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Coastal development at sea turtles nesting ground: Efforts to establish a tool for supporting conservation and coastal management in northeastern Brazil

Authors:
  • Fundação Florestal - São Paulo
Coastal development at sea turtles nesting ground: Efforts to establish
a tool for supporting conservation and coastal management in
northeastern Brazil
Gustave G. Lopez
a
,
*
, Eduardo de C. Sali
es
a
, Paulo H. Lara
a
, Frederico Tognin
a
,
Maria A. Marcovaldi
a
, Thiago Z. Serani
b
a
Fundaç~
ao Pr
o-TAMAR, Rua Rubens Guelli, 134 SL 307, Salvador, Bahia, CEP 41815-135, Brazil
b
Departamento de Ci^
encias do Mar, Universidade Federal de S~
ao Paulo eDCMar/UNIFESP, 11030-400, Santos, SP, Brazil
article info
Article history:
Received 24 October 2014
Received in revised form
27 July 2015
Accepted 30 July 2015
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Coastal development
Sea turtles
Threats
GIS map
Brazil
abstract
While tropical and subtropical coastal areas are considered prime areas for a wide range of tourism
projects, they also host important sea turtle nesting grounds. Preserving these nesting areas is critical to
ensure reproductive success and maintain viable sea turtle populations. The northern coast of the State of
Bahia, in northeastern Brazil, is an important sea turtle nesting ground. Sea turtle conservation activities
in Brazil began in 1980, focusing initially on reducing harvesting of nesting females and egg collection.
Recently, new threats resulting from unplanned coastal development have emerged. In this paper, a
geospatial tool, as an initiative of the Brazilian National Sea Turtle Conservation Program (TAMAR) to
identify key areas for sea turtle nesting along the coast northern coast of Bahia, is presented. A Sensitivity
Map was created, using a detailed GIS map graded by colors representing relevance levels of the coast for
sea turtle nesting. From this map, recommendations of management practices that correspond to each
sensitivity category can be made. This methodology allows for the identication of critical sea turtle
habitats and the subsequent implementation of mitigation measures at nesting beaches, as well support
coastal management policies.
©2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Coastal development has been taking over tropical coastal and
adjacent sea turtle nesting beaches. If poorly managed such
development can damage the natural environment, especially
without environmental planning legislation and adequate imple-
mentation (Hall, 2001; Orams, 2003; Lee, 2010; El Mrini et al.,
2012). In Brazil, the northern coast of Bahia is an important nest-
ing ground, primarily for loggerheads (Caretta caretta), olive ridleys
(Lepidochelys olivacea) and hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata), and
to a lesser extent for green turtles (Chelonia mydas). Sea turtle
conservation initiatives in Brazil began in 1980, with the creation of
Projeto TAMAR (Brazilian National Sea Turtle Conservation
Program) (Marcovaldi and Marcovaldi, 1999).
Until 1950, the northern coast of Bahia was considered a poorly
developed and sparsely populated agricultural region. In the early
1970s, a phase of Petrochemical industrial development took place
in the municipalities neighboring Salvador. In the 1990s a state
highway was completed connecting Salvador to the northern area
through the coastline, allowing for the expansion of tourism and
urban development. At this time, the Brazilian Government
launched a tourism development program in Northeast Brazil
named PRODETUR/NE (Programa de Desenvolvimento do Turismo no
Nordeste), in order to boost the tourism industry in this region.
Since then, large public and private investments have been made,
mainly for the provision of basic infrastructure and support for
tourism development (Lyrio, 2003; Silva et al., 2008). Currently, the
coastline is characterized by a highly consolidated urban area in
Salvador that decreases toward north.
At the start of TAMAR's activities in the 1980s, the main threats
for the sea turtles were the direct harvesting of eggs and nesting
females on the beach. Egg poaching was widespread all along the
*Corresponding author. Rua Rubens Guelli, 134 SL 307, Salvador, Bahia, CEP
41815-135, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: guslopez@tamar.org.br (G.G. Lopez), eduardo@tamar.org.br
(E.C. Sali
es), paulo.lara@tamar.org.br (P.H. Lara), fred@tamar.org.br (F. Tognin),
neca@tamar.org.br (M.A. Marcovaldi), thiago.serani@unifesp.br (T.Z. Serani).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ocean & Coastal Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.07.027
0964-5691/©2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 270e276
coast, often approaching 100% of all eggs laid. However, poaching
was primarily for local subsistence as no formal markets for turtle
products existed (Marcovaldi and Marcovaldi, 1999). After decades
of conservation efforts, which included the involvement and
participation of local communities as well as other stakeholders,
the number of eggs laid by loggerhead (Marcovaldi and Chaloupka,
2007), hawksbill (Marcovaldi et al., 2007), olive ridley (Silva et al.,
2007), and leatherback turtles (Thom
e et al., 2007) gradually
increased.
