for clients to create and maintain close relationships and to live meaningful lives. This study aimed to test the reliability and the convergent validity of the (LSI) as a self-report instrument to measure meaningful personal and social factors. It was created in Functional Analytic Psychotherapy for use in various areas of life (e.g., family, work, love, spirituality, sexuality, health, etc.). This study involved 393 Jordanian participants (M = 49 years) in the sample. The examined questionnaire was compared with the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 Items (DASS-21) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) to examine its validity. The results demonstrated a high internal consistency (α = 0.92) of the LSI, with a correlation ranging between 0.74 and 0.87, both of which were statistically significant. Further, the factorial analysis identified only one factor (45.31% variance). Additionally, the results showed that both the DASS-21 and treatment options had an effect on the total scores of the LSI and the RSES. The LSI was introduced as the predictor and the variable related to depression, anxiety, stress, and the RSES as the dependent variables. The scale in total explained −31% of the variance in depression, −30% of the variance in anxiety, −22% of the variance in stress, and 46% of the variance in RSES. However, the results did not show any effects on the variables of gender, employment, and qualification. The examined questionnaire would be a helpful measure for use in healthcare, diagnosis, and clinical contexts in Jordanian society.
... These associations, however, were weaker among self-compassionate parents, likely because these parents could be more self-aware and self-regulate their own stigma stress better, and thus preempt the associated irritability and aggression that otherwise might taint their parent-child and inter-parental interactions [28]. These findings are consistent with prior research showing that self-compassion may reduce stress reactivity and behavioral impulsivity [59,60]. Building on our findings and those of prior research, future studies may investigate whether self-compassion might weaken the link between perceived stigma and interpersonal conflicts through selfawareness and self-regulation. ...
PurposeDue to the courtesy stigma of autism spectrum disorder, many parents of autistic children are devaluated and discriminated against by the public. Despite the high prevalence of this courtesy stigma, very few studies have examined its negative effects on parents of autistic children and explored the factors that may protect the parents from these negative effects. The present study utilized a 2-year, two-wave prospective longitudinal design to examine the associations of courtesy stigma with adverse cognitive (self-stigma), affective (depressive and anxiety symptoms), and social (parent–child and inter-parental conflicts) consequences for parents of autistic children and to test whether these associations would be moderated and mitigated by self-compassion.MethodsA total of 381 parents of autistic children completed questionnaires about courtesy stigma, self-compassion, self-stigma, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and parent–child and inter-parental conflicts at time 1 (T1) and time 2 (T2).ResultsCourtesy stigma interacted with self-compassion at T1 in predicting self-stigma, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and parent–child and inter-parental conflicts at T2. Specifically, the associations of courtesy stigma with the adverse psychological consequences were weaker for parents with high self-compassion than for those with low self-compassion.Conclusion
Our results demonstrate the prospective associations of courtesy stigma with adverse cognitive, affective, and social consequences for parents of autistic children, as well as the protective effects of self-compassion against such associations. These results highlight the importance of increasing parents’ self-compassion to help them cope with courtesy stigma and improve their psychological well-being.
... Numerous studies have supported that self-compassion was closely linked to individual's emotional well-being, showing positive correlations with positive affect and negative correlations with negative affect (Krieger et al., 2015;Neff et al., 2007;Zessin et al., 2015), since self-compassion encourages adaptive coping strategies and positive automatic thoughts when facing setbacks. In addition to affective outcomes, meta-analyses found that self-compassion was strongly negatively associated with depressive symptoms (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Muris & Petrocchi, 2017). ...
Self-compassion is beneficial for individuals’ emotional health, but debates regarding its conceptualization are increasing. The present study aimed to explore the neural basis of self-compassion and its compassionate and uncompassionate dimensions and the indirect path from neural basis to emotional health. Structural MRI and Resting-state fMRI data were used to measure the gray matter volume (GMV) and the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) in 88 healthy college students. We found that individuals with higher self-compassion had decreased GMV in the prefrontal cortex, cerebellum as well as lower ALFF in the occipital lobe. The compassionate and uncompassionate dimensions of self-compassion shared some similarities (e.g., common correlation with GMV in the medial prefrontal cortex, ALFF in the occipital lobe) but also had some differences (e.g., only uncompassionate dimensions correlated with GMV in the lateral prefrontal cortex, ALFF in medial temporal lobe/striatum). The indirect path analyses revealed that corresponding brain characteristics could have associations with emotional health through self-compassion, as well as its uncompassionate dimension, but not compassionate dimension. This exploratory whole-brain study showed some preliminary findings that compassionate and uncompassionate dimensions of self-compassion were related to distinct brain regions, which are both important to the current conceptualization of self-compassion and intervention study.
... Our findings are the first to show that engaging in self-compassion after a stressor improves positive affectparticularly feelings of inspiration and happinessin participants with elevated depressive symptoms. These results support correlational research documenting that higher levels of self-compassion are associated with higher levels of positive affect in daily life (Krieger, Hermann, Zimmermann, & Grosse Holtforth, 2015). To our knowledge, however, this is the first study to assess levels of positive affect in participants with elevated depressive symptoms in response to an experimental self-compassion induction in the laboratory. ...
The current study was designed to extend previous research by testing whether self-compassion acts as a protective factor that facilitates faster affective and physiological recovery from stress in people with elevated depressive symptoms. Specifically, we examined the effect of experimentally induced self-compassion on positive affect, negative affect, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) recovery from stress. Participants (N = 59) experiencing elevated depressive symptoms completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), a standardized psychosocial stressor, and then were randomly assigned to either a self-compassion induction or a no-strategy control induction before resting quietly during the 30-min recovery period. During the induction period, participants in the self-compassion condition exhibited a greater increase in positive affect and a trend towards a greater decrease in negative affect than did participants in the no-strategy control condition. However, the psychological benefits of self-compassion did not continue during the post-induction recovery period. Moreover, changes in RSA levels did not differ between participants in the self-compassion and no-strategy control condition. These results suggest that, among individuals with elevated depressive symptoms, brief self-compassion inductions have short-term beneficial psychological, but not physiological, effects. As such, our findings delineate the benefits and boundaries of single-session self-compassion inductions in depression, and in doing so, inform future experimental and applied research.
... In the other hand, negative affect was indirectly associated to self-compassion through openness to the future. The relationship between negative affect and self-compassion has been shown in previous studies (Krieger et al., 2015;K. Neff & Vonk, 2009;Trompetter et al., 2017). ...
“Research on severe psychiatric conditions has primarily focused on deficits and symptoms, while there is limited understanding about the underlying factors that contribute to the life satisfaction (LS) of patients who suffer from such conditions. The presence of positive affect has an important role in the LS in the general population. Its presence activates personal resources that facilitate the achievement of their life purposes. However, these associations have not yet been evaluated in people affected by a severe psychiatric condition. The main aim of this study was to explore, using structural equation modeling, the role of different hedonic and eudaimonic well-being dimensions as predictors of LS in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. A total of 149 adult participants with schizophrenia spectrum disorders were assessed about their LS, hedonic well-being (i.e., positive affect, openness to the future) and eudaimonic well-being (i.e., social support, self-compassion, and strengths). Results indicate that self-compassion, caring and self-control strengths and social support mediate the relationship between hedonic well-being and LS. These findings help understand the mechanisms involved in LS in this population and shed light on the design of future interventions aimed at promoting a more satisfying life for them”.
... As a trait, self-compassion has been linked to a variety of positive outcomes. It is associated with lower incidence and severity of eating disorders (Braun, Park, & Gorin, 2016;Kelly & Stephen, 2016), with better PTSD symptoms for combat veterans (Hiraoka, Meyer, Kimbrel, DeBeer, Gulliver, & Morissette, 2015), and overall protection from negative affect (Krieger, Hermann, Zimmerman, & Holtforth, 2015;Marshall, Parker, Ciarrochi, Sahdra, Jackson, & Heaven, 2015). Positive mental health (empirically distinct from the absence of psychopathology) can protect against mental illness (Keyes, Dhingra, & Simoes, 2010), and recent evidence suggests that self-compassion may be the resilience mechanism behind this buffering effect (Trompetter, de Kleine, & Bohlmeijer, 2016). ...
