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Despite investing significant resources, the practice of development has struggled to secure positive, long-term outcomes for the people of Timor-Leste. More than a decade on from formal independence, much of the nation’s population remains deeply impoverished and many human development challenges persist. This article attempts to answer two questions: First, why has development in Timor-Leste been unable to deliver more observable benefits and outcomes for the population at large? And second, how might development be reconfigured to be more effective? Drawing from statistical information, interviews, and case study material, this article argues that part of the ‘problem’ lies with development orthodoxy and its incapacity to recognize and adapt to settings where customary systems of local authority, practice, and belief remain important to social cohesion. Indeed, much may be gained by recasting the way development theory and practice views and interprets such practices, moving away from the idea of a series of cultural obstacles to acknowledging them as deeply embedded systems of meaning which continue to guide various aspects of East Timorese life.
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󰅺  󰄀󰂶 󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀 󰃊 󰂹 󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰆽󰆼󰆾󰆿󰆾󰇂󰇄󰄀󰆼󰇂󰆼󰆻󰆽󰆻󰆻󰇁
             
󰄀 󰆖󰂺󰆓  󰃍󰄀󰄀 󰆖󰂺󰆓󰃎 󰂺
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀 
 󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀 bki
󰂺󰃈
Development Alternatives in Timor-Leste
Recasting Modes of Local Engagement
 󰃖󰃻
 󰂶    󰂶
 󰂶 󰂶 
󰂐󰃖󰅎󰂐󰂐
Abstract
   󰂶       
 󰂶 󰄀      󰄀󰂺   
   󰂶    󰄘    󰄀
      󰂺   
  󰂹 󰂶     󰄀   
          󰂿  󰄀
󰂶         󰂿  
 󰂶 󰂶    󰂶    
   󰄖󰄘        
         󰂶 󰂶  
    󰂺 󰂶        
        󰂶  
             󰄀
             󰂺
Keywords
󰄀 󰄍   󰄍  󰄍   󰄍 
󰃻      󰄘    󰂶 󰄀  󰂶
           󰂺
         󰃍󰃎󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  󰂶
 󰂶  󰂶   󰂶  󰂶     
󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆼󰆾
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
Introduction
            
󰂶         
󰄀      󰂺
  󰄘       󰂶 󰄘 
         
   󰄀      󰂺
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰂹󰆘󰆘
 󰆔󰆗 󰂶 󰄀   󰂶  󰂶   
  󰂶  󰂶  󰂶 
 󰂺    󰆗󰆓    󰂶 󰄀
    󰄘      
󰄀  󰃍󰃎󰂶     
         󰂶
 󰂶     󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰂹󰆗󰃎󰂺 
    󰂶       
        
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰂹󰆖󰄍󰆗󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
        󰄀  
󰂶 󰂶       󰄎
        
       󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆘󰆙󰂷 󰄀
 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆗󰄍󰆙󰃎󰄎          
   󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺  󰂶 
         󰂶    
󰄖  󰄘󰂶        󰂶 󰂶 
     󰂺     
     󰂶  󰄖 󰄘  
  󰄖󰄂󰄘        󰂶
󰂶     󰂺 󰂶   
          
     󰂺
   󰄖󰄘  󰂶    
         󰄀
    󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆜󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂶  
 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂶    󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂶   
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂶   󰄖  󰄘  󰃍  
󰂶   󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆘󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆙󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰂷  󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆙󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰂷  󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕󰂷
󰆾󰆼󰆿 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰂷   󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆚󰃎󰂺       
  󰂶       󰄀
  󰄖󰄘      󰄎  
  󰂶 󰂶 󰂶   󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰄀
󰂶           󰄀
 󰄖         
          󰄀
     󰄘 󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆜󰃎󰂺
         
 󰄖󰄘󰂶      󰄀  󰄀
󰂶   󰄖      󰄎 󰂶   
 󰂶          
   󰄘 󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰂹󰆔󰆙󰃎󰂺
   󰂶   󰄘 󰄖  
󰄘     󰄖 󰄘    󰄀
     󰂶  󰂶    
    󰄖󰄘 󰃍 󰂶 󰂶  󰄀
 󰃎 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺  󰂶   󰄘    
          
 󰂺 󰂶        
󰄖 󰄘󰂶     󰄖  
󰂶 󰂶  󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  
  󰄘      󰃍  
󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆕󰆘󰃎󰂺          
  󰄖󰄀󰂶 󰄀󰄘󰇟 󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆕󰃎
        
󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆚󰃎󰂺  󰂶     
          󰄀
     󰃍   󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰂷  
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂷 󰂶    󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂷 
󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂶    󰃎󰂺  󰂶     󰂶 󰂶 
󰂶        󰂶  
󰂶  󰂶       
         
 󰃍       󰃎󰂺  󰂶  
   󰄖󰄘  󰂶 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  󰂶
󰆞    󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆔󰆗󰃎    󰄖 󰃕󰂻󰃖      
  󰄘󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆼󰇀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰃍         
   󰂶  󰂶    󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔   󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂷  
   󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
     󰄀 󰄖 󰄘󰂶  
  󰄖 󰄘  󰄖 󰄘󰂶   󰂶 󰄀
󰂶      󰂶 󰂶     
󰇠 󰄎    󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂷
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺       󰄀  
  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆘󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰃎   󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆗󰃎󰂶  󰂺 
         󰄖󰄘
󰄘     󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆔󰆓󰃎  
󰂹
         󰃕 󰄀
         󰄀
󰃖󰂶              󰄘
 󰂺 󰂶        
     󰂺     󰂶  
      󰂶    
󰂺       󰂶    
           
        󰂺
󰂶         
  󰄖󰄘        
  󰂶 󰂶        
 󰄖󰄘󰂺   󰂶      
󰂶       󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄘󰂶  
        󰃍   
   󰂶     󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰂶
󰂶             
  󰂺
      󰄘   󰄀
󰂶    󰂶  󰄖  󰄘󰂶   
󰆟       󰄖󰄘   󰄖 󰂶 󰂶   󰄀
󰄘  󰄖󰄘    󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆘󰆙󰃎󰂺    
           󰃍
 󰂶   󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂺   󰂶     
  󰄖   󰄘󰂶        󰂺
󰆾󰆼󰇁 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
      󰄀󰂺 
   󰂶      
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰇡   󰄀     
          
󰄖  󰄘󰂺   󰂶     
     󰂶 󰂶    
         
  󰂺
Looking Beyond the Headlines: Development Outcomes in
Post-Independent Timor-Leste
            
   󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆜  󰂺  󰆕󰆗    󰂶
  󰄀󰄘      󰂶 󰂶
 󰂺 󰂶       󰄀
         󰃍󰂶 
  󰃎      󰂶    
󰂶         󰄀
  󰃍     󰃎󰂶   
󰂺         
            󰂶  
        󰂶     󰄀
       󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆜󰂹󰆔󰆘󰆛󰄍󰆙󰆘󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂹󰆚󰄍󰆜󰂷 
󰆠     󰆖󰆛 󰄀        󰄀
󰂶   󰃍󰂶 󰂶  󰃎󰂶   󰂶
 󰂶    󰂺    
   󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕     󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗  󰂶 󰂶      󰄀
       󰂶 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  󰂺
   󰂶        
            󰂺 
             