Unfortunately, while the threat of egg poaching and harvesting
of nesting females was being reduced, over the last two decades
new threats have become increasingly evident. Intensive develop-
ment in the coastal zones not only places sea turtle populations at
risk (i.e. articial lighting, shoreline armoring, beach driving) but
also degrades the ecosystems (i.e. pollution, erosion, overshing).
In the northern coast of Bahia, most of the environmental degra-
dation and habitat loss are due to urban development, where
several resort projects and super-sized condominiums are imple-
mented every year (Lyrio, 2003; Silva et al., 2008). An evaluation on
the recreational quality and the carrying capacity of beaches on
northern Bahia revealed that many beaches currently undergoing
development have problems of carrying capacity as well as
important environmental constraints (Silva et al., 2012).
This new regional development poses challenges to sea turtle
conservation, requiring the creation of an appropriate institutional
framework for coastal management to mitigate the potential
negative impacts to these animals. The aim of this study is to pre-
sent a Sensitivity Map Guide and some preliminary results of its
application, as an initiative to create a supportive tool for coastal
management and conservation in Bahia northern coast, focusing on
sea turtle nest protection. It includes a detailed GIS map graded by
colors representing relevance levels of the coast for sea turtle
nesting, and recommendations of management practices that
correspond to each sensitivity category. It has the potential to be
applicable to other sea turtle nesting areas under intense devel-
opment pressure.
2. The methodological approach of the Sensitivity Map Guide
for sea turtle nesting ground conservation
The Sensitivity Map Guide and best practical measures for
safeguarding sea turtle nesting grounds in Bahia were developed
according to the TAMAR's standard sea turtle conservation prac-
tices. This includes daily and night beach patrols to locate nests, in
situ nest monitoring, and relocation of at risk nests to other beaches
and/or open-air hatcheries, as well as community outreach and
education within the coastal villages (Marcovaldi and Marcovaldi,
1999). The Guide was based on Environmental Sensitivity Index
(ESI) mapping for oil spill contingency planning and response (e.g.
Jensen et al., 1998). We used Geographic Information System eGIS
tools to rate sea turtle nesting beaches with different levels of
relevance.
The northern Bahia coastline was divided into 214 km (covering
34 beaches). According to TAMAR's eldwork routines (for details
see Marcovaldi and Marcovaldi, 1999) the kilometer of each sea
turtle nesting activity, and its biological information, is registered in
a database. Three relevance levels were created, based on the
number of nests per kilometer (nest density), using the data from
the last ve nesting seasons (from 2007/2008 to 2011/2012), as
follows: level one (low relevance ¼0e20 nests/km); level two
(medium relevance ¼21e60 nests/km) and level three (high
relevance 60 nests/km). The criterion used for determining the
number of classes and the nest densities for each one of them was
based on TAMAR's expertise and the relative abundance of sea
turtle nests on the northern coast of Bahia.
Along with the Guide, recommendations for sea turtle conser-
vation were made according to each level, so that sections with
higher relevance levels would require the greater protection
measurements.
3. Results and discussion
High relevance areas comprise nearly 43% of the nests laid on
the northern coast of Bahia, and represent only 14% of the coastline
length (Table 1). It was possible to protect areas of high nest den-
sities without necessarily classifying the entire coast as a high
relevance area. The use of GIS mapping provides visual display of
data that can be easily accessed to identify the relevance level of a
specic location along the coast, thus, facilitating its use by coastal
management stakeholders (Fig. 1).
This methodology is an especially useful tool given that sea
turtles exhibit nesting site delity resulting in consistent nest
density from season to season (Marcovaldi et al., 2010; Matos et al.,
2012). However, an ongoing review of each subsequent nesting
season is critical to eventually adjust the level of importance of each
costal segment.
For each level of relevance, recommendations for sea turtle
nesting ground conservation were established. All the recommen-
dations were based on internationally recognized best practices for
safeguarding sea turtle nesting grounds (e.g. Eckert et al., 1999;
Witherington and Martin, 2000). They include standard guide-
lines for coastal lighting, beach use, building setbacks, and others,
some of them supported by sea turtles specic protection regula-
tion (Table 2). The recommendations presented here focus mainly
on the negative effects of light-pollution and increased human use
of nesting beaches, since coastal development did not aggravate the
old threats (e.g. egg poaching), but it has triggered new problems.