In two lines of work, I explore the effects of using compassionate language. In the first line, I examine how social support that is not backed by sincere emotion is perceived, and whether it can be effective for making people feel better. In a between-subjects online study (N = 200) and a lab study with dyads of strangers (N = 144), I show that provider sincerity is less important for effective support than support recipients believe. Since recipients' accuracy is limited and biased with regard to sincerity, being supportive without emotional motivation could in cases be just as effective as the 'real' thing. The second line of work asks whether self-distancing promotes self-compassion. In four online experiments (Ns = 209, 411, 224, 567) where subjects write about a problem for which they blame themselves, those who wrote from a distanced perspective consistently used more compassionate language to discuss it than those who wrote from an immersed perspective. There was evidence that this kind of compassionate language was associated with feeling more self-compassion. Basic science and clinical implications of both lines of work are discussed.
... This result is in line with previous research that higher levels of self-compassion were related to less personal distress, 31 or less perceived stress in daily life. 32 Furthermore, greater self-compassion is associated with lower levels of symptomatology or mental health symptoms, 15 and increasing resilience to stress. 33 Further explanation of the perceived low level of distress may be due to self-compassion which has consistently been associated with higher levels of positive cognitive restructuring, and lower levels of avoidant ways of coping such as avoidance, escape or rumination. ...
Background:
Self-compassion has been considered beneficial in overcoming negative self-assessment due to inadequate coping that increases vulnerability to significant distress among undergraduate students in emerging adulthood.
Methods:
Subjects were 552 Indonesian undergraduate students from Diponegoro University, Indonesia (MAge = 20.03; SDAge = 1,022). Sex and age category were identified for further analysis. The measurements used the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) and General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12). The GHQ-12 also measures psychological morbidity in three dimensions, i.e. social dysfunction, anxiety and depression symptoms, and loss of confidence. Data were analyzed using Spearman's rho. Additional analyzes using the Mann-Whitney U Test and descriptive statistics were also performed.
Results:
Self-compassion had a significant negative relation with distress. Self-compassion was significantly related to all dimensions of distress, i.e. loss of confidence, anxiety and depression symptoms, and social dysfunction (from largest to smallest respectively). The correlation between self-compassion and distress in men was higher than women, both were significant. The correlation between those two constructs in late adolescence and early adulthood were also significant. Both sex and age did not significantly predict self-compassion and distress.
Conclusion:
The existence of self-compassion could predict a lower level of distress both in general and based on its dimensions, as well as correlations based on sex and age categories. A higher correlation in men may be of concern, while the absence of a marked difference in the correlation by age category could be due to the effect of small age variation in both age categories that was still in the emerging adult period. This was also supported by a non-significant difference of each variable across sex and age category. Discussions based on cultural values were also considered.
... Self-compassion maintains an individual's positive mental health by integrating emotional regulation and providing effective strategies to protect themselves from stressors (Dev et al., 2018;Gilbert, 2009). Empirical evidence suggests that self-compassion plays a moderating role between negative psychological constructs and physical and mental health outcomes (Krieger et al., 2015;Kyeong, 2013;Williamson, 2020). A cross-sectional study by Lathren and colleages (2019) demonstrated that higher levels of self-compassion in a sample of US adolescents was associated with lower levels of perceived stress and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms. ...
Background
Job burnout is more prevalent among nurses than other medical team members and may have adverse effects on the mental and physical health of both nurses and their patients.
Aims
To evaluate the associations between job burnout as a dependent variable with perceived stress and self-compassion as independent variables, and test the buffering role of self-compassion in the link between perceived stress and job burnout in nurses.
Methods
This is a cross-sectional study with a convenience sampling method. A total of 150 nurses from four hospitals in Tehran, Iran participated in this study and completed three questionnaires, namely the Perceived Stress Scale, the Self-Compassion Scale and the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory.
Results
Partial least square-structural equation modelling showed greater levels of perceived stress associated with greater levels of job burnout (β = 0.795, p < 0.001), and greater levels of self-compassion associated with lower levels of job burnout (β = –0.512, p < 0.001) in nurses. The results of the interaction-moderation analysis showed that self-compassion diminished the effect of perceived stress on job burnout in nurses.
Conclusions
The results of this study not only showed a significant association between perceived stress and job burnout in nurses, but also increased our understanding about the buffering role of self-compassion in the link between perceived stress and job burnout in nurses.
This 4‐year prospective study investigated the dynamic relationship between stress, self‐compassion, and resilience among university students, a population with increasing rates of mental health challenges. Drawing on stress theories, the research explored whether the combination of stress and self‐compassion strengthens resilience over time. A sample of 1137 university students (47.6% White, 38% female) completed measures of stress, resilience, and self‐compassion annually during the Spring semester across their four undergraduate years. A random intercept cross‐lagged panel model with latent interactions was used to test the hypothesized causal relationships. Contrary to the common belief that stress is debilitating, the results revealed a positive association between an increase in stress and a subsequent increase in self‐compassion. Moreover, when stress levels increased alongside self‐compassion, students demonstrated higher resilience. Notably, an increase in either stress or self‐compassion alone did not enhance resilience. These findings highlight the synergetic effect between self‐compassion and stress in enhancing resilience; under the right conditions, stress can lead to positive outcomes and increased capacity for coping with future stressors.
Personal self‐esteem (PSE) has been well recognized as a buffer against stress; however, the effects of other types of self‐esteem, such as relational self‐esteem (RSE) and collective self‐esteem (CSE), on stress have not been adequately explored. This study investigated the roles of PSE, RSE, and CSE in reducing stress response. The Rosenberg, Relational, and Collective Self‐Esteem Scales were adopted to assess PSE, RSE, and CSE, respectively. Participants underwent an acute social stress paradigm, and their acute stress response was assessed using subjective stress reports and salivary cortisol levels. Chronic stress level was estimated using the Perceived Stress Scale and hair cortisol concentration. The results showed that PSE was negatively correlated with salivary cortisol response during acute social stress; however, no significant associations were found between any type of self‐esteem and subjective stress reports. For chronic stress, all types of self‐esteem were negatively associated with perceived stress level, but not with hair cortisol concentration. Further hierarchical regression analyses suggested that only PSE negatively predicted acute salivary cortisol response and perceived stress level. Overall, the findings suggest the essential role of PSE in predicting acute salivary cortisol responses and perceived stress.
Self-compassion is related to psychological well-being and can improve mental health problems. The present study aimed to examine the relationship of self-compassion with anxiety and depression symptoms considering the mediating effects of shame and guilt. Two hundred forty-three participants in Iran completed the measures of Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS), self-compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF), and personal feelings questionnaire-2 (PFQ-2 Brief). The result showed that there was a significant negative correlation between self-compassion and shame, guilt, depression, and anxiety. The correlation between shame and guilt with depression and anxiety was also positive and significant. Mediation analysis was used to examine whether self-compassion predicted decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety through decreased shame and guilt. The results showed that self-compassion has a negative direct effect on depression symptoms. The direct effect of self-compassion on anxiety symptoms was not significant. Moreover, we found that shame and guilt mediate the relationship between self-compassion and depressive symptoms. However, the indirect effect of guilt on anxiety symptoms was not significant. The findings of the current study demonstrate that Self-compassion is linked to more psychological strengths and efficient emotional regulations, leading to less self-conscious emotions (shame and guilt) and decreased depression and anxiety symptoms.