    󰂺        󰄘
  󰂶      󰂺   󰄀
 󰄀󰄀    󰂺     󰂶
    󰂶 󰂶   󰂺     
           󰃍 󰄀
 󰂶  󰂶  󰂶  󰃎   
  󰂶 󰂶    󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆼󰇂
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆗󰆜󰃎󰂺         󰄀
          󰄀 
 󰄀 󰂺
      󰄀   󰂶  󰄀
 󰄎          
    󰃍󰃎󰄎 󰂶  
󰂶 󰂶       󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆜 󰂺 
  󰆔󰆗 󰂶       󰄀
       󰄀  
   󰄖󰄀 󰄘 󰄖 󰄘󰂶  
           
  󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆜󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰂶     󰄀
󰂶       󰂶    
 󰄀󰂶 󰄘          
   󰂺       󰄀
      󰂶     
    󰂶  󰂶      
     󰄘     
        󰂺 󰄘     
        󰂶   
     󰃍 󰂶 󰃎    󰄀
󰂺
󰂶  󰂶          
    󰄘    󰂺  󰂶 
 󰄎  󰄎  
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷  󰄘   󰂶     󰂶
    󰃍     󰆄󰆜󰆙󰆛󰆓󰃎󰂷   
        󰂶 
󰂶    󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆙󰆕󰄍󰆕󰆕󰆖󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰃎󰂺 
  󰂶  󰄖󰄘      󰄖󰄘 
         󰄀󰂺   
 󰄖󰄀         
  󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰃎󰂺
 󰂶 󰆗󰆔󰈱   󰄘       
 󰂶  󰆚󰆖 󰈱    󰆄 󰆕  󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰄀
     󰄀  
             󰂶
 󰂶   󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰂶   
 󰂶    󰂶    
  󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆘󰄍󰆙󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆕󰆓󰆕󰃎󰂺     
󰆾󰆼󰇃 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
    󰂶     󰄀 󰄀
  󰂺 󰂶       
 󰃍󰃎        󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖 
󰄖󰃕󰃖   󰄀󰄘      
  󰂶      󰄘 󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆕󰃎󰂺
        󰂶   󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆕󰃎󰂹
 󰃕󰃖       󰂺  󰄀
        󰄀
󰂺           
      󰂺    
           
        󰂺 󰄀
       󰂺
  󰄀󰄘    󰄎 
   󰄎  󰂶    
         󰄀
󰂺  󰂶          
󰂶  󰂶    󰂶  
󰂶        
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆙󰆕󰄍󰆕󰆕󰆖󰃎󰂶 󰄀      󰂺 
    󰂶        󰃍󰆗󰂺󰆗
󰃎    󰂶       
    󰃈 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰄍󰆛󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆙󰆕󰄍
󰆕󰆕󰆖󰃎󰂺     󰂶  󰂶 󰄀󰄘 
   󰃍󰆙󰆚󰂺󰆘 󰃎       󰂶    󰄀
     󰃍 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶
 󰃎󰂶       󰃍󰆖󰆓󰆓  󰆔󰆓󰆓󰂶󰆓󰆓󰆓  󰃎󰂶
 󰃍󰆗󰆙  󰆔󰂶󰆓󰆓󰆓  󰃎        󰃍󰆘󰆚  󰆔󰂶󰆓󰆓󰆓
 󰃎 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆙󰆕󰄍󰆕󰆕󰆖󰃎󰂺   󰄀󰄘   
       󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆘󰃎󰂶   󰆘󰆛 󰈱  󰄀
       󰃍 󰂶    
    󰄀󰄀     󰄘
󰃍󰃎          󰃎󰂶 󰆗󰆘󰈱 
󰂶  󰆔󰆜󰈱    󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆛󰆙󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆘󰄍
󰆙󰃎󰂺
    󰂶      󰄀
   󰂶       
         󰆔󰆗 󰂺 󰄘 󰂶 
   󰄀 󰆾󰆼󰇄
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰄖󰄘           󰄖󰄘   󰄖
󰄘  󰄀󰂺󰇢
   󰂶       
           
  󰄀󰂶          
    󰂺 󰂶    󰂶   
   󰂶      
   󰂺 󰂶        
              
󰄀          
     󰂺           
     󰄀󰂺 󰂶   
    󰂹 󰂶 󰂶      󰂶 
         󰂿
 󰂶           
          󰂿
Establishing ‘Ways of Being’ and ‘Meaning’
   󰂶        
 󰄖  󰄘     󰄖󰄘󰂶 󰄖󰄘󰂶  󰄖󰄘󰂺 
 󰂶      󰄖 󰄘 󰃍
󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂷   󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎          
          
  󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷   󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰃎󰂺  󰄀
 󰂶       
           󰄀
      󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂷   󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
  󰂶      󰄖󰄘 󰃍   
    󰃎        󰄀
   󰄖󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺     󰂶   
     󰄎      
            
      󰂺
󰆡 󰂶  󰂶  󰂶 󰄖      󰄘󰂶
  󰂶 󰆔󰆓󰄀󰆖󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂺 󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰄀󰄀󰄀
󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰆓󰆖󰆓󰆜󰄀󰆔󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰆾󰆽󰆻 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰄖 󰄘     
     󰂶  
   󰂺󰇣 󰂶    󰄖󰄘  󰄀  󰄀
        󰄖     
       󰄘 󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺 󰄀
       󰄖󰄘 󰂶 󰂶   
      󰄖   
  󰄘 󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆜󰃎󰂺  
    󰂶   󰂶  󰄀 
󰃍 󰂶 󰄀 󰂶   󰃎  󰄖 󰄘
  󰄖    󰄘    󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆚󰆖󰃎󰂺
    󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄘󰂶    󰄀
       󰄖  󰄘   
 󰂶  󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆚󰆗󰃎󰂺      󰂶    󰄖
󰄘  󰄖󰄘         
 󰄖  󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆚󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰂶    
󰂶 󰂶   󰃍󰂶 󰂶  󰃎  
       󰄎󰄖  󰄘󰄎
󰂹  󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  󰄀 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆚󰆚󰃎󰂺
          
         󰂶  
            󰃍󰄀
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺
󰂶           󰄀
      󰂶   󰂶  
󰄖 󰄘󰂺  󰂶          
 󰄖 󰄘󰄎      󰄀
󰄎            󰂺 
      󰂶   󰂶  
        󰂶
󰂶  󰂺
󰂶        󰄖󰄘  󰄖 󰄘 
        󰂶 󰂶 󰄀
󰂶      󰄖    󰄘󰂺 󰂶 󰂶  
󰆢               
              󰄀
     󰃍 󰃎 󰃍  󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂷  󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷 󰄀
 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷   󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰃎󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆽󰆼
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
    󰄘      
     󰂶    󰂶   
󰂺          
             