Light pollution, which can be dened as the introduction of
articially produced light into pristine areas, is considered one of
the greatest threats to nesting females and to hatchling survival.
Hatchlings typically emerge from the nests at night and use visual
cues to nd the ocean. As such, articial lights can disrupt hatchling
sea-nding behavior, making them more susceptible to mortality
associated with exhaustion, dehydration, predation, among others,
and can also disorient nesting females (Witherington and Martin,
2000).
Along the northern Bahia coast, disruption of hatchling orien-
tation due to articial lighting is becoming much more frequent,
especially in more densely populated areas (Serani et al., 2010).
Since the 1990s, federal and state laws prohibit any articial
lighting on sea turtle nesting beaches on northern Bahia. Recom-
mendations to prevent light-pollution seek to ensure compliance
with legislation, and also to use global best practices to minimize
the light-pollution impacts on sea turtle nesting grounds.
The building's distance, height and occupancy level near nesting
beaches, as well as the quantity of users and the nature of beach
activities has a direct impact on the sea turtle nesting grounds. For
these reasons, measures such as construction setbacks, turtle
friendlylighting and construction regulations (e.g. building size
and occupancy limit) can help reduce the threats generated by
coastal development. Setback regulations must be implemented
not only to address light pollution and habitat alteration, but also to
prevent expected impacts as a result of rising sea levels (Fish et al.,
2008; Mazaris et al., 2009).
The federal and state environmental legislation in Bahia pro-
vides setback regulations (50 m from the beach) that may be
appropriate for most sea turtle nesting areas (low relevance).
However, in areas of greatest relevance (medium and high rele-
vance) the setback regulation may be more restrictive, considering
the importance of these areas as sea turtle nesting grounds.
G.G. Lopez et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 270e276 271
Additionally, building features (e.g. number of oors and occupancy
limit) are determined by specic regulations, such as the environ-
mental licensing legislation or coastal zone management tools (e.g.
ecological-economic zoning). By regulating building features, it is
possible to minimize disturbances on nesting beaches.
Due to the intense development of the mass tourism industry
Table 1
Relevance levels and its correlation with nest density classes on northern Bahia.
Relevance level Signicance Nest density classes Number of nests
a
Number of
kilometers
n%n%
1 Low 1 to 20 1,020 15 95 44
2 Medium 21 to 60 2,924 42 90 42
3 High Up to 60 2,969 43 29 14
a
Based on the average of the last ve nesting seasons (2007/2008 to 2011/2012) (TAMAR, database).
Fig. 1. A GIS map of Bahia, Brazil, with areas of coastline graded by colors, representing the amount of sea turtle nests per kilometer (levels of relevance). Land use strategies that
correspond to each level were developed to help protect sea turtles in the area.
G.G. Lopez et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 270e276272
along the northern coast of Bahia in recent decades, hundreds of
thousands of visitors are attracted to the beach for recreational use.
Major tourist destinations in the area include the beaches adjacent
to Salvador and some urban-villages along the coastline, as well as
sandy beaches in front of large tourist developments. Unfortu-
nately, this results in the common removal of beach vegetation for
leisure purposes, which disrupts nest site selection by sea turtle
females and subsequent egg incubation (Serani et al., 2009).
Intensive beach use could also potentially reduce hatchling success
from trampling, due to the effect of sand hardness (Kudo et al.,
2003). The introduction of beach furniture (e.g. beach chairs and
umbrellas) and recreational equipment (e.g. sailboats), especially if
they remain on the beach at night, may harm, disturb and entrap
nesting sea turtles and hatchlings, as well as compact the surface of
the sand, killing the eggs within the nests.
Controlling human access to nesting areas and recreational
beach use becomes crucial, especially in areas of high relevance.
With the exception of specic legislation prohibiting vehicle trafc
on beaches, many of the coastal recreational activities are not
regulated by any laws or management tools, requiring cooperation
among users and other stakeholders to minimize the impacts on
sea turtles and their nesting beaches.