Abstract
Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the interactive role of couples' self-compassion in cognitive emotion regulation of themselves and their
spouses using Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. Method: This study is
of descriptive method and the design is correlational using structural equation
modeling. The statistical population of the study included all couples living in
Tehran in 2020, of whom a sample of 167 couples (334 participants) were
selected via available sampling method. Short form of Cognitive Emotion
Regulation Questionnaire Garnefski, Kraaij, 2006 and Self-Compassion Scale
Neff, 2003 were used to collect the data. the data were analyzed using
structural equation modeling. Results: The results indicated that the path
coefficient of the actor effect of self-compassion had a positive and significant
relationship with adaptive emotion regulation strategies (p <0.01, β=0/83 for
females, β=0/60 for males) and a negative and significant relationship with
maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in females (p <0.01, β=-0/62) and
males (p <0.05, β=-0/60). In terms of partner effect, there was a positive and
significant relationship between males' self-compassion and adaptive emotion
regulation strategies of their spouses (females) (p <0.05, β=0/19). It should be
noted that, both conceptual models of the present research had goodness of fit.
Conclusion: Based on the results, it can be said that self-compassion plays an
important role in predicting cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Males'
self-compassion also plays a role not only in regulating their own emotions
but also in their spouses' adaptive emotion regulation strategies.
Keywords: Emotion Regulation, Self-Compassion, Couples, Actor-Partner
Available studies suggest that experiencing interpersonal rejection heightens negative affect and, in turn, triggers unhealthy eating behaviors. Elucidating individual differences that attenuate the negative consequences of rejection could inform interventions targeting unhealthy eating. This study examined the buffering role of self-compassion in the relationship between rejection experiences and unhealthy eating behaviors, defined as snacking on junk food and overeating. Two-hundred undergraduate students (50% women) completed ecological momentary assessments measuring rejection experiences, emotions, and unhealthy eating seven times a day for 10 consecutive days. Self-compassion was measured after the 10-day assessment period. Reports of rejection were low (2.6%) in our university sample. Multilevel mediation analyses examined whether the relationship between experiencing rejection and subsequent unhealthy eating was mediated by negative affect. Multilevel moderated mediation analyses further considered whether relationships between rejection and negative affect and between negative affect and unhealthy eating were moderated by self-compassion. Experiencing rejection predicted more unhealthy eating behaviors at the next time point, and this relationship was fully explained by increases in negative affect. Participants with high levels of self-compassion experienced less intense negative affect after rejection and reported less unhealthy eating behaviors when feeling negative emotions, compared to their counterparts with lower levels of self-compassion. The indirect effect of rejection on unhealthy eating was moderated by self-compassion, and there was no statistically significant relationship between rejection and unhealthy eating behaviors among highly self-compassionate participants. Findings suggest that cultivating self-compassion may help attenuate the negative impact of rejection experiences on emotions and unhealthy eating behaviors.
Self-compassion and self-esteem are constructs that frequently attract attention in psychological research, yet little has been done to synthesize the literature. Self-compassion refers to a capacity to treat oneself with kindness and a desire to help rather than harm, and self-esteem refers to a sense of self-worth, often based on comparisons to others. This chapter examines the dynamic relationship between these constructs. We consider different forms of self-esteem, identifying that contingent self-esteem shares little commonality with self-compassion, while intrinsic self-esteem and self-compassion are more closely related. Examination of observational and intervention research highlights the interactive and bidirectional relationship between self-compassion and intrinsic self-esteem. Although highly correlated, the constructs have different strengths in predicting other psychological variables such as authenticity and mental health outcomes. Mediation research suggests self-compassion can buffer or mitigate some of the costs of pursuing self-esteem. In addition, self-compassion interventions appear to be more efficacious than self-esteem interventions. Yet longitudinal research suggests the relationship between the constructs is bidirectional and that they may dynamically bolster each other over time. Given these emerging trends, this chapter applies the Interventive Network Model as a framework for understanding these two constructs and outlines a direction for future research and psychological treatment.KeywordsSelf-compassionSelf-esteemIntrinsic self-esteemSelf-worthTreatment
Self-compassion is a caring and supportive way of relating to oneself in times of distress. It involves kindness rather than harsh self-judgment, a sense of common humanity rather than isolation, and mindfulness rather than overidentification with painful thoughts and feelings. Self-compassion can take the form of tender self-acceptance – a gentle, nurturing stance that allows us to open to the imperfection of ourselves and our lives with warmth. It can also take the form of fierce action, protecting ourselves from harm and standing up to injustice, taking steps to meet our needs, and motivating needed change in our behavior or environment. This chapter focuses on the theoretical underpinnings of self-compassion and its measurement. Self-compassion is most commonly measured using the Self-Compassion Scale, for which extensive validity data exists. Factor analyses using state-of-the-art psychometric methods designed to examine multidimensional measures support the use of a total score or else six subscale scores. The factor structure of the SCS has been found to be invariant across cultures, although mean levels of self-compassion vary by age, gender, and nation. Other versions of the SCS exist, including a short version, a state version, and a youth version. Researchers are also increasingly using experimental methods to examine the benefits of self-compassion.KeywordsSelf-compassionTheoryMeasurementPsychometricsIndividual differences
Previous research has found both self‐compassion and gratitude to be protective against overall PTSD symptom severity. PTSD is a highly heterogenous disorder, however, and it is unclear if these protective constructs are differentially associated with each cluster of PTSD. The present study examined differences in the association of self‐compassion and gratitude with the four clusters of PTSD as indicated by the DSM‐5. Participants were 1424 trauma‐exposed individuals recruited via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. The mean age of participants was 31.49 (SD = 11.25) years old, and 55.3% of the sample identified as female. A structural equation model (SEM) approach was used to examine relationships between factors of gratitude, self‐compassion, and the four PTSD symptom clusters. A two‐factor model of self‐compassion best fit the data. Both factors of self‐compassion and the gratitude factor were significantly associated with all symptom clusters of PTSD. Wald chi‐square tests indicated self‐compassion and gratitude to have the strongest association with Negative Alterations in Cognitions and Mood (NACM) PTSD symptoms. These findings may have important implications for treatment targets to reduce specific symptoms of PTSD, particularly in PTSD symptoms related to negative affect.
Three studies (combined N = 1035) tested whether inducing a self-compassionate state of mind would help people regulate affect and aggressive inclinations toward rejecters. State self-compassion, negative affect, and pin counts in the voodoo doll task were assessed across all the studies, positive affect was assessed in Studies 2 and 3, and calm affect and revenge intention were assessed in Study 3. Compared with those in the control condition, participants in the self-compassion condition reported higher levels of state self-compassion (Studies 1 to 3), positive affect (Studies 2 and 3), and calm affect (Study 3), and lower levels of negative affect (Studies 1 to 3) and revenge intention (Study 3). A mini meta-analysis showed that participants in the self-compassion condition selected fewer pins to stab into a voodoo doll. Mediation analyses further suggested that negative affect and calm affect played mediator roles in the association between self-compassion manipulation and aggressive inclinations.
People with anxiety and depression are more worried. This worry can weaken their immune system and make them vulnerable to diseases. This study attempted to evaluate the effectiveness of CFT on depression and anxiety in patients with COVID-19. The study had a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population included 30 men who underwent quarantine for COVID-19 in 2021. Participants were chosen through convenience sampling and then were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. In the experimental group, CFT treatment was performed in 10 sessions of 90 minutes. Beck Depression and Anxiety Questionnaires were used to collect the required data. Data were analyzed using SPSS 21 software and multivariate covariance analysis (MANCOVA). The results showed a significant difference between the mean scores of depression and anxiety in the experimental and control groups (p <0.05). The effect of this treatment on reducing the scores of depression and anxiety was 51% and 68%, respectively. Based on the results, CFT can reduce anxiety and depression in patients with COVID-19 disease. It is suggested that this intervention can be used in psychological treatment programs.