         󰄀 
   󰄎      󰄀
 󰂺
 󰄀󰂶        
      󰂶   󰄖󰂶 󰂶
  󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺     
    󰄖󰄘󰂶 󰂶  󰂶     
     󰂶   󰂶  󰂶 󰂶
󰂶    󰄎 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺   
     󰄀   
     󰄖󰄀 󰄘󰂶   󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂹󰂷
   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆜󰄍󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺󰇤     󰂶  󰄎
    󰂶    󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  
 󰄎       
󰃍     󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺󰇥      
󰃖󰃮󰂶      󰂺  󰃖󰃮 󰃍
   󰄖    󰄘󰃎   󰂶 
     󰂺     
      󰂶    
       󰄎     
           󰂺   󰄀
       󰂶 󰂶  󰂺  󰂶 
         󰄀 
 󰄎 󰄎    󰂶 
   󰄀󰄀 󰂺 󰂶    
     󰂺 󰂶    
    󰂶  󰂶   󰂶   󰂶
          
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂺
󰆣   󰄖󰄀 󰄘    󰄘 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂹 󰃎   󰂹
󰄖 󰂷       󰄀
󰂺     󰃈  󰂺󰄘
󰆤              󰄀󰂺 
        󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰂹󰆔󰆓󰃎     󰂺
        󰂺
󰆾󰆽󰆽 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰆼    󰃖
Customary Traditional Modern
Organization   
 
󰂶 󰂶
󰂶  

 󰄀
󰃈
  
󰂶 󰂶
 
Communication 󰄀󰄀

 

 
  󰃈
 

 
 
 
Production 󰃈  
 󰃈 

 
 

Exchange 󰃈    
   󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂶   󰂺 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂶  
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎
     󰂶     
         
        󰂺  
 󰂶 󰂶        󰄀
  󰂺         
   󰂺  󰄀󰂶       
󰄎       󰄎
      󰂺     
     󰂶  󰂶  󰂶   󰄀
  󰂺  󰂶       
    󰄎      󰂶 󰂶 
󰄎    󰂺    󰂶 󰄀
           
  󰂺        󰄀
󰂺      󰂶 󰂶   󰄀
       󰂶   
   󰄀 󰆾󰆽󰆾
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
        󰃍 󰂶  󰄀
   󰃎 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂺
󰂶           
         󰃍
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺 󰂶 󰂶  󰄀       
 󰂶        
       󰂺    
   󰄖󰄘󰂶  󰄀     
   󰄖󰄘    󰂺   
   󰂶   󰂶 󰂶  
󰂺    󰂶     󰂶
    󰄀        󰄀
     󰄀󰂺    
   󰂶        
  󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺     󰄀
    󰂺    󰂶    
󰂶        󰄀󰂺
     󰂶     
        󰂺 󰂶 
         󰂶   
  󰄀    󰂶 󰂶   
 󰂺            󰄀
 󰃍 󰃎󰂷 󰂶         
  󰂺 󰂶     
          󰂶  
   󰂺 󰂶    󰄀󰂶 
     󰂶       
    󰄀 󰂺     󰄀
       󰂹   󰄖󰄀󰄘   󰄖󰄀
󰄘   󰄖󰄘  󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆓󰄍󰆔󰃎󰂺   
  󰄀 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂶    󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂶
 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂶
   󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂶   󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎       󰄖 󰄘  
  󰂶        󰄀  󰂶  
  󰂶        󰃍󰄀
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺            
   󰂶    󰂶    󰄀
         󰄀󰄎
     󰂺
󰆾󰆽󰆿 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
Explaining Development’s Limited Impact through an Expanded
Social Analysis
             󰄀
       󰄀󰂶    
            
   󰂶       󰂶
 󰂶       󰄖 󰄘
    󰄖󰄀󰄘 󰃍󰂶  󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂶
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺      
󰂶       󰃍 󰃎   󰄀
󰂶 󰂶  󰄎      
󰃍 󰇦󰃎 󰄖 󰂹   󰂶 󰄀󰄘 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂶    
   󰄀   󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕   󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰄎  
           
   󰂺
        󰄀󰂶   
   󰄎      󰄎
      󰂶 󰄀 󰂺  󰄀
     󰃍󰃎   
          
 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆘󰃎󰂺 󰂶       
   󰂶  󰂶     󰄀
          󰂺  󰂶
         󰄀
󰂺 󰂶          
󰄖󰄘    󰄎    󰂶
 󰂶  󰂶   󰂹
  󰂶   󰂶  󰂶     󰂺 󰄀
        󰃕󰂻󰃖    
    󰂶      󰄀
󰆥     󰃍󰃎  󰄖󰄀󰄀    󰄀
󰂶  󰃍󰃎        
   󰂶    󰂶     󰄀
  󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺  󰄘   󰄖  
            󰄀
           󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰂹󰆔󰃎󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆽󰇀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
    󰃕󰂻󰃖         󰄀
   󰃕󰂻󰃖󰂺       
     󰂺
  󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆜
󰂹
         
 󰂺       󰂶  󰂶    
󰂺        󰂺   󰂶 
   󰂶    󰂺
   󰂶 󰂶 󰆚 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗
󰂹
  󰄘   󰂺      
󰂶  󰂺   󰂶   
󰄘    󰂺 󰄘 󰂿 󰄘 󰂿  󰃍󰃎
          󰂶  
 󰂺
  󰂶   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆖
󰂶       󰄀
      󰂶 󰂶  󰂹
 󰂶       󰂶  󰂶   
󰄖     󰂿󰄘        󰄖
  󰂿󰄘
    󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆗
󰂹
    󰂶   󰂶   
 󰂺   󰂶      󰃕󰂻󰃖󰂺  
           󰃕󰂻󰃖󰂺
  󰂶        󰂺
    󰂶   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆗
  󰄘   󰂶   󰂹
󰆾󰆽󰇁 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
            
󰂶        󰂺
   󰂶     󰂺   
 󰃕󰂻󰃖    󰃕󰃖       
󰂺        󰂺
 󰂶 󰆕󰆖  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗
     󰄀 󰄖 󰄘   󰄀
    󰄘 󰄖󰄀󰄘 󰂺 
          
 󰂶  󰂶       
       󰃍  󰂶
󰂶 󰆖  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺      󰂹
       󰂶  󰄘 
     󰂺
   󰂶   󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆚
    󰂹
   󰄘         
󰂺       󰂺     󰄀
      󰂶   󰄀
   󰂺         
    󰂺         󰂺
   󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆚
          󰂶 
   󰂹
            
        󰃕󰂻󰃖󰂺     
   󰂶       󰂺
    󰂺
 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆚
      󰂶 󰂶     
         󰂺 
  󰂹 󰄖       󰇧  
󰆦      󰄖󰄘       󰄖󰄘󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆽󰇂
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
     󰄘 󰃍   󰂶 󰂶
󰆖  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺   󰂶   󰂶    
    󰄘      󰄘 
       󰂺 󰂶   
       󰄎  󰄀
󰂶 󰂶  󰂶    󰄘  
 󰂺     󰂶   
     󰃍       
     󰃎󰂹 󰄖   󰂶 󰄘  󰂺  󰃕 󰃖
   󰂶  󰄘  󰄘 󰃍  󰂶 󰂶 󰆖 
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
 󰂶         󰄀
         󰂺
  󰂶 󰂶        󰄀
󰂶 󰂶     󰄖    󰄘󰂺
󰂶      󰂶 󰂶  
        󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂶 
 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺
󰂶     󰂶     
     󰄀   󰄀
󰂶              
      󰂺 󰂶   
   󰂶 󰂶    󰄀
     󰄖󰄘      
      󰂺 󰂶 󰄀
         󰃍 󰂶  
           