3.1. Using the guide to promote conservation of Bahia's sea turtle
nesting beaches
One of the immediate applications of the Guide has been the
environmental licensing process of major tourism projects. In
Brazil, large developments located in areas of high environmental
signicance, require the preparation of an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA). When these developments are also located on
sea turtle nesting beaches, Brazilian law stipulates that the
licensing process can only become effective after evaluation and
recommendation of the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and
Natural Resources (IBAMA) and after hearing the Brazilian National
Sea Turtle Conservation Program eCentro TAMAR (National Envi-
ronmental Council eCONAMA Resolution n
10 from October 24,
1996) recommendations. The EIA is required to provide detailed
information about the proposal, the potential environmental im-
pacts (taking into account the presence of endangered species, such
as sea turtles) and the practical measures to mitigate negative
impacts.
The Guide has been used to provide a basis for entrepreneurs
when preparing their projects and what measures are needed to
mitigate the potential impacts on beaches and sea turtles. For
example, between 2007 and 2009 on Guarajuba beach, a medium-
sized beach front hotel (about 1000 guests) was established in a sea
turtle nesting area of high relevance (Fig. 2). During the environ-
mental licensing process, the project was designed to allow for the
operation of the hotel in accordance with the recommendations to
protect sea turtle nesting areas. As a result, the beach in front of the
hotel provides suitable conditions for the maintenance of nests in
situ, especially with regard to the incidence of light on the beach. All
light sources have been designed so that the effect of direct and
indirect lighting of the project was minimized (Fig. 3).
The Guide has also been used to conduct efforts of TAMAR to
deal with threatens. For example, beaches shown in Fig. 2,were
mainly pristine in the until the 1990's. Limited beach use bytourists
and local residents permitted the preservation of sea turtle nests in
situ. However, by the early 2000s, the occupancy of the entire
length of the coast (16 km) by second residence condominiums and
hotels increased, resulting in signicant light-pollution and heavy
beach use. This forced TAMAR to relocate clutches to a beach
hatchery or more suitable nest sites. For instance, on Itacimirim
beach all clutches were transferred to the Praia do Forte's beach
hatchery up until the 2009/2010 nesting season (n¼105, 100%).
However, after implementing appropriate management practices
based on the recommendations of the Guide, during subsequent
nesting seasons (2010/2011 and 2011/2012), half of the clutches
(n ¼146, 62% and n ¼76, 51%, respectively) were able to be left in
situ due to improved habitat conditions (TAMAR, database).
This example illustrate that by implementing the recommen-
dations of the Guide with beach front developments, it is possible
to encourage habitat recovery enough so that turtle nests can
remain in situ. Priority recommendations were based on reducing
the amount of light that reaches the nesting beaches. Night-time
inspections were conducted in order to identify light sources
observable from the beach. Hotel, condominium and resort projects
were encouraged to incorporate sea turtle friendly lightinginto
their buildings (Fig. 4). Environmental education campaigns were
also carried out in order to raise public awareness of the impact of
light pollution on sea turtles.
In addition to the immediate application of the environmental
licensing processes in the improvement of existing urban infra-
structure, the Guide was initially used as a tool for coastal man-
agement and conservation policies. One of the current uses is to
establish priority zones for environment conservation in the state
of Bahia. This is part of the Brazilian effort to achieve international
conservation goals dened by The Convention on Biological Di-
versity. This initiative has been coordinated by the World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF), in order to plan a map of priority zones in
Bahia. The areas mapped in the Guide were integrated in the
methodology (based on the Software MARXAN for spatial conser-
vation prioritization eBall et al., 2009) to create a map of priority
Table 2
Recommendations for safeguarding sea turtle nesting beaches, taking into account their level of relevance.
Features Relevance levels
Low (level 1) Medium (level 2) High (level 3)
Construction setbacks 60 m 120 m 180 m
Floors or levels of buildings eFront buildings with a single oor All buildings with a single oor
Occupancy density High Medium Low
Beachfront lighting Low and indirect lighting behind the
nesting beach
Indirect lighting and control of light
scattering
Fully shielded indirect lighting
Beach access eRestricted access Very restricted access or no access at all
Beach use No habitat changes No habitat changes No habitat changes
Beach furniture and recreational
equipment
Place beach furniture and recreational
equipment at a minimum distance
from the sea turtle nests
Avoid non-permanent structures (e.g.
beach umbrella) on nesting beaches
and remove at night
Restrict non-permanent structures (e.g. beach
umbrella) on nesting beaches and remove furniture
and recreational equipment at night
Beach use at night eAvoid walking on the beach at night
during sea turtle nesting season
Do not walk on the beach at night during sea turtle
nesting season
G.G. Lopez et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 270e276 273
zones for biodiversity conservation. The areas mapped in the Guide
and identied as a high level of relevance for sea turtle nesting
were designated as targets for conservation efforts.