Background: Psychosomatic symptoms manifest in different stages of human life. Students are vulnerable to the negative impact of these symptoms on their academic success and the possible consequences, such as illegal drug use and suicide attempts. Objectives: The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-compassion in the correlation between perceived social support and psychosomatic symptoms among university students. Methods: This descriptive-correlational study was conducted on the students of the Islamic Azad University of Ahvaz in the academic year 2020 - 2021. The sample population included 372 students (178 males and 194 females) who were selected via simple random sampling. Data were collected using the medical outcomes study-social support survey, Neff’s self-compassion scale (short-form), and DSM-5 somatic symptoms experiences questionnaire. Data analysis was performed using structural equation modeling. Results: A significant, negative correlation was observed between perceived social support and psychosomatic symptoms (β = -0.14; P = 0.03), and a significant, positive correlation was observed between perceived social support and self-compassion (β = 0.34; P = 0.001). Furthermore, a significant, negative correlation was denoted between self-compassion and psychosomatic symptoms (β = -0.52; P = 0.001). Self-compassion slightly mediated the correlation between perceived social support and psychosomatic symptoms (β = -0.19; P = 0.001), while gender did not moderate this mediating model. Conclusions: According to the results, the modified model had a good fit. Therefore, self-compassion and perceived social support affected psychosomatic symptoms in the university students.
Self-compassion refers to being supportive toward oneself when experiencing suffering or pain—be it caused by personal mistakes and inadequacies or external life challenges. This review presents my theoretical model of self-compassion as comprised of six different elements: increased self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness as well as reduced self-judgment, isolation, and overidentification. It discusses the methodology of self-compassion research and reviews the increasingly large number of empirical studies that indicate self-compassion is a productive way of approaching distressing thoughts and emotions that engenders mental and physical well-being. It also reviews research that dispels common myths about self-compassion (e.g., that it is weak, selfish, self-indulgent or undermines motivation). Interventions designed to increase self-compassion, such as compassion-focused therapy and mindful self-compassion, are discussed. Finally, the review considers problematic issues in the field, such as the differential effects fallacy, and considers limitations and future research directions in the field of self-compassion research.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 74 is January 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Self-compassion is associated with many positive outcomes and is generally viewed as an adaptive way of responding during difficult times. But self-compassion has also been positively associated with savoring, a way of responding to positive experiences that involves attempting to sustain or intensify positive emotions, and little is known about the direction of this relationship or whether it generalizes to responses immediately after a positive event. We conducted two studies to learn more about the directionality (Study 1) and generalizability (Study 2) of this relationship. In Study 1, athletes (N = 298) completed assessments of self-compassion and savoring capacity at two time-points throughout a season. We tested a cross-lagged panel model and found that self-compassion predicted increases in savoring, but savoring did not predict change in self-compassion. In Study 2, sports fans (N = 244) reported the extent to which they engaged in savoring immediately after their favorite team had won a championship game. The results showed that self-compassion was positively associated with savoring following the game. Overall, this research reveals more about the directionality and generalizability of the relationship between self-compassion and savoring, and shows that the effects of self-compassion extend to the positive side of the human experience.
Compassion-focused therapy helps increase couples 'emotional security by regulating emotional systems, which can ultimately improve couples' attachment styles. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of compassion focused therapy (CFT) on attachment styles of couples with marital conflict. In this study, a single case design of asynchronous multiple baseline type was used. The statistical population of this study was married couples with marital conflict referring to Hamedan counseling centers. Accordingly, three couples who had marital conflict were selected by purposive sampling. Compassion-focused therapy was performed in three stages: baseline, intervention (8 sessions of 90 minutes), and follow-up, and couples responded to the Adult Attachment Style (Collins and Reed, 1990). Data analyzed with visuals inspection, improvement percentage and reliable change index (RCI) strategies. The results showed that the rate of improvement after treatment and follow-up is for secure attachment styles (36.33-33.93), avoidance (40.37-37) and anxiety (26.47-25.98), respectively. Therefore, the research findings indicate that compassion-focused therapy can be used as an effective treatment to improve the attachment styles of couples with marital conflict
Bu araştırmanın amacı, üniversite öğrencilerinde öz anlayışın pozitif-negatif duyguyu ve mükemmeliyetçiliği yordayıcı rolünü incelemektir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubu, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Ahmet Keleşoğlu Eğitim Fakültesinde öğrenim gören öğrencilerden rastgele seçilen 303 öğrenciden oluşmaktadır. Katılımcıların 248’i (%81.8) kadın, 55’i (%18.2) erkektir. Çalışma grubunun yaş ortalaması 20.51’dir (17-37 yaş arası; Standart sapma: 2.15). Araştırmada ‘Öz-Anlayış Ölçeği’, ‘Pozitif-Negatif Duygu Ölçeği’ ve ‘Frost Çok Boyutlu Mükemmeliyetçilik Ölçeği’ veri toplama araçları olarak kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde yapısal eşitlik modellemesi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına göre, öz anlayış mükemmeliyetçiliğin, olumlu ve olumsuz duygunun anlamlı bir yordayıcısıdır. Üniversite öğrencilerinde öz anlayışın artması mükemmeliyetçiliğin ve olumsuz duygunun azalmasını sağlayabilir. Ek olarak, üniversite öğrencilerinde öz anlayışın artması olumlu duygunun da artmasını sağlayabilir. Sonuçlar ilgili literatür çerçevesinde tartışılmış ve önerilere yer verilmiştir.
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of short-term self-compassion training programs on positive and negative affect and life satisfaction. The research design was a quasi-experimental pretest and posttest with a control group. The study's statistical population consisted of all students of the University of Tabriz, from which 40 people were selected by convenience sampling method and randomly assigned into two experimental and control groups (20 subjects in each group). The instruments of the study were the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diner et al, 1985), and the Self-Compassion Questionnaire(Neff, 2003). The intervention group received the compassion training course in 5 sessions of 90-minute weekly sessions and the control group did not receive any intervention. The results of multiple analyses of covariance showed that there was a significant difference between the scores of self-compassion, positive affect, and negative affect of the experimental and control groups in the post-test stage (P≤0.001). The experimental group received higher self-compassion and positive affect scores and lower scores in negative affect compared to the control group in the post-test phase. Based on the findings of this study, self-compassion training can be a good option to increase self-compassion and positive affect and reduce negative affect.
This chapter begins with an overview of the “cost to caring”, exploring the impact of being exposed to the trauma stories of patients, the stories of harm caused to others and the direct risk of harm that forensic staff face in their work. The chapter proposes a model of Compassion Focused Staff Support (CFSS) that enables staff to engage in Compassionate Mind Training followed by a regular staff support group which is process-driven. This enables staff to develop the three flows of compassion, work on fears, blocks and resistances, whilst attending to the group dynamics and underlying unconscious processes that are inevitable in this work. This model will be illustrated with a view from the staff and facilitators who are engaged in this work.
This chapter begins with an overview of the 'cost to caring', exploring the impact of being exposed to the trauma stories of patients, the stories of harm caused to others and the direct risk of harm that forensic staff face in their work. The chapter proposes a model of Compassion Focused Staff Support (CFSS) that enables staff to engage in Compassionate Mind Training followed by a regular staff support group which is process driven. This enables staff to develop the three flows of compassion, work on fears, blocks and resistances, whilst attending to the group dynamics and underlying unconscious processes that are inevitable in this work. This model will be illustrated with a view from the staff and facilitators who are engaged in this work.