    󰃎       
󰄎      󰂺     
       󰃍  
 󰃎󰂶      󰂶     
    󰂶      󰄀
          
󰂺              
          󰄀  
    󰂶   󰂶    󰄖󰄘  
      󰄀󰂺   󰄖󰄘    
 󰂺
󰆾󰆽󰇃 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰆼     󰂐
󰂹     󰄀 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎
󰄖 󰄘 󰃍󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄀󰄘󰃎
  󰂺      󰂶 󰂶 󰂶 
 󰂶  󰂺       󰄀
󰂺
Clean Drinking Water in Ainaro
           
         
 󰃍󰃎   󰃍      
󰂶   󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂶 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺    
    󰆚󰆓󰆓 󰂶  󰆔󰆓󰆓 󰂺  
     󰄀     
 󰃍   󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶    󰂶      
󰂶         
 󰂶 󰂶  󰂺 󰂶       
           󰂶 󰄀
󰂶   󰂺       
    󰂶 󰂶      󰄀
           󰄖 
 󰄘 󰃍 󰃮󰃎󰂺    󰂶     
       󰂶    󰃍
  󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶      󰄀 
   󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎    󰃍 
   󰄀 󰆾󰆽󰇄
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰃎  󰂶         󰂺
      󰂺      
          󰂷
 󰂶         󰂺 
 󰂶       󰂺 
          
󰂺 󰂶          
   󰃍󰃎󰂶       
      󰂺 󰂶   
           
      󰃍   󰂶 󰂶
 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
        󰂶  
 󰆔󰆕󰄀        󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂺 
        󰂶  
 󰃖󰃮      󰃮󰂷   
󰂶     󰂷     
  󰃍 󰃎󰂶    󰃍 󰃎󰂶  
     󰄀 󰃍 󰂶   󰃎 󰃍
  󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
         󰂶
            󰂷 󰄀
󰄀 󰂷   󰂺    󰄖󰄘 
         
   󰄖󰄘     󰂺  
 󰄘    󰄖󰄘    
      󰂺     
    󰄖 󰄘󰂶    
   󰂺 󰂶    󰄖 󰄘   󰄀
       󰂶  
 󰂶     󰂺     󰄘 󰄀
          
          󰂺  󰄀
󰂶             
  󰂹
󰂶   󰂶        󰂺 
           󰂶 
     󰂶      󰂺
 󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕
󰆾󰆾󰆻 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰂶         
󰂺         
 󰂺      󰄘 󰂶   󰄀
       󰂶      󰄀
󰂺
           
         󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰂶 󰄘
  󰄖        󰄀
  󰂶        
    󰄘󰂺 󰂶       
     󰃮󰂶  󰂶 󰄀 
󰂶           
         󰄘 
       󰂺    󰄖󰄘
          
         󰂺 󰄀
󰂶     󰃮󰂶      󰄀
 󰂶          
    󰂺       
            
  󰂶            
󰂺
           
 󰂶         
           
      󰄎     󰄀
    󰂺 󰂶    󰂶  󰄀
 󰂶     󰂶   󰄀
      󰂶      
     󰂶         
   󰂶 󰂶   󰂺 
          󰄀
       󰂶   
         󰄀
 󰂺   󰂶       󰄀
          󰂶
        󰂶 󰂶 󰂶
          󰂺
          
    󰄘 󰄀   
   󰄀 󰆾󰆾󰆼
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
        󰂺  󰄘
           󰄀
        󰂶 󰂶
  󰂶  󰂶   󰄘   
    󰂺        
 󰂶   󰄀 󰄀    
 󰄖󰄘     󰄎   󰂺 
         
    󰂺
         󰂶 󰂶  
      󰂺   󰂶  
  󰃍      󰃎     
    󰂶       󰄖  󰄘󰂺
󰂶           
 󰂶 󰂶      󰂺   󰂶
           
          
󰂺
Peace-Building and Prisoner Reintegration in Becora and Ermera
      󰄘   󰄀  󰄀
 󰂺        󰂶  󰄀
          󰂶 
          
     󰃍    󰃎  
 󰄖󰄘 󰂺        󰄖  󰄀
󰄘  󰄖󰄘       
󰂺  󰂶         
    󰄖    󰄘󰂺 󰂶   
        󰄎  󰄀
 󰄎   󰂺      
    󰂶 󰂶      󰄀
󰂺        󰂶  󰂶  
󰂺             
  󰂺 󰂶      󰃍  󰃎
      󰂶      󰄖󰄘 
    󰄎 󰂶 󰂶  
 󰄎   󰂺 󰂶     󰄀
󰆾󰆾󰆽 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰆽    󰂣 󰂤    󰂐
󰂹     󰄀 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎
󰄖 󰄘 󰃍󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄀󰄘󰃎
         󰃍 
 󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
  󰄀   󰂶  󰄀  󰄀
         
󰃖󰃮 󰃍 󰃎   󰃍󰃎󰂶    
󰂺 󰂶         󰂷   
󰂶    󰂶       󰄀
󰂶 󰂶    󰂺      
         󰂶    
       󰄘     󰂺
              
 󰄖           󰄘
󰃍   󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
      󰄖󰄘    
      󰂺󰇟󰇞     
󰂶           󰂶
 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  󰂺    
    󰂶          
󰆞󰆝      󰄖󰂶 󰂶    󰄘󰂺   󰄀
 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎      󰄖      󰄀  
󰄀󰄘󰂺       󰂶   
       󰄖    󰄘  󰄖  
󰄘󰂹      󰂺   󰄘 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎    
        󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆾󰆾
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
    󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺   
          󰂷 
  󰂶 󰂶  󰂷   
  󰂷   󰂷  
      󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆖󰆕󰄍󰆖󰃎󰂺 
  󰂶       󰄀
    󰂶        
 󰄖󰄘   󰂺 󰂶     󰄀
        󰂶   
     󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆗        
󰃍󰄀 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆘󰄍󰆕󰆖󰃎󰂺  󰂶    󰂶  
    󰂶         
         
  󰂺 󰂶      
              󰂶  󰄀
󰂶     󰃍   󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶  󰃖󰃮󰂶        󰄀
 󰂶     󰂶    
      󰂺   
 󰂶      󰂶  󰂶 󰄀
  󰃖󰃮󰄘       
󰄀 󰂺   󰂶     
           󰄀
    󰂶       󰂺
󰂶            󰂶
         󰄘 
   󰂶  󰂶   󰄎 
         󰃍   󰂶
󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶     󰄀   󰄀
        󰂶     󰄀
󰂺 󰂶     󰃍󰃎   
  󰂶      󰃍󰂶
  󰂶   󰃎  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗
    󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆔󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄀
        󰂶    
     󰄀 󰄖 󰄘 󰇟󰇟  󰄀
󰆞󰆞       󰂶 󰂶   󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰄍󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆖󰆖󰃎󰂺
󰆾󰆾󰆿 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
   󰇟󰇠     󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆔󰂷
 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆔󰆜󰄍󰆕󰆕󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆓󰃎󰂺   󰂶    󰄀
  󰆔󰂶󰆖󰆚󰆔        󰆗󰆓󰂶󰆓󰆓󰆓
   󰄀 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆔󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆔󰆜󰄍󰆕󰆕󰂷 
󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂹󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆓󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰂹󰆖󰆖󰃎󰂺
           󰂶 󰄀
󰂶     󰂶       󰄀
     󰄖  󰄘   󰂺 󰂶 
            󰄀
  󰂶      
󰂶    󰂶      
 󰄖    󰄘   󰃍󰄀 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆖󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄀
 󰄖󰄘󰂶 󰄖󰄘󰂶  󰄖󰄘   
          