Other current uses has been to support the management of a
Protected Area in the Bahia northern coast. In the late 1990s and
early 2000s the government of Bahia created six Protected Areas for
sustainable use called Environmental Protected Areas (APA e
Area
de Proteç~
ao Ambiental)(Fig. 1)(Oliveira, 2002). The APA Litoral
Norte is the largest (142,000 ha), and since 2014, Bahia's govern-
ment is revising its ten year old Management Plan. The levels of
relevance mapped in the Guide serves as a base to determine po-
tential uses of the coast, in order to ensure the protection of sea
turtle relevant nesting areas inside the APA area.
4. Conclusions
The Sensitivity Map Guide presented here for sea turtle nesting
ground conservation could potentially improve: (i) the quality of
the development projects implemented in Bahia northern coast
regarding sea turtle nesting protection, especially in the EIA pro-
cess; (ii) guide entrepreneurs in the selection of areas for tourism
projects, avoiding areas of high relevance for sea turtle nesting; (ii)
guide the effort of TAMAR's conservation activities in the areas of
high level of relevance for sea turtle nesting; and (iii) create a tool
Fig. 2. The map shows a coastline segment of northern Bahia, northeastern Brazil, which is one of the largest nesting areas in Brazil, but also is considered a popular destination for
tourists.
G.G. Lopez et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 270e276274
to support decision-making on coastal planning and conservation,
as management plans of Protected Areas, and efforts to establishing
proprietary zones for biodiversity conservation.
The potential use of the Guide for coastal management on the
northern coast of Bahia depends on political efforts in order to
encourage proper use by local stakeholders through the support of
public policies for integrated coastal management. Nevertheless,
this initiative represents an important effort for sea turtle and
coastal conservation in Brazil, and could be used as a tool in other
tropical coastal zones under high coastal development pressures.
Its integration with public policies for coastal management could
improve not just sea turtle conservation, but also the coastal
stewardship through the denition of sensitive areas for coastal
conservation.
Fig. 3. Development of a light-pollution mitigation strategy in a medium scale hotel on northern Bahia.
Fig. 4. Public sidewalk along a sea turtle nesting beach on northern Bahia, before (left) and after (right) lighting inspections and corrective measures.
G.G. Lopez et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 270e276 275
Acknowledgments
We thank all the TAMAR staff for generously helping us in this
study. We are also grateful to Daphne Wrobel and Ashley Byun
McKay for providing constructive comments that improved the
quality of the manuscript, and to Coordenaç~
ao de Aperfeiçoamento
de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES/Ci^
encias do Mar, Postdoctoral
Fellowship to TZS). Projeto TAMAR, a conservation program of the
Brazilian Ministry of the Environment, is afliated with ICMBio, co-
managed by Fundaç~
ao Pr
o-TAMAR and ofcially sponsored by
Petrobras.
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... Light pollution on sandy beaches as a result of coastal development is increasing globally (Salmon, 2003(Salmon, , 2005Kamrowski et al., 2012;Lopez et al., 2015;Marangoni et al., 2022). Sandy nesting beaches are prime real estate for coastal development, tourism and recreation (Salmon, 2003(Salmon, , 2005Kamrowski et al., 2012;Lopez et al., 2015;Chalastani et al., 2020). ...
... Light pollution on sandy beaches as a result of coastal development is increasing globally (Salmon, 2003(Salmon, , 2005Kamrowski et al., 2012;Lopez et al., 2015;Marangoni et al., 2022). Sandy nesting beaches are prime real estate for coastal development, tourism and recreation (Salmon, 2003(Salmon, , 2005Kamrowski et al., 2012;Lopez et al., 2015;Chalastani et al., 2020). Terrestrial light shining near the beach can be brighter than star or moon light reflecting from the water and thus interferes with sea turtle's use of visual cues (Salmon, 2003(Salmon, , 2005. ...
... 4). Disturbance associated with light pollution such as human presence, physical barriers, or beach loss contribute to sea turtles no longer using beaches (Lopez et al., 2015). ...
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We examined the probability of past sea turtle nesting as a function of light intensity and patterns of temporal changes of light along nesting beaches in the Egyptian Red Sea. Beaches had a lower probability of past sea turtle nesting as light intensity increased. Light has been significantly increasing on mainland nesting beaches between 1992 and 2021 except for temporary declines. Island beaches historically had lower light pollution, but there was a sudden increase of light starting in 2014 that continued through 2021, except for the precipitous decline in 2020 during the Covid 19 pandemic. Light pollution on past nesting beaches has now approached levels that may be too polluted and discourage nesting. The impacts of the increased light pollution on nesting density and hatchling survival of hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata, and green turtles, Chelonia mydas, is likely negative.