Assessment in clinical psychology typically relies on global retrospective self-reports collected at research or clinic visits, which are limited by recall bias and are not well suited to address how behavior changes over time and across contexts. Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) involves repeated sampling of subjects' current behaviors and experiences in real time, in subjects' natural environments. EMA aims to minimize recall bias, maximize ecological validity, and allow study of microprocesses that influence behavior in real-world contexts. EMA studies assess particular events in subjects' lives or assess subjects at periodic intervals, often by random time sampling, using technologies ranging from written diaries and telephones to electronic diaries and physiological sensors. We discuss the rationale for EMA, EMA designs, methodological and practical issues, and comparisons of EMA and recall data. EMA holds unique promise to advance the science and practice of clinical psychology by shedding light on the dynamics of behavior in real-world settings.
In this study, we tested the hypothesis that participants higher in dispositional self-compassion would show lower stress-induced reactivity of salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), a marker of sympathetic nervous system activation. Thirty-three healthy participants (18– 34 years old) were exposed to a standardized laboratory stressor on two consecutive days. Self-compassion, self-esteem, and demographic factors were assessed by questionnaire, and sAA was assessed at baseline and at 1, 10, 30, and 60 min following each stressor. Self-compassion was a significant negative predictor of sAA responses on both days. This relationship remained significant when controlling for self-esteem, subjective distress, age, gender, ethnicity, and body mass index. These results suggest that self-compassion may serve as a protective factor against stress-induced physiological changes that have implications for health. Acute psychosocial stress activates a biological fight-or-flight response that includes the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which increase heart rate and blood pressure and induce other physiological changes (Frankenhaeuser et al., 1978). These changes increase energy and alertness to help the organism cope more effectively with threats in the environment, but repeated activation of the stress response can contribute to the wear-and-tear of critical organ systems (McEwen, 1998) and increase disease risk (e.
A growing body of longitudinal studies suggests that low self-esteem is a risk factor for depression. However, it is unclear whether other characteristics of self-esteem, besides its level, explain incremental or even greater variance in subsequent depression. We examined the prospective effects of self-esteem level, instability (i.e., the degree of variability in self-esteem across short periods), and contingency (i.e., the degree to which self-esteem fluctuates in response to self-relevant events) on depressive symptoms in 1 overarching model, using data from 2 longitudinal studies. In Study 1, 372 adults were assessed at 2 waves over 6 months, including 40 daily diary assessments at Wave 1. In Study 2, 235 young adults were assessed at 2 waves over 6 weeks, including about 6 daily diary assessments at each wave. Self-esteem contingency was measured by self-report and by a statistical index based on the diary data (capturing event-related fluctuations in self-esteem). In both studies self-esteem level, but not self-esteem contingency, predicted subsequent depressive symptoms. Self-esteem instability predicted subsequent depressive symptoms in Study 2 only, with a smaller effect size than self-esteem level. Also, level, instability, and contingency of self-esteem did not interact in the prediction of depressive symptoms. Moreover, the effect of self-esteem level held when controlling for neuroticism and for all other Big Five personality traits. Thus, the findings provide converging evidence for a vulnerability effect of self-esteem level, tentative evidence for a smaller vulnerability effect of self-esteem instability, and no evidence for a vulnerability effect of self-esteem contingency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Impulsivity is a core feature of many psychiatric disorders. Traditionally, impulsivity has been assessed using retrospective questionnaires or laboratory tasks. Both approaches neglect intraindividual variability in impulsivity and do not capture impulsivity as it occurs in real-world settings. The goal of the current study was to provide a method for assessing impulsivity in daily life that provides both between-individual and within-individual information. Participants with borderline personality disorder (BPD; n = 67) or a depressive disorder (DD; n = 38) carried an electronic diary for 28 days and responded to 9 impulsivity items up to 6 times per day. Item distributions and iterative exploratory factor analysis (EFA) results were examined to select the items that best captured momentary impulsivity. A brief 4-item scale was created that can be used for the assessment of momentary impulsivity. Model fit was good for both within- and between-individual EFA. As expected, the BPD group showed significantly higher scores on our Momentary Impulsivity Scale than the DD group, and the resulting scale was moderately correlated with common trait impulsivity scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
Scales with varying degrees of measurement reliability are often used in the context of multistage sampling, where variance exists at multiple levels of analysis (e.g., individual and group). Because methodological guidance on assessing and reporting reliability at multiple levels of analysis is currently lacking, we discuss the importance of examining level-specific reliability. We present a simulation study and an applied example showing different methods for estimating multilevel reliability using multilevel confirmatory factor analysis and provide supporting Mplus program code. We conclude that (a) single-level estimates will not reflect a scale's actual reliability unless reliability is identical at each level of analysis, (b) 2-level alpha and composite reliability (omega) perform relatively well in most settings, (c) estimates of maximal reliability (H) were more biased when estimated using multilevel data than either alpha or omega, and (d) small cluster size can lead to overestimates of reliability at the between level of analysis. We also show that Monte Carlo confidence intervals and Bayesian credible intervals closely reflect the sampling distribution of reliability estimates under most conditions. We discuss the estimation of credible intervals using Mplus and provide R code for computing Monte Carlo confidence intervals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
Within American psychology, there has been a recent surge of interest in self-compassion, a construct from Buddhist thought. Self-compassion entails: (a) being kind and understanding toward oneself in times of pain or failure, (b) perceiving one's own suffering as part of a larger human experience, and (c) holding painful feelings and thoughts in mindful awareness. In this article we review findings from personality, social, and clinical psychology related to self-compassion. First, we define self-compassion and distinguish it from other self-constructs such as self-esteem, self-pity, and self-criticism. Next, we review empirical work on the correlates of self-compassion, demonstrating that self-compassion has consistently been found to be related to well-being. These findings support the call for interventions that can raise self-compassion. We then review the theory and empirical support behind current interventions that could enhance self-compassion including compassionate mind training (CMT), imagery work, the gestalt two-chair technique, mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Directions for future research are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Self-Compassion bezeichnet eine positive Grundeinstellung gegenüber der eigenen Person in schwierigen Lebenssituationen. Dieses Persönlichkeitsmerkmal hat sich als wirksamer Schutzfaktor erwiesen, der die emotionale Resilienz fördert. In letzter Zeit wurden Therapieansätze entwickelt, in denen die Förderung von Self-Compassion eine zentrale Rolle einnimmt. Fragestellung: Wie gut sind die Gütekriterien der deutschen Übersetzung der Self-Compassion Scale (SCS-D)? Methode: Die 26-Item Skala wurde ins Deutsche übersetzt. An zwei Stichproben (396 und 165 Personen) wurden die dimensionale Struktur, Reliabilität und Validität der Skala überprüft. Ergebnisse: In Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen zur Originalfassung zeigten sich für die SCS-D eine sechsfaktorielle Struktur und erwartungsgemäße Zusammenhänge mit psychischer Belastung und subjektivem Wohlbefinden. Schlussfolgerung: Mit der deutschen Übersetzung der SCS liegt ein Inventar vor, mit dem Self-Compassion ökonomisch, reliabel und valide erfasst werden kann.
Zusammenfassung: Für die deutschsprachige Fassung der Rosenberg-Skala zum Selbstwertgefühl von Ferring und Filipp (1996) wird eine Teilrevision vorgeschlagen. Ein Item der bisherigen Skalenversion stellte sich in eigenen Analysen als psychometrisch unzulänglich heraus und weist eine mangelnde inhalt-liche Validität auf. Dadurch ist möglicherweise die Vergleichbarkeit mit der Originalversion und mit Adaptationen der Rosenberg-Skala in anderen Sprachen nicht gewährleistet. Die vorgeschlagene Teilre-vision der Skala versucht, diese Mängel zu beheben und erweist sich in zwei unabhängigen Untersuchun-gen als Verbesserung der bisherigen Skala auf Itemebene. Außerdem werden hier erstmals vollständige Kennwerte für alle Skalenitems mitgeteilt. Abstract: A partial revision is proposed for the German version of Rosenberg's general self-esteem scale published by Ferring und Filipp (1996). According to our results, one item of the previous scale adaptation turned out to be psychometrically weak and – in our opinion – is lacking content validity. Therefore, the comparability with the original version and with adaptations of the Rosenberg-scale in other languages might be critical. The partially revised scale tries to eliminate these shortcomings and shows improved item statistics in two independent samples. In addition, complete statistics are presented for all scale items.