     󰃍  󰃎    󰂶  
 󰂶  󰄖    󰄘  󰂺 󰂶 󰂶
           
      󰂺     
 󰄘   󰂶 󰂶      
󰄎       󰄎   󰄀
   󰂺
Gender Programming in Lautem and Oecussi
          
 󰄘         󰄀
    󰂺     󰄀
       󰂶     
         󰄀 
          󰂺 
 󰂶           
        󰄀 󰄀
   󰂺  󰂶       󰄀
          󰃍 
  󰄖󰄘  󰃎󰂶       
         󰃍 󰄀
󰆞󰆟    󰄖󰄘 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆾󰇀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰆾       󰂐
󰂹     󰄀 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎
󰄖 󰄘 󰃍󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄀󰄘󰃎
  󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆗󰆚󰄍󰆛󰃎󰂺    
󰂹
 󰃕  󰃖        󰂶 
    󰂺      󰂺 󰄘  
        󰂺  
              
   󰄎    󰂶  
  󰂺 󰄘  󰄘     󰂺 󰄘 
    󰄘       󰄘   
    󰄘 󰂺
󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕
      󰄀     󰂶 
    󰂶 󰂶  󰂶  󰂶  󰂶
    󰂺   󰂶   󰄀
          󰃍
󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  󰃎󰂺    
  󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄘    󰂶  
   󰂺      󰂶   󰄀
        󰄖     
󰄘     󰂶    
 󰂶  󰄀󰄀  󰃍   󰂶
󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺   󰂶      
 󰄖      󰄘   󰄖  
󰆾󰆾󰇁 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
   󰄘     󰃍
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆗󰆛󰃎󰂺
󰂶      󰄖󰄘󰂶    
             󰄀
󰂺 󰂶        󰂶   
  󰂶   󰂶     󰄀
󰂹
          
 󰄎  󰂺     󰂺   
      󰂺       
    󰂺 󰄘 󰂺    󰂶
    󰂶      󰂺 
     󰄖    󰄘    󰄘
 󰂶 󰄘     󰂶      
 󰄖  󰄘󰂺
     󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕
󰂹
󰃕󰃖          󰃕  󰄀
󰃖󰂶        󰂶    
   󰂶  󰄘   󰂶     
  󰂺  󰂶           
          󰂺 
        󰂶  󰂶 󰄘
 󰂶 󰂺  󰄘       
    󰄎       󰂺
     󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕
     󰂶        
    󰄖󰄘󰂺  󰂶     
    󰄖 󰄘     
         󰂶   
  󰃍   󰂶 󰂶  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺    
           
󰂶      󰄘     
  󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆗󰆛󰄍󰆜󰃎󰂺  󰂶       󰂶
 󰂶           
  󰂶         󰄀
   󰄀 󰆾󰆾󰇂
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰂺         󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎   󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆗󰂶
󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎            
     󰂺 󰂶      󰄀
          󰄀 
           󰂺
     󰂶       
          󰄎
      󰄀󰂶   
󰂺 󰂶        󰄀
     󰂶     
      󰂺
           󰂶 
          󰄎 󰂶
󰂶  󰄎   󰂺   󰂶  󰄘 󰄀
        
          󰂺
󰂶  󰄘        󰄀
          
   󰄘 󰂺     
    󰂶     󰂶  
            󰂶
         󰂺   󰂶
           󰄀
󰂺
Areas of Tension
          󰄀
     󰂶       󰄀
    󰂺  󰂶  󰄘   
       󰃈   
   󰂺         
    󰂶     󰂶
󰂶         󰂺 󰂶 󰄀
           
󰂶  󰂶  󰄀    
 󰂺          
     󰂶 󰂶  󰂶  󰄀
 󰄀    󰂺 󰂶  
󰆾󰆾󰇃 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
           󰄀
  󰄀         
󰄘      󰃍 󰃎   
󰂶    󰂺        󰄀
         
 󰂶  󰂶       
    󰄖󰄘      
󰄀  󰂺  󰂶      
  󰂺 󰂶         
    󰂶   󰄀 󰂶  
      󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰂶 
   󰃈    󰄀
   󰄖󰄘   󰂺 󰂶    
        󰄖 󰄘󰂶  
      󰄖      
          󰄘 󰃍 
 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺          󰄀
  󰂶        
     󰂺
          󰄀
   󰂶     󰄀   󰄀
          󰂺 
 󰂶      󰂹  
          
         󰂺 󰂶  
 󰂶        󰂶     
         
             
󰂺            󰄀
          󰂶  
     󰂶 󰂶    
  󰂺
Conclusion
      󰂶      
      󰂶 󰂶 󰂶
 󰂶 󰂺      
 󰂹    󰄀     
   󰄀 󰆾󰆾󰇄
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰂺 󰂶  󰂶 󰂶   󰄀
   󰄖  󰄘       
 󰂺 󰄘 󰂶   󰂶      
󰂶    󰂺  󰂶  
         󰄖󰄘  󰂺  
  󰂶        󰂶
         