... Female sea turtles have also been observed nesting on specific areas of a particular island rather than all available islands (Serafini et al., 2009). Therefore, understanding the habitat characteristics of green sea turtle nesting grounds is crucial for protecting them and for monitoring local green sea turtle populations (Rusenko et al., 2005;Turkozan et al., 2011;Lopez et al., 2015). Key sea turtle nesting grounds must be completely protected, and their distribution range should be constantly updated (Shimada et al., 2021). ...
... Human activity is the main factor influencing the distribution of sea turtle nesting grounds. High-intensity human disturbance and high density of coastal high-rise buildings can lower the number of nests and affect hatching success (Lopez et al., 2015;Lavelle et al., 2023). Our findings revealed that building density has a negative effect on green sea turtle nest density in the Xisha Islands. ...
... Persistent breeding and nesting disturbances in sea turtles include the loss of nesting ground because of coastal development (Zhang et al. 2023) and rising sea levels (Fuentes et al. 2011), feminization resulting from temperature-dependent sex determination linked to increased beach temperatures (Hays et al. 2023), and predation of eggs by invasive predators (Stokes et al. 2024). Multiple initiatives are being implemented to mitigate these issues and conserve sea turtle nesting, which include establishing coastal development mitigation policies (Lopez et al. 2015), providing shade on nesting beaches (Hill et al. 2015), and safeguarding against terrestrial predator depredation (O'Connor et al. 2017). As a result of these efforts, the nesting abundance of sea turtles has recovered in 12 of 17 regional management units (Mazaris et al. 2017). ...
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Captive breeding has been conducted across various regions to restore globally endangered sea turtle populations. However, understanding how turtles adapt to artificial breeding environments that differ considerably from their natural habitats remains underexplored. This study focused on the artificial breeding of two male and two female hawksbill turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, in a controlled facility in the Republic of Korea, isolated from the outdoor environment and located far north of their natural nesting grounds. The main objectives were to document the entire breeding process while identifying limitations in the breeding methods and suggesting improvements. During the study period, the hawksbill turtles laid 864 eggs across 10 clutches, resulting in 83 hatchlings. The mean fertilization rate was 33%, whereas hatching success rates were 10% and 32% for the number of total laid eggs and fertile eggs, respectively. A female turtle laid eggs two-and-a-half years after post-mating, demonstrating that hawksbill turtles can utilize long-term sperm storage for laying eggs in subsequent breeding seasons without additional mating. Enhancing captive breeding methods is crucial for improving the efficiency of sea turtle population recovery and expanding our understanding of their ecological characteristics.
... The industrialization of coastal zones, with the expansion of recreational activities, is contributing to deteriorating environmental conditions, raising a series of conservation issues for marine turtles [36]. Permanent beach structures and recreational equipment can disrupt nesting activities, by limiting beach access to nesting females and increasing nesting abandonment [37]. ...
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In the face of environmental change, high-quality and fine-scale information is essential in order to monitor the highly dynamic environments on land and sea. While traditional approaches to data collection face a number of practical limitations, advanced technologies could supplement and further improve our efforts. Taking sea turtles as a modeling organism, we present a novel methodological framework for monitoring species by means of advanced technologies, including Unmanned Aerial Vehicles coupled with image and temperature sensors. Diverse monitoring protocols were refined through pilot studies conducted in both terrestrial and nearshore sea turtle habitats. Our approach focuses on the collection of information for critical biological parameters concerning species reproduction and habitat use, following the complex life cycle of the species. Apart from biological information, our framework encompasses also the collection of information on crucial environmental factors that might be changing due to current and future human-derived pressures, such as beach erosion and temperature profile, as well as highly important human activities such as recreational use within nesting beaches that could undermine habitat quality for the species. This holistic and standardized approach to monitoring using advanced technologies could foster our capacity for conservation, resolving difficulties previously addressed and improving the collection of biological and environmental data in the frame of an adaptive management scheme.