Twice a week for up to 10 weeks, 103 participants provided measures of their daily self-concept clarity (SCC), mood (negative affect [NA] and positive affect [PA]), and self-esteem (SE), and they described the events that occurred each day. Multilevel random coefficient modeling analyses found that daily SCC covaried with daily positive and negative events, with daily NA, and with daily SE. None of these relationships was moderated by trait levels of SE, SCC, PA, NA, or measures of depressogenic self-concept, anxiety, or depressive symptoms. Analyses that simultaneously included SE, mood, and events suggested that relationships between daily SCC and daily events were mediated by daily NA and daily SE. Such mediation suggests that daily events lead to changes in mood and SE, which in turn lead to changes in SCC. Additional analyses found that temporal variability of SE, PA, NA, and SCC was negatively correlated with trait SCC.
[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported in Vol 97(5) of Journal of Applied Psychology (see record 2012-18665-001). The article contained production-related errors in a number of the statistical symbols presented in Table 1, the Power in Multilevel Designs section, the Simulation Study section, and the Appendix.] Cross-level interaction effects lie at the heart of multilevel contingency and interactionism theories. Researchers have often lamented the difficulty of finding hypothesized cross-level interactions, and to date there has been no means by which the statistical power of such tests can be evaluated. We develop such a method and report results of a large-scale simulation study, verify its accuracy, and provide evidence regarding the relative importance of factors that affect the power to detect cross-level interactions. Our results indicate that the statistical power to detect cross-level interactions is determined primarily by the magnitude of the cross-level interaction, the standard deviation of lower level slopes, and the lower and upper level sample sizes. We provide a Monte Carlo tool that enables researchers to a priori design more efficient multilevel studies and provides a means by which they can better interpret potential explanations for nonsignificant results. We conclude with recommendations for how scholars might design future multilevel studies that will lead to more accurate inferences regarding the presence of cross-level interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Two studies are presented to examine the relation of self-compassion to psychological health. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one’s experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as isolating; and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Study 1 found that self-compassion (unlike self-esteem) helps buffer against anxiety when faced with an ego-threat in a laboratory setting. Self-compassion was also linked to connected versus separate language use when writing about weaknesses. Study 2 found that increases in self-compassion occurring over a one-month interval were associated with increased psychological well-being, and that therapist ratings of self-compassion were significantly correlated with self-reports of self-compassion. Self-compassion is a potentially important, measurable quality that offers a conceptual alternative to Western, more egocentric concepts of self-related processes and feelings.
Diathesis-stress models of depression suggest that low self-esteem and stressful events jointly influence the development of depressive affect. More specifically, the self-esteem buffering hypothesis states that, in the face of challenging life circumstances, individuals with low self-esteem are prone to depression because they lack sufficient coping resources, whereas those with high self-esteem are able to cope effectively and consequently avoid spiraling downward into depression. The authors used data from 3 longitudinal studies of adolescents and young adults, who were assessed 4 times over a 3-year period (Study 1; N = 359), 3 times over a 6-week period (Study 2; N = 249), and 4 times over a 6-year period (Study 3; N = 2,403). In all 3 studies, low self-esteem and stressful events independently predicted subsequent depression but did not interact in the prediction. Thus, the results did not support the self-esteem buffering hypothesis but suggest that low self-esteem and stressful events operate as independent risk factors for depression. In addition, the authors found evidence in all 3 studies that depression, but not low self-esteem, is reciprocally related to stressful events, suggesting that individuals high in depression are more inclined to subsequently experience stressful events.
This research examined self-compassion and self-esteem as they relate to various aspects of psychological functioning. Self-compassion entails treating oneself with kindness, recognizing one's shared humanity, and being mindful when considering negative aspects of oneself. Study 1 (N=2,187) compared self-compassion and global self-esteem as they relate to ego-focused reactivity. It was found that self-compassion predicted more stable feelings of self-worth than self-esteem and was less contingent on particular outcomes. Self-compassion also had a stronger negative association with social comparison, public self-consciousness, self-rumination, anger, and need for cognitive closure. Self-esteem (but not self-compassion) was positively associated with narcissism. Study 2 (N=165) compared global self-esteem and self-compassion with regard to positive mood states. It was found that the two constructs were statistically equivalent predictors of happiness, optimism, and positive affect. Results from these two studies suggest that self-compassion may be a useful alternative to global self-esteem when considering what constitutes a healthy self-stance.
Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.
Self-criticism has long been associated with a variety of psychological problems and is often a key focus for intervention in psychotherapy. Recent work has suggested that self-critics have underelaborated and underdeveloped capacities for compassionate self-soothing and warmth. This pilot study developed a diary for monitoring self-attacking and self-soothing thoughts and images. It also explored the personal experiences of a group of volunteer self-critics from the local depression support group who were given training in self-soothing and self-compassion. Although using small numbers, this study suggests the potential value of developing more complex methodologies for studying the capacity for self-compassion, interventions to increase self-compassion (including imagery techniques), and their effects on mental health.
Five studies investigated the cognitive and emotional processes by which self-compassionate people deal with unpleasant life events. In the various studies, participants reported on negative events in their daily lives, responded to hypothetical scenarios, reacted to interpersonal feedback, rated their or others' videotaped performances in an awkward situation, and reflected on negative personal experiences. Results from Study 1 showed that self-compassion predicted emotional and cognitive reactions to negative events in everyday life, and Study 2 found that self-compassion buffered people against negative self-feelings when imagining distressing social events. In Study 3, self-compassion moderated negative emotions after receiving ambivalent feedback, particularly for participants who were low in self-esteem. Study 4 found that low-self-compassionate people undervalued their videotaped performances relative to observers. Study 5 experimentally induced a self-compassionate perspective and found that self-compassion leads people to acknowledge their role in negative events without feeling overwhelmed with negative emotions. In general, these studies suggest that self-compassion attenuates people's reactions to negative events in ways that are distinct from and, in some cases, more beneficial than self-esteem.
Assessment in clinical psychology typically relies on global retrospective self-reports collected at research or clinic visits, which are limited by recall bias and are not well suited to address how behavior changes over time and across contexts. Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) involves repeated sampling of subjects' current behaviors and experiences in real time, in subjects' natural environments. EMA aims to minimize recall bias, maximize ecological validity, and allow study of microprocesses that influence behavior in real-world contexts. EMA studies assess particular events in subjects' lives or assess subjects at periodic intervals, often by random time sampling, using technologies ranging from written diaries and telephones to electronic diaries and physiological sensors. We discuss the rationale for EMA, EMA designs, methodological and practical issues, and comparisons of EMA and recall data. EMA holds unique promise to advance the science and practice of clinical psychology by shedding light on the dynamics of behavior in real-world settings.
Collani, G. von, & Herzberg, P. Y. (2003). A revised version of the German adaptation of Rosenberg's self-esteem scale. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 24(1), 3-7
Abstract
A partial revision is proposed for the German version of Rosenberg's general self-esteem scale published by Ferring & Filipp (1996). According to our results, one item of the previous scale adaptation turned out to be psychometrically weak and - in our opinion - is lacking content validity. The partially revised scale tries to eliminate these shortcomings and shows improved item statistics in two independent samples. In addition, complete item statistics are presented here for the scale items.
Keywords: global self-esteem, Rosenberg scale, scale revision, item statistics
This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one's experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as isolating; and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale is presented in a series of studies. Results indicate that self-compassion is significantly correlated with positive mental health outcomes such as less depression and anxiety and greater life satisfaction. Evidence is also provided for the discriminant validity of the scale, including with regard to self-esteem measures.