  󰄀󰂺 󰂶        
   󰂶     
       󰂺    
           
󰂶       󰄖󰄀󰄀󰄘 󰂺
References
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺   󰂐   󰃖
      󰂺 󰂹  󰄀
󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰂌   󰂏
 󰂌 󰃖  󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰂹
    󰄘󰂶 󰂹 󰂺 󰂶 󰂺 󰂶 󰂺  
󰂺󰂺  󰃍󰃎󰂶      󰂏   
󰃮  󰃖   󰂶 󰂺 󰆔󰆓󰆔󰄍󰆕󰆙󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
     󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰃎󰂺 󰃣󰃖
   󰅫󰅩󰅩󰅲󰃣󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅭󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈
󰃈󰃈󰆘󰆓󰆕󰆘󰅨󰆚󰆙󰆘󰆚󰅨󰆕󰆛󰆙󰆛󰅨󰆚󰆔󰆔󰅨󰆙󰆛󰆙󰆔󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
     󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰃖
  󰃖    󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅪󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 
󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰃈󰄀󰃈󰃈󰄀󰄀󰂺
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
     󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰂏
    󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈
󰃈󰃈󰆔󰆓󰆗󰆛󰅨󰆚󰆚󰆙󰅨󰆗󰆘󰆕󰅨󰆖󰆖󰆙󰆗󰅨󰆗󰆘󰆛󰆔󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
    󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺 󰄖  󰂹 
󰄍󰄀 󰄘󰂶   󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 󰃕 󰄀
 󰆖󰆜󰂺󰃖 󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰅨󰂺󰂿󰈺󰆕󰆜󰆓
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰄀󰂶 󰄘 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹      
󰆾󰆿󰆻 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰃍 󰃎   󰄘󰂶     
󰆘󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆔󰆘󰄍󰆖󰆖󰂺
     󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹      
   󰄀󰄘󰂶     󰂺 
󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰃈󰆔󰆕󰆗󰆕 󰃍 󰆕󰆚󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆘󰃎󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺 󰄖     󰂹  
    󰂶      󰄘󰂶
   󰆔󰆘󰄍󰆔󰃈󰆕󰂹󰆔󰆖󰆘󰄍󰆘󰆛󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰄘 󰄘󰂶 󰂹   󰃍󰂺󰃎󰂶 
   󰂶 󰂺 󰆛󰆓󰄍󰆜󰆜󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶    󰄖󰄘  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺     󰃖
 󰂏  󰃮󰃣    󰂺 󰂹
󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆜󰃎󰂺 󰄖     󰄘󰂶   
󰆖󰆖󰄍󰆘󰂹󰆜󰆚󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰄘    󰄘󰂶 󰂏   
 󰆗󰆕󰄍󰆖󰂹󰆕󰆚󰄍󰆖󰆜󰂺
    󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹   󰂶
󰄀󰄘󰂺  󰃍󰃎󰂹 󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈
󰆘󰆖󰆗󰆖󰆓󰃈󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
    󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖  󰂿󰄘󰂶  
  󰃍󰃎󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰄀󰃈 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀
󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
  󰂶       󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺
󰂒       󰂌     
󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺  󰂕   
󰂶    󰂶  󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺   󰂏 󰂌
     󰂺 󰂶 󰂹  
󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺  󰃖󰂏    󰃖
󰂺 󰃕 󰂶     󰂶 󰂺󰃖
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰂹 󰄘  
󰄀  󰄘󰂶    󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆛󰆘󰄍󰆜󰆘󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖   󰂹  󰄀
          󰄘󰂶 
   󰆗󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆛󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆗󰂺
󰂶 󰄀 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰃮    󰃮󰂏  
   󰂺 󰂹 
   󰄀 󰆾󰆿󰆼
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
      󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺    󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅫󰃣
󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅬    󰃖󰂺 󰂹  󰃍 󰄀
󰃎󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰃈󰄀󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰄀󰆔󰆖󰂺
󰃍 󰆖󰆓󰄀󰆜󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰄘󰂶 󰂹   󰃍󰂺󰃎󰂶   󰂏
    󰂶 󰂺 󰆔󰆖󰆕󰄍󰆗󰆘󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆘󰃎󰂺  󰂏      
 󰂺 󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺 󰄖  󰂹     
    󰄘󰂶   󰆖󰄍󰆗󰂹󰆗󰆕󰆛󰄍󰆗󰆖󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰂿 󰄀 
󰄘󰂶  󰆗󰆖󰄍󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆗󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰄖  󰆘󰆓   󰄘󰂶  󰆘󰆓 󰃍󰃎󰂹󰆔󰆓󰄍
󰆔󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆗󰃎󰂺  󰃖 󰂏 󰃬󰃮󰂌 󰂌 
   󰂺 󰂹    󰂺
󰄀󰂶 󰂺  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹   󰄀
 󰄘󰂶      󰆕󰆙󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆗󰄍󰆕󰆙󰂺
  󰄀 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺  󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰄀󰂺󰂺󰃈󰂿
󰈺󰆜󰆔󰈺 󰃍 󰆕󰆕󰄀󰆗󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰄖  󰄘 󰄘󰂶  
󰆛󰆓󰂹󰆖󰆕󰄍󰆘󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰂹   󰄀  󰄀
󰄘󰂶 󰂹      󰃍󰃎󰂶  󰂌   󰃖
󰂏   󰂕󰂶 󰂺 󰆔󰆛󰆔󰄍󰆜󰆖󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰄀󰂹   󰄘󰂶 󰂹 
      󰄀  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂶 
󰃍󰆖󰆓 󰄍󰆔 󰃎󰂶 󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆗󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎 󰄖        
 󰄀󰄘󰂶 󰃣 󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆛󰆙󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆛󰂺
󰂶 󰂶  󰂶  󰂶    
 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆜󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹     󰄀
󰄘󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈󰆕󰆙󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺 󰃕 
    󰃍 󰃎   󰂶  󰂶
 󰂺󰃖
󰂶  󰂺 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆜󰃎󰂺  󰂏 󰅮󰅩󰅩 󰂺 󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰂺 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺     󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖       󰄀
 󰄘󰂶    󰆖󰆕󰄍󰆖󰂹󰆕󰆛󰆘󰄍󰆖󰆓󰆛󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹 󰄀   󰂶 
󰆾󰆿󰆽 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
 󰂹    󰄘󰂶  
 󰆖󰆜󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆖󰆖󰆖󰄍󰆗󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰂺󰃎 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺     󰂺 󰂹 󰄀
󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺  󰂏     󰂺 󰂹
󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰂌 󰂌 󰂏    󰂺 󰂹
󰂺
󰂶 󰂶  󰂶      󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰃖
󰂌  󰂏      󰂺 󰂹
  󰄘 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂶  󰂹   
         󰄘󰂶 
󰆚󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆚󰄍󰆕󰆜󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆗󰃎󰂺  󰂏     󰂺
󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂺        
 󰂏   󰃖   󰂺 󰂹
 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺  󰂏    󰃮  󰃖
 󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰄀󰂺󰃈󰃈󰈱󰆕󰆓󰅨
󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺 󰃕     󰂺󰃖
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹    󰂶
󰂶     󰄘󰂶 󰂹  󰂺    󰂺 
󰃍󰃎󰂶       󰂏  󰂶 󰂺 󰆔󰆜󰆘󰄍
󰆕󰆓󰆚󰂺  󰂹  󰂺
󰂶 󰂺  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂺  󰂏    󰂺 󰂹
  󰂺
󰂶 󰂺  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺   󰂏      󰃖
   󰂺 󰆕 󰂺 󰂹   󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂺    󰂏 
    󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶     󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰄖   
  󰄘󰂶 󰂹      󰃍󰃎󰂶 
  󰂏      󰂶 󰂺 󰆔󰄍󰆕󰆙󰂺 󰂹
 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺    󰂏 󰂌 󰂌    
󰂺 󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺 󰃮 󰂏      󰂺 󰂹 
 󰂺
   󰄀 󰆾󰆿󰆾
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰂶 󰂶  󰂶    󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺   󰂏   
 󰂺 󰂹    󰃈   󰄀
 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺    󰂏     󰃖
   󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄖     󰂿    
󰄀   󰄘󰂶      
  󰆗󰆜󰂹󰆖󰄍󰆕󰆗󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰃎󰂺  󰂏  󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰂶    󰂹 󰂶
  󰄘󰂶 󰂹 󰂺  󰃍󰂺󰃎󰂶  󰂏  
 󰂶 󰂺󰆔󰆗󰄍󰆖󰆙󰂺 󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰂶       󰄀
󰄘󰂶    󰆕󰆛󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆔󰆘󰆘󰄍󰆚󰆓󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰂹    
󰄘󰂶      󰆕󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆛󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆔󰆖󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖      󰄘󰂶
     󰆖󰆗󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆖󰆓󰆚󰄍󰆕󰆚󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹    
   󰄘󰂶      󰆖󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆙󰄍󰆖󰆕󰂺
󰂶    󰂺  󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺     󰃖󰂏
 󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺   󰂏 󰂌 󰂺
 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺 󰂏     󰂺
󰂹  󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰂺󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺   󰂏     
 󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺      󰂏    