... For example, spatial and temporal closures of fishing grounds are used as tools to reduce bycatch of endangered species such as cetaceans (Pons et al. 2022). Meanwhile, the use of some beaches by sea turtles for nesting has thwarted plans to create coastal tourism developments in Brazil (Lopez et al. 2015). Furthermore, the presence of endangered northern bottlenose whales in Canadian waters led to the creation of an MPA and, significantly, the rejection of all five subsequent bids by corporations to gain a license for oil and gas activities in adjacent areas (Kapoor, Fraser and Carter 2021). ...
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The blue economy purportedly involves equitable and sustainable development across a range of ocean sectors spanning fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, shipping, seabed mining, oil and gas extraction, and renewable energy. Here, we argue that blue economy scholarship and policy gives insufficient attention to coastal regions – and the cities, towns, and villages within – that depend on these sectors. Rather than prioritising the profitability of corporations and expansion of industry, we advise actors to consider three transformative processes that are (re)shaping coastal regions. First, are techno-industrial processes for which we draw on the fourth industrial revolution literature, highlighting that coastal regions must adapt to rapidly changing technological innovations or risk facing decline. Second, are socio-cultural processes for which we draw on the left-behind places literature, which exemplifies spatial inequalities from declining and deindustrialised coastal regions. Third, are physical-environmental processes, highlighting geographically variable opportunities and challenges around natural resources, marine biodiversity, and climate change in coastal regions. We then promote place-based policymaking as a multi-level and participatory mode of managing these transformations. Finally, we present a blue economy research agenda to help navigate these transformative processes, and enable place-based solutions. The article intersects with broader literatures around ocean governance and sustainable transformations.
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The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) is sensitive to climate change and is responding by colonising the Western Mediterranean. To understand the rapid nesting increase in recent years in Spain, we sampled 45 hatchlings from 8 nests between 2016 and 2019. We sequenced a mtDNA D‐loop region, genotyped 2291 SNPs using 2bRAD and collected data on clutch size, hatching success, and incubation duration. We confirmed that the colonisation has a Mediterranean and Atlantic mixed origin and we detected that these nests were laid by different females, except for two nests within the same season. Our results suggest that the recent increase in nesting is due to an increase in the number of colonising individuals rather than females born in the same area returning to breed. We hypothesize that this increase in the number of colonisers results from successful conservation efforts, feminisation of the populations of origin and earlier sexual maturation. However, the percentage of offspring females produced in Spain suggests that future returning individuals will aid to the settlement of the new population. These results allow defining the current status of this colonisation although future efforts are needed to detect remigrants to confirm the establishment of a resident population.
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Simple Summary This work represents the first scientific study using genetic markers to better understand the reproductive behaviour of the loggerhead sea turtle from the Central Mediterranean through dead hatchlings and undeveloped dead embryos collected from recorded nesting sites between 2020 and 2022. Data generated from the genetically analysed specimens were used for parentage analyses. Results of this research show that some turtles laid more than one nest within the same nesting season while we also detected an instance of multiple paternity. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the biology of the species in Maltese waters, which is a requirement for effective conservation management. Abstract Loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758), nestlings were investigated through specimens found dead either after hatching or unhatched (n = 120) from eight nests around the Maltese islands (Central Mediterranean). Molecular genetics was used to conduct maternity and paternity tests of the collected specimens utilizing expanded mitochondrial DNA sequences from the control region (858 bp) and 25 microsatellite loci (12 dinucleotide loci and 13 tetranucleotide loci). Mitochondrial data produced two haplotypes, CC-A2.1 and CC-A3.1, with the most common haplotype being present in seven nests. Microsatellite data revealed the identity of six different females that were involved in the deposition of the eggs in the eight turtle nests analysed. This confirms that two females laid multiple nests. Additionally, microsatellite data allowed for the determination of multiple paternity, with one clutch being sired by two fathers. These results are useful for monitoring the genetic diversity of loggerhead sea turtle nestlings and of the turtle mothers and fathers contributing to future turtle offspring, which rely on Maltese sandy beaches for their successful start to life. Effective conservation management benefits from merging scientific knowledge with effective measures at potential nesting sites to avoid losses of nestlings caused by human negligence.