Previous studies suggest that self-compassion is related to numerous facets of mental health, but the role of cognitions in this relationship remains unknown. To examine the mediating role of cognitions in the relationship between self-compassion and anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction when controlling for self-esteem in Japanese people, we conducted two studies. Study 1 (N = 231) examined the relationship between self-compassion and affect by modeling negative automatic thoughts as a mediator; Study 2 (N = 233) tested whether positive and negative automatic thoughts meditate this relationship. Results suggested that both self-compassion and self-esteem increased positive automatic thoughts and decreased trait anxiety, whereas only self-esteem increased life satisfaction and decreased depression directly. Positive automatic thoughts increased life satisfaction and decreased depression and trait anxiety, and positive automatic thoughts mediated the relationship between self-compassion and negative affect. These findings suggest that both positive and negative automatic thoughts mediate the relationship between self-compassion and affect in Japanese people.
Cognitive reappraisal and acceptance are two presumably adaptive emotion regulation strategies in depression. More recently, self-compassion has been discussed as another potentially effective strategy for coping with depression. In the present study, we compared the effectiveness of self-compassion with a waiting condition, reappraisal, and acceptance in a clinically depressed sample, and tested the hypothesis that the intensity of depressed mood would moderate the differential efficacy of these strategies. In an experimental design, we induced depressed mood at four points in time in 48 participants meeting criteria for major depressive disorder. After each mood induction, participants were instructed to wait, reappraise the situation, accept their negative emotions, or employ self-compassion to regulate their depressed mood. Self-ratings of depressed mood were assessed before and after each mood induction and regulation phase. Results showed that the reduction of depressed mood was significantly greater in the self-compassion condition than in the waiting condition. No significant differences were observed between the self-compassion and the reappraisal condition, and between the self-compassion and the acceptance condition in patients' mood ratings. However, the intensity of self-rated depressed mood at baseline was found to moderate the comparative effectiveness of self-compassion and reappraisal with a trend of self-compassion being more effective than reappraisal in high depressed mood at baseline. These findings support the use of self-compassion as another adaptive emotion regulation strategy for patients with major depressive disorder, especially for those suffering from high levels of depressed mood.
Life transitions that include moving to a new location are stressful, particularly if difficulties arise in the new environment. This study focused on the role of self-compassion in moderating students' reactions to social and academic difficulties in the transition to college. Before starting college, 119 students completed a measure of self-compassion, the degree to which people treat themselves kindly during distressing situations. At the end of their first semester, participants answered questions about their social and academic difficulties and completed measures of homesickness, depression, and satisfaction with their decision to attend the university. Students who scored higher in self-compassion weathered difficulties more successfully, reported lower homesickness and less depression, and expressed greater satisfaction with their decision to attend the university.
The present article examines the common factor structure of various self-evaluative personality constructs. Consistent with previous research, we found considerable redundancy between constructs. Two basic forms of self-evaluation could be distinguished: Positive Self-regard (PSR) reflects people’s contentedness with themselves in comparison with their own standards. Constructs such as depression, self-esteem and neuroticism have very high loadings on this factor. In contrast, Claim to Leadership (CTL) reflects the subjective conviction that one is called to take charge and lead others. This conviction is often called ‘narcissism’. PSR mainly reflects an intra-personal kind of self-evaluation, whereas CTL reflects an inter-personal kind. Both forms of self-evaluation independently predict intellectual self-enhancement, but only one of them (PSR) also predicts self-reported mental health. Moreover, the two forms of self-evaluation are differentially associated with self-reported and peer-reported inter-personal traits (Dominance and Affiliation). Finally, the concepts of ‘Grandiosity’ and ‘Vulnerability’ from narcissism research may easily be reframed in terms of CTL and PSR. The two-dimensional framework may help overcome the conceptual confusion that exists around different forms of self-evaluation and streamline the field for future research.
Self-compassion involves being kind to oneself when challenged with personal weaknesses or hardship and has been claimed to be associated with resilience in various areas. So far, there are only a handful of studies that investigate self-compassion and its relation to clinical depression. Therefore, the principal goals of the present study were (a) to compare self-compassion in clinically depressed patients and never-depressed subjects, (b) to investigate self-compassion and its relation to cognitive-behavioral avoidance and rumination in depressed outpatients, and (c) to investigate rumination and avoidance as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depressive symptoms. One hundred and forty-two depressed outpatients and 120 never-depressed individuals from a community sample completed a self-report measure of self-compassion along with other measures. Results indicate that depressed patients showed lower levels of self-compassion than never-depressed individuals, even when controlled for depressive symptoms. In depressed outpatients, self-compassion was negatively related to depressive symptoms, symptom-focused rumination, as well as cognitive and behavioral avoidance. Additionally, symptom-focused rumination and cognitive and behavioral avoidance mediated the relationship between self-compassion and depressive symptoms. These findings extend previous research on self-compassion, its relation to depression, as well as processes mediating this relationship, and highlight the importance of self-compassion in clinically depressed patients. Since depressed patients seem to have difficulties adopting a self-compassionate attitude, psychotherapists are well advised to explore and address how depressed patients treat themselves.
Simple slopes, regions of significance, and confidence bands are commonly used to evaluate interactions in multiple linear regression (MLR) models, and the use of these techniques has recently been extended to multilevel or hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) and latent curve analysis (LCA). However, conducting these tests and plotting the conditional relations is often a tedious and error-prone task. This article provides an overview of methods used to probe interaction effects and describes a unified collection of freely available online resources that researchers can use to obtain significance tests for simple slopes, compute regions of significance, and obtain confidence bands for simple slopes across the range of the moderator in the MLR, HLM, and LCA contexts. Plotting capabilities are also provided.
The aim of these two studies was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) program, an 8-week workshop designed to train people to be more self-compassionate.
Study 1 was a pilot study that examined change scores in self-compassion, mindfulness, and various wellbeing outcomes among community adults (N = 21; mean [M] age = 51.26, 95% female). Study 2 was a randomized controlled trial that compared a treatment group (N = 25; M age = 51.21; 78% female) with a waitlist control group (N = 27; M age = 49.11; 82% female).
Study 1 found significant pre/post gains in self-compassion, mindfulness, and various wellbeing outcomes. Study 2 found that compared with the control group, intervention participants reported significantly larger increases in self-compassion, mindfulness, and wellbeing. Gains were maintained at 6-month and 1-year follow-ups.
The MSC program appears to be effective at enhancing self-compassion, mindfulness, and wellbeing.
Two studies examined the relationship between self-compassion, academic achievement goals, and coping with perceived academic failure among undergraduates. Self-compassion entails being kind to oneself in instances of failure, perceiving one's experiences as part of the larger human experience, and holding painful feelings in mindful awareness. Study 1 (N = 222) found that self-compassion was positively associated with mastery goals and negatively associated with performance goals, a relationship that was mediated by the lesser fear of failure and greater perceived competence of self-compassionate individuals. Study 2 confirmed these findings among students who perceived their recent midterm grade as a failure (N = 110), with results also indicating that self-compassion was positively associated with emotion-focused coping strategies and negatively associated with avoidance-oriented strategies.
This article focuses on the construct of self-compassion and how it differs from self-esteem. First, it discusses the fact that while self-esteem is related to psychological well-being, the pursuit of high self-esteem can be problematic. Next it presents another way to feel good about oneself: self-compassion. Self-compassion entails treating oneself with kindness, recognizing one’s shared humanity, and being mindful when considering negative aspects of oneself. Finally, this article suggests that self-compassion may offer similar mental health benefits as self-esteem, but with fewer downsides. Research is presented which shows that self-compassion provides greater emotional resilience and stability than self-esteem, but involves less self-evaluation, ego-defensiveness, and self-enhancement than self-esteem. Whereas self-esteem entails evaluating oneself positively and often involves the need to be special and above average, self-compassion does not entail self-evaluation or comparisons with others. Rather, it is a kind, connected, and clear-sighted way of relating to ourselves even in instances of failure, perceived inadequacy, and imperfection.