󰃬  󰃮󰂺  󰂶 󰂶   󰂶 󰂹 󰂺
  󰂶 󰄀 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺   󰂏 
  󰂺 󰂹  󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂹    󰄀 󰄀
 󰂶 󰄀󰄘󰂶      󰆖󰆔󰄍󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆘󰆚󰄍󰆚󰆓󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺  󰂏 󰂌     󰃖󰂺
󰂹  󰂺
󰂶   󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰂹  󰄀
    󰄘󰂶     󰂶 󰆖󰆗󰄍󰆖󰂹󰆗󰆜󰆔󰄍
󰆘󰆔󰆖󰂺
   󰄀 󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺    󰂏
󰆾󰆿󰆿 󰄀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
󰃖󰃮    󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅪󰃣󰅫󰅩󰅬󰅩󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 󰂺󰄀󰂺
󰂺󰃈󰄀󰃈󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃈󰆓󰆚󰃈󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆖󰆓󰆔󰂺
󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆘󰃎󰂺   󰂏     
 󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆙󰃎󰂺   󰂏       
 󰂺 󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰂹   󰂿󰄘󰂶 󰂹   󰃍󰂺󰃎󰂶
    󰂏    󰂶 󰂺 󰆙󰆔󰄍󰆚󰆛󰂺 󰄀
󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰂿     
 󰄘󰂶    󰆖󰆗󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆕󰆙󰆘󰄍󰆛󰆙󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆘󰃎󰂺       󰂏      
󰂌   󰂺 󰂹 󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰄖    󰄘󰂶    
󰆔󰆖󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆘󰄍󰆖󰆘󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂺      󰂏  󰂺 
󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺   󰂏       
  󰂺  󰂹   󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖       
  󰂹   󰄘󰂶  󰂏 󰂌 󰂌
 󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆕󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆘󰂺
󰂶  󰄖󰄘 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰂹    󰄘 󰃕󰂹 
   󰃖󰂶 󰂹       
󰃖  󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅪 󰃍󰆖󰆓 󰄍󰆔 󰃎󰂶 󰂶 󰂺 󰆔󰆙󰄍󰆕󰆜󰂺 󰂹 
󰂺
    󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺  󰂏  󰃖
   󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰆔󰆓󰃈
󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
    󰃍 󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺 󰃖  
 󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅪󰂏      󰂺 󰂹 󰂺 
󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰆔󰆓󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂺 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
    󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺    󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅬󰂏
   󰂏     󰂺  󰂹 󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈
󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰃈󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃈 󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰄀󰆔󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
    󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺    󰅫󰅩󰅪󰅭󰂏
    󰂺  󰂹 󰂺 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺
󰂺󰃈󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰄀 󰃍 󰆖󰆓󰄀󰆜󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖 󰄀     󰂿  
   󰄀 󰆾󰆿󰇀
   󰄀󰂶 󰄀   󰆼󰇂󰆼 󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇀󰃎 󰆾󰆼󰆽󰄍󰆾󰆿󰇀
       󰄀󰄘󰂶   
 󰆖󰆛󰄍󰆗󰂹󰆚󰆖󰆘󰄍󰆙󰆔󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰄖󰂶   󰂹     
󰄘󰂶  󰆔󰆕󰄍󰆕󰂹󰆔󰆖󰆖󰄍󰆙󰆓󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄖      󰄀 󰄀
  󰄀󰄘󰂶 󰃖󰂏 󰂌 󰂌  󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆔󰂹󰆗󰆙󰄍󰆘󰆓󰂺
... Timor-Leste's turbulent history has created significant welfare challenges. Portuguese colonisation lasted over 400 years and was marked by repression and the exploitation of human and natural resources, leaving behind little in material benefits for local people (Carroll-Bell 2015). Timor-Leste gained independence from Portugal in 1975, but after a mere 9 days, Indonesia invaded. ...
... Even the discussions surrounding the difficulty of reducing nepotism in Timor-Leste reference the very cultural norms that underpin informal and family-based protection regimes. The individual is inherently connected to others, making kinship, social obligations and belonging fundamental (Carroll-Bell 2015). Living in England migrants were immersed in a Western context: here distinguishing between interdependence and independence is a useful heuristic. ...
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This open access book explores the role of family, public, market and third sector welfare provision for individual and households’ decisions regarding geographical mobility. It challenges the state-centred approach in research on welfare and migration by emphasising migrants’ own reflections and experiences. It asks whether and in which ways different welfare concerns are part of migrants’ decisions regarding (or aspirations for) mobility. Employing a transnational and a translocal perspective, the book addresses different forms of geographical mobility, such as immigration, emigration, and re-migration, circular and return migration. By bringing in empirical findings from across a variety of Western and non-Western contexts, the book challenges the Eurocentric focus in current debates and contributes to a more nuanced and more integrated global account of the welfare-migration nexus.
... Timor-Leste's turbulent history has created significant welfare challenges. Portuguese colonisation lasted over 400 years and was marked by repression and the exploitation of human and natural resources, leaving behind little in material benefits for local people (Carroll-Bell 2015). Timor-Leste gained independence from Portugal in 1975, but after a mere 9 days, Indonesia invaded. ...
... Even the discussions surrounding the difficulty of reducing nepotism in Timor-Leste reference the very cultural norms that underpin informal and family-based protection regimes. The individual is inherently connected to others, making kinship, social obligations and belonging fundamental (Carroll-Bell 2015). Living in England migrants were immersed in a Western context: here distinguishing between interdependence and independence is a useful heuristic. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Timor-Leste’s long history of colonisation and occupation has posed significant welfare challenges for the small, half-island nation nestled between Asia and the Pacific. Since independence in 2002, a budding pattern of migration has emerged, with increasing numbers of Timorese living and working in the United Kingdom. This chapter seeks to understand how the welfare concerns of these migrants shape their decisions about geographical mobility and vice versa . Analysing semi-structured interviews and overt participant observation conducted in England in 2017 and drawing on an extended version of the welfare resource environment framework, it explores the role of market, state and family-based welfare provisions in this migration trend. It finds that Timorese migrants in England utilise migration – and the market and state-based welfare provisions it brings – in service of their own, family-based social protection system. Migration between welfare contexts allows increased access to new and varied sources of welfare, valued for how they support a family-based framework founded on interdependence, relationships with others and responsibility. By querying the mobility of Timorese migrants in England in light of their welfare concerns, this chapter elucidates the culturally embedded ways in which migrants and their families piece together unique protection packages.
... The failure of this modernization approach was also recognized by several multilateral and bilateral institutions which provided development prescriptions for the country of Timor Leste after more than a decade of independence and being separated from Indonesia, as reported by the international development agency AusAID in 2009 and UNDP reports in 2011 to 2014 as cited by Carroll-Bell [32], "hundreds of non-governmental organizations (NGOS), these practitioners have overseen the deployment of countless programs with the aim of improving livelihoods, building capacity, and establishing basic services" (AusAID, 2009:4). Despite this sustained attention and funding, many of the desired outcomes have not materialized and a persistent series of human development challenges. ...