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Nest beach selection by sea turtles at a regional scale may depend on upper shore environmental cues. Thus, the variability of sandy beach conditions, including coastal erosion rates and urban development can affect their nesting ecology. Almost half of worldwide sandy beaches are suffering from erosion and most of them are located in highly developed areas. This can lead to shore stretches with coastal squeeze and loss of habitat for beach-dependent species such as sea turtles. Understanding whether an endangered species, such as the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758), selects certain beaches to nest is the first step in devising mitigation strategies for human activities and climate change impacts. We predicted that the occurrence of loggerhead nests along 62 km of sandy beaches in southeastern Brazil is negatively related to higher urbanization levels and extreme erosion. A total of 731 nests of the loggerhead sea turtle were recorded in the 2022-2023 nesting season. Only 6% of those nests were found on beach sectors with severe and extreme erosion. The probability of laying a nest was negatively related to erosion rate. Also, approximately 50% of nests were found on low-urbanized beaches; thus, the higher the urbanization, the lower the probability of a turtle laying a nest. Nature-based solutions to recover the beach-dune system are recommended in order to mitigate coastal erosion where loggerheads are avoiding nesting. This should be coupled with management planning of the protected areas where nests are laid and must include nest relocation and monitoring as priority actions.
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We studied inter- and postnesting movements in the major loggerhead Caretta caretta nesting population in Brazil. Ten breeding females were satellite-tracked from nesting grounds in the state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil, for up to 1284 d. Eight females stayed in the nesting area after deployment, showing fidelity between internesting home ranges and nesting locations, even at a local scale. During postnesting movements, all of the turtles migrated to the northern coast of Brazil to individual foraging areas on the continental shelf. Distances between nesting and foraging areas reached up to 2400 km, and migration lasted from 28 to 47 d. Five females were tracked during subsequent breeding migrations to the nesting area at different remigration intervals of 2 or 3 yr. Females were also tracked during a second postnesting migration back to foraging areas, and these showed strong fidelity to foraging grounds. Movements to and from foraging grounds occurred along the shelf, clearly delineating a migratory corridor. The northern coast of Brazil, specifically the coast of the state of Ceará, is an important foraging ground for loggerheads nesting along the northern coast of Bahia.
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Oil spills can devastate ecosystems and severely impact wa-ter quality. The Environmental Sensitivity Index [ESI) was de-veloped to reduce the en vironmen tal consequences of a spill and help prioritize the placement and allocation of resources during cleanup efforts. The successful use of analog and dig-ital geographic information system versions of the ESI con-cept during the past ten years has led to improvements and refinements, including (I) the development of tidal inlet pro-tection strategy maps produced before a spill that specify the type of response (e.g., boom, skimmer) and where and h o w to place it, (2) new large format seasonal summary maps, (3) geographic expansion of the ESI concept inland to classify the sensitivity of rivers using a river Reach Sensitivity Index (RSI), (4) regional watershed analysis to identify hazards and potential spill consequences, and (5) the identification of un-usually sensitive areas to environmental damage i f there is a hazardous liquid pipeline accident.
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It is widely recognized that tourism is one of the world's largest and fastest growing industries. Historically sandy beaches have played an important role as locations for recreation and as attractions upon which tourism development has been based. This use of beaches for recreation-and tourism has had significant impacts environmentally, socially and economically. As a consequence it is-now understood that significant costs are often associated with tourism development. Irrespective of this, demand for high quality beach environs continues to grow while the corresponding availability of such environs is diminishing. :rhus, significant conflicts are arising. Simplistic management approaches will not solve this dilemma, rather creative, dynamic and ongoing applications tailor-made to the needs of specific areas are needed to ensure the future of these most popular of tourism attractions. The use of sandy beaches for tourism will be one of the significant management challenges in the coastal zone in the 21st Century.
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Fracture mechanics is used for the detailed analysis of the failure of high-speed rotating cylindrical vessels. The general procedure for the analysis of fatigue life and failure used in this study is summarized; the initial material properties are also described. The results of the theoretical stress analysis are compared to the observed magnitude of the stress under the operational condition. The fracture-surface configurations observed under both optical and scanning electron microscopes are used to investigate the progress of fatigue crack propagation. Fatigue life estimates obtained by using the Paris model are compared to the actual service life of the high-speed rotating pressure vessel.
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Tourism is a major source of income in Malaysia, and coastal development for tourism is greatly encouraged. This study reviews the policies that affect the development of coastal resorts, hotels and tourism-related infrastructure in Malaysia from the pre-construction phase to the post-construction operational phase. Problems in coastal protection policies have deep roots including a lack of public support and awareness for environmental issues, inadequate governmental agency coordination and lack of funding which is necessary for successful implementation. A review of studies assessing the usefulness of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) in Malaysia was conducted to determine whether potential impacts were well understood prior to starting development, and highlighted the issue of poor Environmental Management Plans during the operations phase of most coastal resorts. At the current level of fiscal, governmental and public support it is difficult to enforce policies aimed at minimizing environmental impacts from coastal resort developers.