The mediating effects of rumination (with brooding and reflection components) and worry were examined in the relation between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. Two hundred and seventy-one nonclinical undergraduates completed measures of self-compassion, rumination, worry, depression and anxiety. Results showed that for the relation between self-compassion and depression, only brooding (rumination) emerged as a significant mediator. For anxiety, both brooding and worrying emerged as significant mediators, but the mediating effect of worry was significantly greater than that of brooding. The present results suggest that one way via which self-compassion has buffering effects on depression and anxiety is through its positive effects on unproductive repetitive thinking.
Divorce is a highly stressful event, and much remains to be learned about the factors that promote psychological resilience when marriages come to an end. In this study, divorcing adults (N = 109) completed a 4-min stream-of-consciousness recording about their marital separation at an initial laboratory visit. Four judges rated the degree to which participants exhibited self-compassion (defined by self-kindness, an awareness of one's place in shared humanity, and emotional equanimity) in their recordings. Judges evidenced considerable agreement in their ratings of participants' self-compassion, and these ratings demonstrated strong predictive utility: Higher levels of self-compassion at the initial visit were associated with less divorce-related emotional intrusion into daily life at the start of the study, and this effect persisted up to 9 months later. These effects held when we accounted for a number of competing predictors. Self-compassion is a modifiable variable, and if our findings can be replicated, they may have implications for improving the lives of divorcing adults.
There are few topics so fascinating both to the research investigator and the research subject as the self-image. It is distinctively characteristic of the human animal that he is able to stand outside himself and to describe, judge, and evaluate the person he is. He is at once the observer and the observed, the judge and the judged, the evaluator and the evaluated. Since the self is probably the most important thing in the world to him, the question of what he is like and how he feels about himself engrosses him deeply. This is especially true during the adolescent stage of development.
Self-esteem has become a household word. Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused efforts on boosting self-esteem, on the assumption that high self-esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits—an assumption that is critically evaluated in this review.
Appraisal of the effects of self-esteem is complicated by several factors. Because many people with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize objective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a heterogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept their good qualities along with narcissistic, defensive, and conceited individuals.
The modest correlations between self-esteem and school performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the result of good school performance. Efforts to boost the self-esteem of pupils have not been shown to improve academic performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, although the correlations vary widely, and the direction of causality has not been established. Occupational success may boost self-esteem rather than the reverse. Alternatively, self-esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory studies have generally failed to find that self-esteem causes good task performance, with the important exception that high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure.
People high in self-esteem claim to be more likable and attractive, to have better relationships, and to make better impressions on others than people with low self-esteem, but objective measures disconfirm most of these beliefs. Narcissists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventually. Self-esteem has not been shown to predict the quality or duration of relationships.
High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in groups and to criticize the group's approach. Leadership does not stem directly from self-esteem, but self-esteem may have indirect effects. Relative to people with low self-esteem, those with high self-esteem show stronger in-group favoritism, which may increase prejudice and discrimination.
Neither high nor low self-esteem is a direct cause of violence. Narcissism leads to increased aggression in retaliation for wounded pride. Low self-esteem may contribute to externalizing behavior and delinquency, although some studies have found that there are no effects or that the effect of self-esteem vanishes when other variables are controlled. The highest and lowest rates of cheating and bullying are found in different subcategories of high self-esteem.
Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness. Although the research has not clearly established causation, we are persuaded that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness. Low self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression under some circumstances. Some studies support the buffer hypothesis, which is that high self-esteem mitigates the effects of stress, but other studies come to the opposite conclusion, indicating that the negative effects of low self-esteem are mainly felt in good times. Still others find that high self-esteem leads to happier outcomes regardless of stress or other circumstances.
High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex. If anything, high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity or drinking, but in general effects of self-esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females.
Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic interventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self-esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved outcomes. In view of the heterogeneity of high self-esteem, indiscriminate praise might just as easily promote narcissism, with its less desirable consequences. Instead, we recommend using praise to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable behavior and self-improvement.
Despite the well-replicated finding that neuroticism is associated with increased susceptibility for psychopathology, it remains unclear what 'vulnerability as indexed by neuroticism' represents in terms of everyday life emotional processes. This study examined the association between neuroticism and six phenotypes of daily life emotional responses: positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA), PA variability, NA variability, stress sensitivity, and reward experience, and investigated the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to these associations.
A prospective cohort study in a population-based sample of 416 adult female twins.
A momentary assessment approach (experience sampling method) was used to collect multiple assessments of affect in daily life. Neuroticism was assessed with the Eysenck Personality Scale. Multi-level regression analyses were carried out to examine the association between neuroticism and the phenotypes of daily life emotional responses. Cross-twin, cross-trait analyses, and bivariate structural equation modelling (SEM) were performed in order to investigate the nature of these associations.
A high neuroticism score was associated with lower momentary PA levels and increased NA variability, independent of momentary NA, PA variability, stress sensitivity, and reward experience. Both the cross-twin, cross-trait analyses, and the bivariate SEM showed that unique, non-shared environmental factors drive the association between neuroticism and PA and that the association between neuroticism and increased NA variability is based on shared genetic factors as well as individual-specific environmental factors.
Neuroticism as measured by Eysenck questionnaire may index an environmental risk for decreased daily life PA levels and a genetic as well as an environmental risk for increased NA variability. Decomposing the broad measure of neuroticism into measurable persons-context interactions increases its 'informative' value in explaining psychopathology.
People who are high in self-compassion treat themselves with kindness and concern when they experience negative events. The present article examines the construct of self-compassion from the standpoint of research on coping in an effort to understand the ways in which people who are high in self-compassion cope with stressful events. Self-compassionate people tend to rely heavily on positive cognitive restructuring but do not appear to differ from less self-compassionate people in the degree to which they cope through problem-solving and distraction. Existing evidence does not show clear differences in the degree to which people who are low vs. high in self-compassion seek support as a coping strategy, but more research is needed.
Collecting data from students within classrooms or schools, and collecting data from students on multiple occasions over time, are two common sampling methods used in educational research that often require multilevel modeling (MLM) data analysis techniques to avoid Type-1 errors. The purpose of this article is to clarify the seven major steps involved in a multilevel analysis: (1) clarifying the research question, (2) choosing the appropriate parameter estimator, (3) assessing the need for MLM, (4) building the level-1 model, (5) building the level-2 model, (6) multilevel effect size reporting, and (7) likelihood ratio model testing. The seven steps are illustrated with both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal MLM example from the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) dataset. The goal of this article is to assist applied researchers in conducting and interpreting multilevel analyses and to offer recommendations to guide the reporting of MLM analysis results.
This paper presents evidence from three samples, two of college students and one of participants in a community smoking-cessation program, for the reliability and validity of a 14-item instrument, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), designed to measure the degree to which situations in one's life are appraised as stressful. The PSS showed adequate reliability and, as predicted, was correlated with life-event scores, depressive and physical symptomatology, utilization of health services, social anxiety, and smoking-reduction maintenance. In all comparisons, the PSS was a better predictor of the outcome in question than were life-event scores. When compared to a depressive symptomatology scale, the PSS was found to measure a different and independently predictive construct. Additional data indicate adequate reliability and validity of a four-item version of the PSS for telephone interviews. The PSS is suggested for examining the role of nonspecific appraised stress in the etiology of disease and behavioral disorders and as an outcome measure of experienced levels of stress.
Self-compassion, self-esteem, and well-being. Social and Personality Psychology Compass
- K D Neff
Neff, K. D. (2011). Self-compassion, self-esteem, and well-being. Social and Personality
Psychology Compass, 5(1), 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x.