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Référence électronique Brunna Crespi, « Entre politiques publiques de l'État et pratiques coutumières locales, le territoire dévoile les conflits à Kamanasa, Timor-Leste », e-cadernos CES [Online], 33 | 2020, posto online no dia 30 junho 2020, consultado o 09 dezembro 2020. Résumé: À Kamanasa, ancien royaume marchand contrôlant la côte sud du Timor-Leste, la vie rituelle est restée particulièrement vivace, et même si beaucoup d'aspects locaux de la vie coutumière ont été fortement perturbés, ils se sont reconstitués et renforcés depuis l'indépendance du pays en 2002. Toutefois aujourd'hui, après des années d'ajustement, un nouveau contexte de développement accéléré dans un pays où la reconstruction n'est pas encore accomplie conduit à des situations complexes, aux plans social et politique, mettant face-à-face le local et le national. Cet article mettra ainsi en évidence l'interaction et la superposition entre l'organisation administrative du gouvernement national et le système sociopolitique coutumier local de cette zone. L'étude de cas ici menée a pour but une meilleure compréhension des possibles mésententes occasionnées par le croisement de ces deux systèmes et de comment ils coexistent. Abstract: In Kamanasa, a former merchant kingdom controlling the southern coast of Timor-Leste, ritual life has remained particularly vibrant, and although many local aspects of customary life have been severely disrupted, they have been rebuilt and strengthened since the country's independence in 2002. Today, however, after years of adjustment, a new context of accelerated development in a country where reconstruction is not yet complete is leading to complex social and political situations, bringing the local and the national face to face. This article will thus highlight the interaction and overlap between the national governmental administrative organization and the local customary socio-political system of this area. This case study aims at a better understanding of the possible misunderstandings caused by the intersection of these two systems and how they coexist.
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It is widely acknowledged that Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable to climate change and will continue to require external support to adapt to current and future impacts. The international development community plays an important role in supporting SIDS adapt to climatic changes, and calls for increased international commitment have been made. However, how the vulnerability of SIDS to climate change is being conceptualised and, subsequently, how adaptation programmes are conceived and designed by the international development community are yet to be critically explored. Using Timor-Leste as a case study, this study examines the conceptual trends underpinning 32 donor-led adaptation programmes implemented from 2010 to the present date. Results show that donor-led adaptation programmes continue to conceptualise climate change vulnerability as a biophysical issue rather than a consequence of the dynamic interactions between political, institutional, economic and social structures. Adaptation policy responses therefore have limited ability to target more nuanced and broader-scale structures affecting SIDS and may be falling short in their efforts to reduce the vulnerability of SIDS. We argue that it is critical that the international development community re-conceptualise its approach to vulnerability reduction in SIDS. We conclude by highlighting how the Paris Agreement, with its expanding understanding of vulnerability, can act as a useful instrument to promote such changes.
Book
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Literaturverz. S. [337] - 365
Book
East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste, comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, located at the eastern end of the Indonesian archipelago. East Timor was among the last of colonial territories to become independent, and it actually had to be liberated twice. First, after more than four centuries of Portuguese colonial rule, it achieved independence in 1975 only to be invaded and occupied by Indonesia. After a blood-soaked occupation of 24 years and following intense international pressure, the Jakarta-regime only grudgingly allowed East Timor to form a nation of its own in 1999. Since then, the new state has faced further armed clashes and is only now able to seriously engage in nation-building. Historical Dictionary of East Timor relates the turbulent history of this country through a chronology, an introductory essay, an expansive bibliography, and over 200 cross-referenced dictionary entries on significant persons, events, places, organizations, and other aspects of East Timor history from the earliest times to the present.
Chapter
East Timor has emerged as one of the world’s newest nations after a turbulent history comprising 450 years of Portuguese rule followed by civil war, invasion, and twenty-five years of Indonesian occupation characterized by human rights abuses, massacres, and violence. The United Nations (UN) and international non-government organisations (NGOs) have supported significant peace-building efforts, including attention to both justice and reconciliation strategies to promote healing and rebuilding of relationships within communities divided by violence, as well as the establishment of political, economic, and security structures and institutions. The animosities between the different Timorese political factions stemming from the violence in 1974 have continued to affect relationships in the newly independent East Timor. The relationship between East Timor and Indonesia is critical, as the relationship has not only defined the competing ideologies of the different political parties, which emerged following the departure of the Portuguese in 1974, but has continued to divide the Timorese, especially following the post-referendum militia violence in 1999, which was driven by the desire of some groups seeking to maintain ties with Indonesia, albeit in a new system of government that would allow East Timor a measure of regional autonomy. As discussed in Chapter 11, an estimated 2,000 East Timorese were killed while 500,000 civilians were displaced (including 200,000 to 250,000 to West Timor), and hundreds of women were raped.
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Anthropological interest in new subjects of research and contemporary knowledge practices has turned ethnographic attention to a wide ranging variety of professional fields. Among these the encounter with international development has perhaps been longer and more intimate than any of the others. Anthropologists have drawn critical attention to the interfaces and social effects of development’s discursive regimes but, oddly enough, have paid scant attention to knowledge producers themselves, despite anthropologists being among them. This is the focus of this volume. It concerns the construction and transmission of knowledge about global poverty and its reduction but is equally interested in the social life of development professionals, in the capacity of ideas to mediate relationships, in networks of experts and communities of aid workers, and in the dilemmas of maintaining professional identities. Going well beyond obsolete debates about ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ anthropology, the book examines the transformations that occur as social scientific concepts and practices cross and re-cross the boundary between anthropological and policy making knowledge.
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In recent decades international development has grown into a world-shaping industry. But how do aid agencies work and what do they achieve? How does aid appear to the adults and children who receive it? And why has there been so little improvement in the position of the poor? Viewing aid and development from anthropological perspectives gives illuminating answers to questions such as these. This essential textbook reveals anthropologists' often surprising findings and details ethnographic case studies on the cultures of development. The authors use a fertile literature to examine the socio-political organisation of aid communities, agencies and networks, as well as the judgements they make about each other. The everyday practice of development work is about negotiating power and culture, but in vastly different ways in different contexts and for different social groups. Exploring the spaces between policy and practice, success and failure, the future and the past, this book provides a rounded understanding of development work that suggests new moral and political possibilities for an increasingly globalised world.
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Focusing on the case study of Timor Leste, this book presents the New Subsistence State as a conceptual tool for understanding governance challenges in countries characterised by subsistence economic and social relations. it examines the ways in which Timor Leste conforms to the typology of the New Subsistence State, taking into consideration geographic, historical and socio-political aspects.